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Prof Ed 3 Module

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kentmatthewperez

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1

PRE-TEST

I. IDENTIFICATION

A. Instruction: Read and understand each item carefully. Inside the box
below are the basic theories of learning (Behaviorism, Cognitivism
/Cognitive Constructivism, and Social Constructivism) and other
theories of learning (Social Learning Theory, Socio-Constructivism,
Experiential Learning, Multiple Intelligences, Situated Learning Theory
& Community of Practice, and 21st Century Learning Skills). Write your
answer on the space provided after each item.

Behaviorism Socio-Constructivism

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism Experiential Learning

Social Learning Theory 21st Century Learning Skills

Social-Constructivism Multiple Intelligences

Situated Learning Theory and Community Practice

1. Recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated. _______________

2. These are necessary for learners to master in order to succeed in digital
world. _______________
3. Opposes the understanding that intelligence is dominated by a single
general ability._______________
4. Points out that one’s day-to-day experience changes his behavior.
_______________
5. For one to learn, he needs to participate and his actions serve as the
results of thinking. _______________

B. Instruction: Read and understand each item carefully and identify whether it
tells about Child/Young Learners, Adolescent Learners, or Adult Learners.

1. They cooperate and work in groups. _______________

2. They are more disciplined. ______________
3. They learn abstract issues and do challenging activities. ______________
4. Capable of doing wide range activities. _______________
5. Curious to learn and discover concepts on their own. ________________
6. In search for personal identity. _______________
7. They manifest diverse experiences and thoughts. ________________
8. Have clear understanding of their learning objectives. ________________

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

9. Need much encouragement and support while learning.

________________
10. Learn at various rates and in different ways. _________________

C. Instruction: Read and understand each item carefully and identify whether the
knowledge is declarative, procedural, or functional.

1. Knowing how to use the cellphone. ______________

2. Reciting the mission and vision of the school memorized earlier.
______________
3. Knowing how to drive a car. _______________
4. Assembling the parts of a computer demonstrated earlier by the Instructor.
______________
5. Knowing how to cook rice. _______________

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

: Understanding Learning

“Every student has the ability to be a successful learner.”

― Warren G. Harding

Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

When we hear the word, “learning,” the first thing that comes to our mind
is studying subjects or courses like mathematics, science, and languages in
school. In a broader sense though, learning extends much more beyond the
confines of the classroom or the school. People learn everyday of their lives in
various places and conditions.

The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a
major part of the experiences for you who are studying to become teachers. As
such, it is important for you to understand the nature of learning, because you
play a major role in the students’ learning. Knowing and understanding learning-
related concepts will enable you to better develop teaching methodologies and
other interventions meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.

The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the

population at large. Learning connotes observed changes in a person as a result
of environmental events and interventions. The process of education is a
deliberate effort to ensure that as students go up to educational ladder,
developmental changes in their personality are effected. This has to do with
improved and enhanced physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills, and
knowledge and other personality behaviors.

 Analyze learner-centered theories of learning

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Consult any available book or online readings on educational psychology or

theories of learning. Read at least two theories of learning and identify their proponents.
Outline the highlights of each theory using the table below.

Description/ View of View of

View of Learning
Definition Knowledge Motivation

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Based on the activity (Let’s Do it!), compare and contrast the theories you have
read.

Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental

experiences and influences for acquiring and reaching or modifying one’s knowledge,
skills, values, attitudes, behavior, and world views (“Education,” n.d.). It is a relatively
permanent change in behavior with behavior including both observable activity and
internal processes such as thinking, attitudes, and emotions (Burns, 1995). For Santrock
(2002), it is as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking
skills that comes about through experience. It is also a long-term change in mental
representations or associations as a result of experience (Ormrod, 2015). Woolfolk

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

(2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes a
relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior, or potential for
behavior.”

The definition of learning covers the following elements:

a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).

b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental
illness, fatigue, hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its
basis in the brain.

Types of Learning

a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through

daily life activities as for example, walking, driving, climbing, and the like.
These activities involve motor coordination.
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken language as well as the
communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, and
sounds are tools used in such activities.
c. Concept Learning. It is a form of learning which requires the use of higher-
order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two
processes: abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to differentiate between stimuli and
responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is being able to
distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and
ambulance.
e. Learning Principles. It is learning principles related to science, mathematics,
grammar, and the like. Principles show the relationship between two or more
concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws, associations,
correlations, and the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning
requires the use of cognitive abilities – such as thinking, reasoning,
observation, imagination, and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. It is a predisposition which determines and predicts
behavior. Learned attitudes influence one’s behavior toward people, objects,
things, or ideas.

Learner-centered is a perspective that focuses on individual learners – their

heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and
needs, with a focus on learning – the best available knowledge about learning and how it

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

occurs, and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest
levels of motivation, learning and achievement for all learners.

Theories of Learning

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive,

responding to environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in the early 1900s
through the research efforts of Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike who made more
objective studies about learning as opposed to the studies on learning which relied
heavily on introspection.

The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is learned
or shaped through positive reinforcement. Both of these increase the probability that the
antecedent behavior will be repeated or will happen again. Behaviorism advances the
idea that when a cue or stimulus in the environment is presented, the individual makes a
particular response to that stimulus. Behaviorism contends that new behaviors or
changes in behaviors are acquired by associating stimuli and responses. Thus
association leads to changes in behavior. Behaviorism is a world view that operates on
the principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R). All behavior can be explained without the
need to consider the internal mental states or consciousness. Behaviorism instruction,
however, does not prepare the learners for problem-solving which currently is the skill
being developed among learners for survival. This is because behaviorism looks at the
learner as a passive learner. Learning is promoted by environmental factors like
reinforcement, feedback, practice or repetition (“Behaviorism, n. d.).

Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism, which many behaviorists

share (Ormrod, 2015).

a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to a

variety of animal species. This is on the assumption that humans and other
animals learn in similar ways. Thus behaviorists-researchers apply to humans
what they have derived from the studies of animals

b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study
is on the stimuli and responses. It is argued that stimuli and responses are
observable and measurable which contribute to objectivity of studying learning.

c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in the theoretical

explanations. This thinking stemmed from the argument that these internal
behaviors cannot be directly observed. Recently, however, there has
emerged a thinking propounded by neo-behaviorists that learning is better

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

understood if cognitive processes, be included as a factor, that explains

learning.

d. Learning involves a behavior change.

e. Organisms are born as blank slates.

f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.

g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious(or concise).

The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below: (Ormrod, 2015
and Kelly, September, 2012)

a. Drill/Rote work

b. Repetitive practice

c. Giving bonus points

d. Giving participation points

e. Verbal reinforcement

f. Establishing rules

g. Giving of rewards

h. Applying punishment

i. Giving feedback

i. Positive reinforcement

k. Token reinforcers

L. Negative reinforcement

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism

The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as the
dominant paradigm for learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is
necessary to open it for a better understanding of how people learn. Mental processes
such as memory, knowing, problem-solving, reasoning and other such processes need
to be explored. People are seen not as programmed beings that simply respond to
environmental stimuli, as is propounded in behaviorism. Cognitivism requires active
participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a result of thinking. Knowledge
can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions, thus learning is defined as

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

change in a learner's schemata. Changes in behavior are observed but this only
indicates what is going on in the learner’s head.

The learner's mind is compared to a computer which does a lot of processing of

the data fed into it. Thus individuals are thought of as active learners, actively engaged
in their learning; and actively seeking ways to understand and process information that
they receive and relate this to what is already known and stored within memory.
Learning is thought of as an internal process rather than simply dealing with or
responding to external stimuli. Learning involves the reorganization of experiences,
either by attaining new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning is a change in
knowledge which is stored in memory and not just a change in behavior (Kelly,
September 2012).

Examples and applications of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly, September 2012).

a. Classifying or chunking information

b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful
ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

Social Constructivism

As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits that
learning is an active constructive process. The learner himself constructs knowledge.
People actively construct or create their own representation of objective reality. New
information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
Learning is seen as an active contextualized process of constructing knowledge instead
of simply acquiring it. Knowledge is based on the learners' personal experiences and
expectations of the environment and where they continuously test these expectations
through social negotiations.

Each person may have a different interpretation and construction of the

knowledge process. The person is not a blank slate but brings social and cultural factors
to a situation. It assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner's previous
knowledge regardless of how one was taught. Thus, a simple task of listening to a
lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge and not just absorbing what
is being said in the lecture. Each person generates knowledge based on his previous
experiences or knowledge. Thus, the individual develops his own mental models to

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

make sense of his experiences. Thus, learning is adjusting to one’s mental models to
accommodate new experiences.

The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the
individual needs to have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to create
and interpret ideas. It may be said that results may not be the same because learners
create their own ideas and thus, may be unique to the individual persons. So,
constructivism does not work when results are expectedly fixed or consistent.

Following are some applications of social constructivism (Kelly, September 2012).

a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations

The applications of social constructivism show that class activities which require
the participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to occur.

The table below presents some salient point about the above-mentioned theories
of learning considered as basic to the further study of learning.

Cognitive Social
Behaviorism
Constructivism Constructivism
Knowledge is a Knowledge systems Knowledge is
repertoire of of cognitive constructed within
behavioral structures are social context
View of
responses to actively constructed through interactions
Knowledge
environmental by learners based with a knowledge
stimuli. on cognitive community.
structures.
Passive absorption Active assimilation Integration of
of a predefined and accommodation students into a
body of knowledge of new information knowledge
by the learner. to existing cognitive community.
View of Learning Promoted by structures. Collaborative
repetition and Discovery by assimilation and
positive learners. accommodation of
reinforcement. new information.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners Intrinsic and

positive and set their own goals extrinsic. Learning
negative and motivate goals and motives
reinforcement. themselves to learn. are determined both
View of Motivation by learners and
extrinsic rewards
provided by the
knowledge
community.
Correct behavioral Teacher facilitates Collaborative
responses are learning by learning is facilitated
transmitted by providing an and guided by the
Implications for
teachers and environment that teacher. Group
Teaching
absorbed by promotes discovery work.
students. and assimilation or
accommodation.

Thus far, the theories of learning presented above are considered as forerunners
of the study of learning theories. Each theory projects its own points and tries to relate
specific factors along a particular perspective to learning. It would be good, however, to
look at the other theories of learning that consequently evolved following the basic
theories ("Strengthening Education, "n. d.).

1. Social Learning Theory

This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both cognitive and
behaviorist frameworks that embrace attention, memory, and motivation. This theory
suggests that people learn within a social context and that learning is facilitated through
concepts like modeling, observational learning, and imitation. Bandura put forward
“reciprocal determinism" that holds the view that a person's behavior, environment, and
personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other.

He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from model
behavior, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well-established.

Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education:

a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.

b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new

behaviors. It can provide a faster, more efficient means of teaching
new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care
not to model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break
down traditional stereotypes.

2. Socio-constructivism

In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed
by the perspective of "situated cognition and learning." It emphasized the significant role
of context particularly social interaction in learning. Criticism against the information-
processing between constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger
as the pioneer work of Lev Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic
research by scholars like Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave came to the fore and gathered
support.

The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism

saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the
surroundings and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and
independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and
learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation;
knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context, and culture
in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as
“participation and social negotiation.
Implications of socio-constructivism on the practice of education:

a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or

cooperative learning.
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make sure that each learner is
able to make his contribution to accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local instructional materials which
are familiar to the learners. This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for group discussions and
problem solving tasks.

3. Experiential Learning

Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of

learning but situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to
understand the manner in which experiences, whether first- or secondhand, motivate
learners and promote their learning. Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences
in everyday life-that lead to a change in individual’s knowledge and behaviors. Carl

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories suggesting that experiential learning

is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural inclination to learn; and they learn if
they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insights:
a.) Learning can only be facilitated; we cannot teach another person directly; b.)
Learners become more rigid under threat; c.) Significant learning occurs in an
environment where threat to the learners is reduced to a minimum; d.) Learning is most
likely to occur and to last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic continuous process
or change where new learning results in and affects learning environments.
Implications of experiential learning to the practice of education:

a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences

of the learners, which could serve as inputs for related lessons. In so
doing, students would feel that they are involved in the learning process,
because it is their own experiences which they are studying.
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of
the students, so that they are better able to create an atmosphere for
students that is relaxed.
c. Teacher should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students’
learning so that they do not have to always be the source of learning
materials.

4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)

This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that learning is
a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same
principles. Howard Gardner's theory of intelligence challenges the understanding that
intelligence is dominated by a single general ability. He argues that intelligence actually
consists of many distinct intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical,
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability. This
theory is speculative but appreciated by teachers in broadening their framework of
developing skills, curriculum and testing. The MI theory "requires" the teachers to come
up with a variety of instructional materials and strategies, to make sure that the needs of
students with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented. These concepts
were developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning recognizes that
there is no learning that is not situated. It emphasizes the relational and negotiated
character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity
for the individuals involved. The theory further asserts that it is within communities that
learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place within a community of practice,
i.e. cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding and relations have the
potential to foster community social capital that enhances the community members’ well-

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

being. Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most effective when it takes place
in communities. Communities of practice are not confined only to schools but to cover
other settings like workplaces and organizations. It seeks to understand both the
structure of communities and how learning occurs in them (“Education,” n. d.).

According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of practice is

based on the following assumptions:

a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon. People organize their

learning around social communities to which they belong. Therefore, schools are
powerful learning environments for students whose social communities coincide
with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs,
Ianguage and ways of doing things. These are called communities of practice.
Real knowledge is integrated in the doing, social relations, and expertise of these
communities.
c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of practice are
inseparable. Because learning is intertwined with community membership, it is
what lets us belong to adjust our status in the group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is impossible to know without doing.
By doing, we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the potential
for learning. This is because individuals learn from the experiences of others.

6. 21st Century Learning Skills

The study or exploration of 21st century learning or skills emerged from the
concerns about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new
demands of the 21st century characterized as knowledge and technology-driven.

These are skills necessary for students to master for them to experience school
and life success in an increasingly digital and connected age. Current discussions about
21st century skills lead classrooms and other environments to encourage the
development of core subject knowledge as well as media literacy, critical and systems
thinking. Group learning and use of thematic projects involving inquiry-based
collaborative work that addresses world issues support the learning of the 21 st Century
skills. (Source: http://unesco.org/new/en)

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Name: ___________ Date: _

Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the
classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity and why you think so.

Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied

1. The teacher assigned the students to memorize
the multiplication table.

2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about

an effective teacher to a group of teacher-
trainees.

3. The teacher gave five algebra problems for

students to solve.

4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a topic on

Philippine History, after which he asked the
students to answer recall questions.

5. The teacher asked the students to memorize

and recite Jose Rizal’s “My Last Farewell.”

6. The teacher invited one resource person to

give a lecture on developing habits of cleanliness
and hygiene. After the lecture, the students were
encouraged to ask questions to the resource
speaker.
7. In a science class, the teacher asked the
students to do an experiment and answer the
questions based on the results of the experiment.

8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil who gave

correct answers to her questions.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

9. In a statistics class, the students were asked to

interpret the data illustrated in graphs.

10. The teacher asked the students to do

interviews with local officials. The purpose was to
identify who among the local officials are “good”
and “effective” leaders based on a set criteria.
11. The teacher asked the students to observe a
chef on the correct way of cooking a recipe.

12. In a coconut- growing locality, many of the

topics in the course had to do with coconuts. In
TLE, lessons are on cooking using coconut
recipes. In science, lessons are on how to
improve the by- products of coconuts.
13. On a lesson on environmental conservation,
students climbed a mountain to study the kinds of
topographical changes taking place.
14. In an English (Literature) class, the topic was
Joyce Kilmer’s poem, “Trees.” The teacher asked
two students to write two paragraphs of their
interpretation of the poem from a science
perspective. Two students were also asked to
interpret the poem in music form.
15. The topic under study is to study the use of
computer programs needed for different tasks in
the workplace.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Name: ____________ Date:

A. Name two highlights of social constructivism.

________________________________________________________________

B. Describe an example of classroom activity that is keeping with social

learning theory.

Example

C. Give one (1) important reason why students should learn and develop 21st
century skills?

___________________________________________________________

D. Given all the theories presented and learned in this chapter, what gives them
the characteristic of being learner-centered?

______________________________________________________________

____________________________

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

E. Reflect on the different learner-centered theories of learning as to how they

relate to classroom setting. Please see format in the appendices.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning

Several factors both internal and external to the individual relate to the kind, or
even rate of learning. One of these factors is age, which in fact is tied to developmental
levels. Human development goes through stages, each having unique characteristics.
As such, it is expected that patterns of growth and development differ from one
developmental stage to the other. Hence, there are differences in learning among
individuals across developmental stages. These differences may either be in rate of
learning, quality of knowledge or skills acquired, approach to learning or perspective to
learning, to name some.

It is important for teachers to be aware of and know patterns of behavior that

characterize developmental levels. Knowing this will enable teachers to decide what and
how to teach students, as well as the kind of instructional materials, activities and
opportunities to be given in the classroom, as well as the teaching methodologies to be
used.

 Compare child, adolescent, and adult learning.

Conduct a simple interview with a child, adolescent, and an adult. Take note of
their answers. Encourage each one to talk about or explain his/her answer in greater
detail.

Question to be asked: “Where do you want to live, in the city or in the barrio?
State your reasons for your answer.”

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Important: Due to COVID-19, an interview may be done via online/phone

call/text message.

Child

Adolescent

Adult

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Examine the answers of the interviewees (child, adolescent, and adult). Cite the
similarities and differences of their answers.

Similarities:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.

Differences:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.

Principles of Cognitive Development

1. Development proceeds in an orderly and predictable pattern.

Development occurs through developmental milestones, defined as the
appearance of developmentally more advanced behavior, which appear
in a predictable manner. Thus for example, a child babbles before he
learns to talk using one-syllable words. Or he rolls over before he learns
to crawl.

2. There are periods of rapid growth spurts in between periods of slower

growth. It means development is not constant. For example, a learner
might proceed through a rapid growth at early childhood, but slower
cognitive growth in adolescents.

3. Different individuals develop at different rates. Most often, average age for
the entire development period is used to describe learners. This is simply
an approximation due to individual differences. Still some learners reach

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

developmental milestones early, some later, even if they are within the
same developmental period.

4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and

nurture (environment) (Hurst, n. d.).

The above-mentioned principles of growth and development are necessary for

teachers to know, so they could better address the learning needs, abilities, and
expectations from learners. Hence, if a teacher, for example, knows that his kindergarten
pupils are on the average, 5 years old, he can say they are still at an early stage of
cognitive development. To maximize the development of cognition at this level, he
develops and approaches his lessons starting from the concrete level, and proceeding to
increasing levels of abstraction. For example, in developing the concept of the number 4,
the teacher can introduce the pupils to this concept, first by using objects to illustrate the
concept.

YOUNG LEARNERS (CHILDREN)

Following are the characteristics of young learners.

1. They can learn through talking about themselves, families, and their lives.
2. They are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own.
3. They like to use their imagination and discover things.
4. They naturally need to touch, see, hear and interact to learn.
5. Their attention span is very short, thus they need engaging and entertaining
activities so as not to lose their interest.
6. They like to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning.
8. They need to work with their students individually because they need to be
guided (“Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).

Given the characteristics of young learners, teachers should be innovative in

coming up with varied tasks and experiences for young learners. Since they like to work
in groups, use this as an avenue for socialization. The approach to teaching should be
more of cooperative learning where young learners are able to learn from each other.

ADOLESCENT LEARNING

Following are the characteristics of adolescent learners.

1. They are in search of personal identity.

2. They are in need of activities that meet their needs and learning expectations.
3. They become disruptive when they lost interest in the lesson or if they feel
bored.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

4. They need help and support from the teacher and to be provided with
construct feedback.
5. They can draw upon a variety of resources in the learning environment
including personal experience, the local community, and the internet.
6. They need the teachers to build bridges between the syllabus and their world
of interests and experiences.
7. They can learn abstract issues and do challenging activities.
8. Their personal initiative and energy are moved into action through meaningful
involvement with relevant and current content (“Differences of Young,
Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).

ADULT LEARNING

Malcolm Knowles is a theorist on adult learning and who popularized the concept
of andragogy. This term means the art and science of helping adults learn contrasting it
with pedagogy which is the art and science of teaching children. He did research on
adult learning. Based on his findings, following are posited about adult learners’
characteristics along five areas:

1. Self-concept. Adults move from dependency to increasing self-directedness

as they mature. They can direct their own learning, meaning they can
initiate their learning even without the help of others in planning, carrying
out, and evaluating their learning activities.

2. Adult learner experience. They draw on their accumulated experiences as

their resource for learning.

3. Readiness to learn. They are ready to learn when they assume new social or
life roles.

4. Orientation to learning. They are problem-centered and they want to apply

new learning’s immediately. They are interested in subjects that have
immediate relevance and impact into their job or personal life.

5. Motivation to learn. They are motivated to learn by internal rather that

external factors (“Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy,” 2011).

What makes adult learners different from adolescent and young learners?

1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.

2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

5. They come to the classroom with a wide range of knowledge, expectations,

and experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. Adults learn at various rates and in different ways according to their intellectual
ability, educational level, personality and cognitive learning styles.
8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions, thoughts
and beliefs which need to be respected (“Differences of Young, Adolescent
and Adult Learners,” 2018).

The following table shows the differences between adult and adolescent learning
in terms of characteristics of the learning experiences.

Pedagogy (Adolescent) Andragogy (Adult)

Teacher-structured Learner-structured
Minimal control by the learner Minimal control by the teacher
Focus on assimilation of learning from past
Focus on training for events to come
experiences
Encourages convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking
Focus on memory Focus on thinking/doing
Content supplied by teacher/class
Content supplied partially by students
materials
Based on specified content standards Outcomes evolve as learning progresses

Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners

On the basis of the characteristics of adults, following are some implications for
teaching this group of learners, and suggestions given by Malcolm Knowles.

a. Set a cooperative climate for learning in the classroom.

b. Assess the learner’s specific needs and interests because these are the more
important things he wants to learn.
c. Develop learning objectives based on the learners’ needs, interests and skill
levels.
d. Design sequential activities to achieve the objectives.
e. Work collaboratively with the learner to select methods, materials and
resources for instruction.
f. Evaluate the quality of the learning experience and make adjustments as
needed, while assessing needs for further learning.
g. The experiences provided them should be problem-centered rather than
content oriented (Kearsley, 2010; Knowles, n.d.).
h. they have to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

The physiological changes being experienced by adolescents at the stage,

influence their emotional, cognitive, social and even physical development. The growth
spurt occurs at this developmental stage. Because the influence of the peers is very
strong at this time expectedly, they are confronted with many distractions and other
concerns that veer their attention away from their school activities and experiences.
Thus, it is important for teachers to be visibly supportive at the challenges confronting
the adolescent students. It is also important that teachers guide and support them, so
that they are able to reach their highest and proximal level of development. Adolescents
also tend to be impulsive and they have their own unique interests, as well.

Name: ____________ Date: _

Assume that you are a teacher teaching a concept. Write the steps on how you
are going to teach the concept to ensure a better understanding of the task. Give your
reasons why.

Note: You may choose any concept.

Example: Teaching the concept of adding two and three (2+3) to Grade 1 pupils.

Steps:

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Reasons:

________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________ Date:

A. As a whole, what are the developmental characteristics of young learners that

make them different from adolescent and adult learners?

Child Learners Adolescent Learners Adult Learners

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

B. Below is a list of classroom activities. Identify whose needs will be addressed

by each activity-young? Adolescent? Adults?

1. Students go to the seashore to study different kinds of shells.

2. Students name and identify real fruits shown by the teacher.
3. Students are given ingredients and were asked to cook these using their own
method.
4. Students were grouped into three and were given two problems to solve.
5. Students were doing an experiment and teacher was present to guide them.
6. The students were asked to tell stories about their family using pictures.
7. Students were asked to interpret a poem.
8. Students were asked to interview five leaders in the community, from which
they were to make an assessment of how effective or ineffective the leaders
are.
9. Students were asked to make a table in two hours.
10. Students were asked to observe the leaves of plants in the garden.

C. Make a Reflection paper based on readings/articles on child, adolescent,

and adult learning. Please see format in the appendices.

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Declarative, Procedural, and

Functional Knowledge

This chapter deals with categorizing the types of learning and differentiating one
from the other. This is important for teachers to know so that they can determine ways of
carrying out pedagogy in the classroom, most applicable for the learners. This will
safeguard that learning will be raised to higher levels. It must be noted that one of the
outcomes of the learning process is the acquisition of knowledge. As will be seen later,
acquired knowledge comes in different types depending on the kind of learning
experiences learners are exposed to. Thus, the measured interventions and activities
are significant factors meant to influence the kind of level or type of knowledge one has
aquired or developed.

 Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural

and functional knowledge.

Read the following instances where declarative knowledge is used.

Situations

1. In the classroom setting, Teacher I explained the rules and regulations of

volleyball that ensure players play correctly, safely, and fairly.
2. Students learn the step-by-step process of making a detailed lesson plan.

3. Teacher L taught his students how to identify the main characters, plot, and
setting of a story.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

4. In her class, Teacher S explained the steps of role-playing.

5. In a class, Teacher Joy introduced various learner-centered instructional

strategies to her students.

From the given situations and/or instances of a declarative knowledge, construct

an instance or situation which it could turn into a procedural type of knowledge.

Declarative Knowledge Procedural Knowledge

1. In the classroom setting, Teacher I

explained the rules and regulations of
volleyball that ensure players play
correctly, safely, and fairly.

2. Students learn the step-by-step process

of making a detailed lesson plan.

3. Teacher L taught his students how to

identify the main characters, plot, and
setting of a story.

4. In her class, Teacher S explained the

steps of role-playing.

5. In a class, Teacher Joy introduced

various learner-centered instructional
strategies to her students.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

KNOWLEDGE –is a personal, inner state of abstraction that is drawn directly through
meaning-making of our experiences in real-life situations.

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

Declarative Knowledge

Declarative knowledge is the information acquired that one can speak about. It is
the information that one can declare. They are facts, events that can be explicitly stored
and consciously recalled or declared (Zimmerman, 2014).
As a process, declarative learning occurs consciously and most often through
memorization. As such, it is language-based and is dependent on memory. It is the
means through which much new information is acquired, both in education and for
personal improvement. What students know is declarative learning.

Three subtypes of declarative knowledge cognition:

(1) Labels and Names (pairing information)
(2) Facts and Lists (describing relationships)
(3) Organizational discourse (thread of meaning running throughout)

Procedural Knowledge

As opposed to declarative knowledge, it refers to what one can do and what one
is able to do. An example of procedural knowledge is knowing how to ride a bike.
Procedural knowledge may not have a language component; can be performed without
conscious thought or attention given to the process; sometimes learned implicitly rather
explicitly.
Procedural knowledge is the one that shows how to accomplish a task, and is
obtained through rules in which instructions are performed step-by-step (Star, 2002;
Yilmaz, 2012). Procedural knowledge denotes the knowledge of procedures used in
problem solving, whereas conceptual knowledge is basically the knowledge of concepts
whose degree of connectedness reflects a person’s expertize (Johnson and Schneider,
2015).

Functional Knowledge

It is any piece of stored information that can be adapted and applied to different
circumstances, or are transferable to different settings. Functionality of that knowledge is
the key. Functional learning is how people acquire and categorize data often referred to

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

as “schema” by cognitive theorists. If information is acquired through several

circumstances, situations and is recalled through different situations, that knowledge
becomes functional as the schema becomes robust and readily adjustable.

Recall two (2) of your classes before. Based on your observation in each class,
list down occurrences or instances where the teacher imparts or develops among the
students the declarative and procedural knowledge. Determine differences of what
happened in the two classes you observed.

Name of Class: ____________________

Occurrences/Instances Declarative Knowledge Procedural Knowledge

Name of Class: ____________________

Occurrences/Instances Declarative Knowledge Procedural Knowledge

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Name: _______________ Date:

A. Identify if the knowledge is declarative, procedural or functional.

_________ 1. Putting together the parts of a microscope earlier demonstrated by

the teacher
_________ 2. Reciting a poem earlier memorized
_________ 3. Naming the parts of a flower correctly as read from science book
_________ 4. Reciting the table of multiplication
_________ 5. Knowing how to ride a bicycle
_________ 6. Knowing how to drive
_________ 7. Applying first-aid procedure to a person who drowned
_________ 8. The Teacher gave different types of rewards to his students who
scored high.
_________ 9. Knowing how to bake a chocolate cake
_________ 10. With knowledge of simple machines, Mario was able to move a
load in a cylindrical container.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

B. Look for readings or related literature (from any available reading

materials/internet sources) about declarative and procedural knowledge. Make
a reflection paper based on the reading chosen. Please see format in the
appendices.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

PRE-TEST

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE

A. Instruction: Read and understand each item carefully. Write the letter of
your answer on the space provided after each item.

1. It allows students to act as tutors and tutees. ____

a. Cooperative Learning c. Peer Tutoring
b. Group Discussion d. Modeling
2. The act of providing support for learners. ____
a. Articulation c. Scaffolding
b. Coaching d. Exploration
3. Teacher Fe wants her learners to learn the task. To make it possible, she
asks them to listen carefully and observe every step she does while
performing it. ____
a. Modeling c. Reflection
b. Coaching d. Teaching
4. A means to connect people and places. ____
a. Relationship c. Communication
b. Family d. Bond
5. It refers to how people act and how they react to people around them. ____
a. Interpersonal Relation c. Reaction
b. Social Interaction d. Action and Reaction
6. Involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the discussion and asking
questions. ____
a. Reciprocal Teaching c. Peer Tutoring
b. Cooperative Learning d. Communities of Learners
7. Teacher Marie wants her students to work on a task. So, she divided the
class into several groups and they started working together. What strategy
did Teacher Marie use?____
a. Class Discussion c. Cooperative Learning
b. Peer Tutoring d. Reciprocal Teaching
8. The following are the characteristics of a classroom that is a community of
learners, except ____.
a. All students are active participants in classroom activities
b. Discussion and collaboration among students occur regularly.
c. Everyone is a potential resource for others.
d. There is no variation in students’ interests.
9. The following are the educational implications of Vygotsky’s theory and other
contextual perspectives, except ____.
a. Group learning activities helps children internalize cognitive strategies.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

b. Children’s abilities should be assessed under a variety of work

conditions.
c. Technology-based software can effectively scaffold many challenging
tasks.
d. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors.
10. Distinguishing the sound of horns of different vehicles is an example of
____.
a. Motor learning c. Discrimination learning
b. Attitude learning d. Verbal learning

II. ESSAY

Give situation/s showing the importance of research findings.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

: Dimensions of Learner-
Centered Learning
“Never stop learning; for when we stop learning, we stop growing.”
― Loyal “Jack” Lewman

Developmental and Socio-Cultural

Dimensions of Learning

The basic theories of learning have been discussed in the previous chapters.
Each theory has its own views about learning. One of these theories views learning as
explained by outside processes, where learning is thought to have occurred because of
what the individual shows in his external behavior.

Another theory explains that learning occurs because of the ability of the
individual to construct his own learning using the socio-cultural context, as his base,
upon which he exists or operates. This believes that learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. This is because
human beings are social creatures and that much of learning involves interacting with
people, as well as acquiring knowledge and skills from them.

 Analyze development and socio-cultural dimensions of learning

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Fill in the missing letters to complete the related key terms below which you may
come across later.

1. S_c_al R_co_str_cti_n 6. _p_re_ti_es_ip

2. D_nam_c A_se_sm_n_ 7. P_e_ T_t_r_ng
3. S_af_oldi_g 8. C_o_e_at_ve L_a_ni_g
4. Z_n_ of P_ox_m_l D_vel_p_e_t 9. G_ou_ d_sc_s_i_n
5. S_ci_l C_n_tr_c_iv_s_ 10. S_tu_t_d L_ar_in_ T_eo_y

Look for the definitions of the related key terms above.

Related Key Terms Definition

10.

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SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

Lev Vygotsky, a developmental psychologist has laid some of the groundwork for
contextual theories by espousing that society and culture provide many concepts and
strategies that children can use in thinking about and solving everyday problems.
Vygotsky’s theory later came to be known as socio-cultural theory of learning.

Analyzing Vygotsky’s theory, focus is more on the process through which

children develop their social and cognitive skills for learning, as opposed to what
developmental theorists claim (one of whom is Jean Piaget) that children develop the
characteristics that they are most likely to exhibit at the appropriate developmental
stages. Vygotsky’s perspective has general implications for educational practice on the
following: social reconstruction of meaning, scaffolding, participation in adult activities,
apprenticeships, acquisition of teaching skills and dynamic assessment.
 Social construction of meaning. Interactions with adult will help the child make
sense of the world through discussion of a phenomenon or event which both of
them are experiencing (mediated learning experience). This encourages the child
to think about the particular phenomenon, attach labels to it, or even recall the
principles underlying it.
Example: A teacher and his class visit the museum and they discuss the
implements used by farmers 500 years ago. In addition to the question-
and-answer between teacher and students, they (students) also discuss
among themselves what could be inferred about these farm implements.
The discussion between teacher and students may help the latter make
inferences about the kind of vegetables and cereals grown and raised by
the farmers at that time.
 Scaffolding. It is a supportive technique, carried out by experts or competent
people which helps students of any age to perform and accomplish challenging
tasks even if at that time, they cannot yet perform these tasks independently – in
Vygotsky’s terms, even if such tasks are within their zone of proximal
development.

Following are some forms of Scaffolding (Ormrod, 2015).

a. Modeling the correct way of performing a task
b. Dividing a big or complex task into smaller and simpler activities
c. Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier
e. Keeping students’ attention focused on critical aspects of the task
f. Asking questions that get the students’ focus on the task

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g. Giving frequent feedback about how student is progressing.

 Participation. Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the
probability that children will engage in behaviors and thinking skills within their
zone of proximal development. In such a situation, the children’s involvement
should be mediated, supervised, and scaffolded by more competent adults.

 Apprenticeship. It is a guided participation where a novice works with an expert

mentor for a certain period to learn how to perform complex tasks in a particular
domain. The mentor provides structure and guidance throughout the whole
process, gradually weaning off the learner from the help and support
(Scaffolding), and giving him more responsibilities as his competence increases.
Apprenticeship can show novices how experts typically think about a task or
activity. This is known as cognitive apprenticeship. Cognitive apprenticeships are
important in the classroom. Researchers found that students’ learning benefits
from teachers who think of their relationship with a student as cognitive
apprenticeship using scaffolding, guided participation, or tutoring to help the
student learn.

All kinds of apprenticeships have the following features (Collins, 2006 and 1989;
in Omrod, 2015).

A. Modeling –the mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud or
talking about the process while the learner listens.
B. Coaching –the mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints, and feedback as
learner performs the task.
C. Scaffolding –the mentor provides different forms of support for the learner,
like simplifying the task, breaking a task into smaller and more manageable
units, or providing less complicated equipment.
D. Articulation –the learner explains what he is doing and why, allowing the
mentor to examine or analyze the learner’s knowledge, reasoning and
problem-solving strategies.
E. Reflection –the mentor asks the learner to compare his performance with that
of experts, or with a model of how the task should be done.
F. Increasing complexity and diversity of tasks –with the increasing learner’s
proficiency, the mentor presents more complex, challenging, and varied tasks
to accomplish.
G. Exploration –the mentor encourages the learner to frame questions and
problems on his own and in doing so refine and expand his acquired skills.

 Acquisition of teaching skills. It also one benefit gained from the use of socio-
constructivist approach to learning. As children acquire and gain new and first-
hand information and skills from experienced members of the community, they
can, in turn, teach their new knowledge to others.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

 Dynamic Assessment. Often reveal more objective evaluation of children’s

cognitive capabilities, than general assessments do. Dynamic assessment
requires first the identification of tasks that children cannot do independently,
then provide in-depth instruction, and practice in developing cognitive behaviors
along these tasks; and finally determine the extent to which the learner benefited
from the intervention.

There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches, and techniques that the
teacher can use - methods that are in keeping Vygotsky’s Socio-Constructivist view of
learning.

a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors and tutees.
Time should be spent on training tutors.
b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students to work in small
groups and help each other learn. Groups may vary in size,
as in a dyad or groups of four.
c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a group, and
the group can develop its own structure on how to go about
solving the problem.

SITUATED LEARNING THEORY

A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorists, Jean Lave, is one of the

notable proponents of situated learning theory.
The situated learning theory exemplifies the view that learning is a product of the
cultural context where one lives or exists. Situated cognition or situated learning is a
theory that suggests that learning is “naturally tied to authentic activity, context, and
culture” (Brown, Collins, Duguid, 1989). It means that most learning occurs naturally
through social activities, contexts and the culture which learners are exposed to.
This theory suggests that it is more difficult to learn from unnatural activities. For
example, in a science class, changes in the earth’s surface could be learned and
understood better if students are allowed to go out of the classroom, say, go to the
mountain and make a lengthy observations, rather than by reading books or looking at
pictures to study these changes.

Following are the highlights or the main ideas of the situated learning theory that
Jean Lave advanced (Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989, Vol. 89, pp. 32-42).

a. Knowledge is socially-constructed. Knowledge is acquired and developed

through social experiences. It means that the learner constructs and develops
knowledge on the basis of his experiences as a member of a social group.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in and

negotiating their way through new situations. New knowledge is built as the
learner experiences and deals with new situations.
c. Knowing, learning, and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen or
expressed in actions of people and people interacting.
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is
supposed to develop. Learning is viewed as dependent on and inseparable
from its context.
f. learning is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture. To create
authenticity, what is being taught needs to be aligned with the learners’
community of practice.
g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning that takes place in
and through common practices among a group of people with similar goals
and interests.
h. Learning is in part about increase participation and that it is legitimate to
participate in different ways.
i. Cultural models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a
community, and how people engage with each other, as well as any tools they
use, and the specific cultural context.
j. Designing learning experiences from situated learning perspectives start with
some assumptions that learning is grounded in the actions of everyday
situations.
k. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation through continuous
use.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Assume you are a teacher. Write an essay on the topic: “What teaching
methodologies can I use to improve the performance of my students”. Apply the ideas
and concepts about the socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A. In your own words, say something about the following.

1. Authentic Learning
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

2. Zone of Proximal Development

3. Socio-Cultural Factors related to Learning

B. Look for a sample of Lesson Plan (any subject). Analyze if socio-constructivist

elements have been integrated or applied in the development of the lesson.
Make a reaction paper based on your analysis. Please see format in the
appendices.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Social Interactions, Interpersonal

Relations, and Communication
in the Learning Process

In the earlier chapter, you have been introduced to how and why learning occurs
as explained by the social dimensions of learning. This view further asserts that learning
takes place in a social context, and that learning is basically a social phenomenon. It
means further that socio-cultural factors play an important role in learning. Given these
views, it means that the philosophical and methodological approaches to teaching and
learning, should capitalize on techniques that consider situations which are social in
nature.
This chapter looks into how specific relationships have a hand on learning. It also
looks into the consequences of social interaction behaviors on socio-emotional climate in
the classroom.

 Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication in the learning process

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Do this activity before read the Social Interactions, Interpersonal Relations, and
Communication in the learning process.

1. Examine the title, “Social Interaction, Interpersonal Relations, and

Communication”. Quickly, jot down at least ten (10) words that come to your
mind.

_ ____

_______________ ________________ __________________
_______________ ________________ __________________
_______________ ________________ __________________

2. Going back to the words you have written above, how do these words relate to
the given topic?

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Summarize your responses.

I think that Social Interaction, Interpersonal relations, and Communication in the

learning process focus on…

The basic and key words related to social dimensions of learning will first have to
be defined and understood. These are social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication. All of these connote “exchange” and “relationship.” Learning can be
enhanced when the learner has the opportunity to interact and collaborate with others,
especially on instructional tasks, in school.
Social Interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals. It is a
dynamic changing sequence of social actions between individuals or groups. It also
refers to how people act, and how they react to people around them. Ervin Goffman, a
sociologist, identified five types of social interaction namely: exchange, competition,
cooperation, conflict, and coercion (“Social Interactions,” n.d).
Exchange most basic type of social interaction. It is a social process whereby
social behavior is exchanged for some type of reward of equal or greater value.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Competition is a social process by which two or more people attempt to attain a

goal, which only one can.
Cooperation is a process by which people work together to attain a common
goal.
Conflict happens when there is a disagreement or dissent on certain points
among group members.
Coercion is the process of persuading someone to do something or to
cooperate, using force, threat, or intimidation.
Positive or negative consequences of these types of social interaction could
either be positive or negative depending on how these interactions are managed or
handled.
Interpersonal Relation has something to do with close, deep or strong
association or acquaintance between two or more people that they may range in
duration from brief to enduring; a bond or close association that exists between two or
more people who may share common interest or goals (Juneja, n.d). The types of
interpersonal relationships, are friendship, love, platonic relationship, family
relationship, and work relationship.
 Friendship is an unconditional interpersonal relationship which
individuals enter into by their own choice and will.
 Love is a relationship characterized by love, intimacy, trust and respect
between individuals and might end up in marriage.
 Platonic is a relationship between individuals but without feelings of
desire for each other.
 Family refers to a relationship of individuals related to each other by
blood or marriage.
 Work Relationship refers to the kind of relationship of individuals who
work for the same organization.

Communication refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals

through a common system of symbols, signs, behavior. It is a two-way process of
reaching understanding in which participants not only exchange information, news, ideas
or feelings but also create and share meaning. Communication is a means to connect
people and places.

The commonalities have to do with the concepts of “exchange,” “relationship”

and “bond”. Going further, there is a socio-emotional component involved.

The School/Classroom as a Social Entity

The school is a social entity comprising many individuals and groups, mainly
students and teachers. In the classroom, teaching – learning activities, as well as those

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

outside of it, are all social events because many exchanges happen in these activities.
The classroom or the school is an important institution from which the child learns his
first lessons in socialization.
The socio-emotional climate in the classroom brought about by the kind of social
interactions and relationships existing therein, should be one where students experience
social acceptance. Social approval inside the classroom should also be felt by all
students. A social climate in the classroom that is negative can bring about fear, anxiety,
and restlessness.
Children’s relationship with their parents, peers, and friends has a tremendous
impact in their lives. Their interaction with teachers, mentors, and others also can
profoundly affect their achievement and social motivation (Santrock, 2011).
Teachers play an important role in students’ achievement. It was found that
effective, engaging teachers not only provide support for students to make good
progress, but also encourages students to become self-regulated learners (Pressly,
Santrock, 2011).Researchers have also found that students who feel that they have
supportive and caring teachers are better motivated to do school work than those who
feel their teachers are uncaring and unsupportive. Negative interactions may due to the
kind of communication taking place between teachers and students.

Below are critical incidents that would most likely to occur inside the classroom.
As a future teacher, indicate what you are going to do, if each of the situations below
happens in your classroom.

1. The teacher asked a student to stand and answer a question, but the student
cannot answer the question.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

2. The teacher noticed that Paul was shy and would not want to answer the
teacher’s question nor participate in class activities.

A. Connect the given situations to the concepts listed below.

a. Platonic relationship g. Communication

b. Coercion
c. Negative socio-emotional classroom climate
d. Cooperation
e. Social interaction
f. Friendship

_______1. Two students, both girls enjoy swimming and biking during weekends.
_______2. A group of five students work together, each one having his own
assigned task to work and finish a class project.
_______3. The teacher told his students that they will receive a failing grade if
they do not submit their term papers on time.
_______4. About 90% of the students in the class, feel anxious every time they
enter the science class. The teacher is known to be a “terror”.
_______5. The teacher gives real-life examples as a way to explain clearly the
concepts she is teaching.
_______6. In a certain barangay, people plan together, and contribute their ideas
on how to celebrate the fiesta.
_______7. When two professionals, a man and a woman meet together, they like
to share and discuss the findings of the studies they are doing.
_______8. The students volunteer to participate in the feeding program for
malnourished children. They plan and discuss how to attain the goals
of the program.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

_______9. The teacher likes to teach but talks at the top of her voice. The
students feel afraid the teacher might ask those questions.
_______10. The teacher encourages students to ask questions, in case they do
not understand some things being taught. When this happens, the
teacher tries her best to clarify the students’ misconceptions or
mistakes.

B. Assume you are teacher. You have noticed that some of your students were
“isolates” and would not want to participate in problem-solving task. How are
you going to handle this situation? Make a report (video/ppt/written). Please
see format in the appendices.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Research Findings on the Influences of

Developmental and Socio-Cultural
Dimensions of Learning

The topics on social learning and its many facets have been discussed,
particularly, its role and importance in facilitating learning. Man by nature is a social
being, and as such, his social nature has been studied and used as bases to explain
many of his behaviors. Much of the study of learning has its basis the different theories
developed by experts. Proof of the veracity of the theories can be obtained with the
conduct of researches and studies. In the same way, studies have been conducted
along the socio- cultural dimensions of learning to gather data as proof to the veracity or
“strength” of that theory. On the practical side, research findings also give ideas and
provide knowledge to practitioners so that they could use and apply these to effectively
deal with classrooms situations or come up with effective teaching methodologies
especially as they relate to the socio- cultural dimensions of learning.
This chapter presents researches done on the developmental and socio- cultural
dimensions of learning.

 Analyze research findings on the influences of developmental

and socio- cultural dimensions of learning.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Read this student letter to a science teacher with four years of teaching
experience. Feel the words. Right after reading it, proceed to the analysis and answer
the following questions.

I just wanted to write you a thank you note for everything that you
have done for me over the past two years. I have learned a lot and had
a whole lot fun doing it. I loved the labs and basically everything we did
in your class because you made it fun. You made it so we learned
without even realizing that we were learning anything but when it came
time to show that we knew it, we were like, “Whoa! I guess I really did
learn something!” Not only did you teach us about science, you put us in
real case scenarios and helped prepare us for high school and even
college. But even further than that, you were like a friend to me. That
might scare you a little, but you really remind me of myself, and I hope I
grow up to be at least a little like you. I feel like you genuinely care about
your students and sincerely enjoy your job. …Thank you for being such
a great teacher and friend. You have sincerely contributed to the
“awesomeness” of these years. Thanks 1000 times. (Stronge, 2002)

1. The student considers her teacher great. List down the teacher’s behavioral
traits which made learning fun.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

2. In a survey that was conducted in 1996, almost 100 students between the
ages 13 and 17 were asked to identify characteristics of best and worst

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

teachers. The students responded that the number one characteristic of good
teachers is their sense of humor. The others are “make the class interesting,
have knowledge of their subjects, explain things clearly, and spend time
helping students.” The number one characteristic of their worst teachers was
that they are “dull and boring”. The next other top four are: have a poor
attitude and expect too much from students.” (National Association of
Secondary School Principals. 1997. Students Say: What Makes a Good
Teacher? Publication Information: NASSP Bulletin, May/ June 1997, 15- 17.)
*Do you find any similarities with your list in # 1?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Research is a systematic and an orderly way of studying and looking for new
information meant to add to and build up existing knowledge. People do research in
various fields of study and for different purposes and reasons. In the same manner,
research has been and is being done to gather more data on the developmental and
socio- cultural dimensions of learning. This will enable especially the practitioners to
analyze and evaluate for themselves what best practices to adopt and apply in their
teaching tasks. And more importantly, armed with evidence and outputs of scientific
study, practitioners would be in a better position to develop and apply learner- centered
methodologies and approaches to teachings. Hopefully, too, research findings would
lead practitioners to modify their views, perspectives and philosophy of education
considering the realities happening in classrooms and in the educational system.

Researches cite the following affective characteristics of effective teachers

(James H. Stronge, 2002):

 Caring- specific attributes that show caring are:

 sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside the classroom but
more about students’ lives in general
 understanding of students’ questions and concerns

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

 knowing students individually, their like and dislikes, and personal situations
affecting behavior and performance
 Fairness and Respect- these are shown in specific behaviors like:
 treating students as people
 avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in which students lose
respect in front of their peers
 practice gender, racial and ethnic fairness
 providing students with opportunities for students to participate and to
succeed
 Social Interactions with students- the specific behaviors of a facilitative social
interaction are:
 consistently behaving in a personal manner while maintaining professional
distance with students
 working with students not for the students
 interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect
 allowing students to participate and demonstrating a sense of fun
 have a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes
 Enthusiasm and motivation for learning shown in:
 encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
 maintaining an organized classroom environment
 setting high standards
 assigning appropriate challenges
 providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks
 Attitude toward the teaching profession
 dual commitment to personal learning and to students’ learning anchored on
the belief that all students can learn
 helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
 working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
 serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/ her students and
colleagues
 Positive expectations of students manifested in:
 striving to make all students feel competent
 communicating positive expectations to students, i.e., They will be
successful
 high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief that they can cause all
students to learn
 Reflective Practice
 reviewing and thinking on his/ her process
 eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and learning

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

RESEARCH FINDINGS ON THE INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Parental Involvement
In a study by Schneider and Coleman (1993, in Santrock, 2011) they found that
parents with higher education are more likely to think and believe that their involvement
in their children’s education is very important than parents of lower education- to be
active participants in their children’s education and to provide for their children
intellectually stimulating materials at home. This may mean that those parents with
higher education are more aware or conscious of the importance of their participation
and involvement in their children’s education, because it affects their achievement. The
same goes for the importance of providing their children with highly intellectually-
stimulating materials at home. Most likely, parents with higher education levels have the
technical knowledge to understand the importance of actively getting involved in their
children’s activities and interacting actively with their children about school matters and
activities. This may also be explained by the fact that as children grow older and develop
more complex thought process, parents with higher education would most likely be able
to address and respond better to such complex processes.
An analysis of the various studies on parental involvement in its many forms,
done by Cotton and Wikelund overwhelmingly point to parental involvement and
engagement as positively related to student achievement. This means that the more
parental engagement and involvement there is, the higher the children’s achievement
and performance in school. Further, the more intensively parents are involved in their
children’s learning, the more beneficial are the achievement effects. This was true for all
kinds and forms of parental involvement, and for all ages and sexes. It was also found in
this review and analysis that parental engagement did not only benefit the students, but
also the parents and the teachers, and the school itself (“Parental Involvement in
Education” n.d.).

Parenting Style and Child- rearing

The effects of child- rearing practices which involve interaction behaviors
between parents and children, to learning have also been studied. Wigfield et. al (2006,
in Santrock, 2011, p. 459) found the following parenting services to result in improved
motivation and achievement.

a. Knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and
the right amount of support.
b. Providing a positive emotional climate which motivates children to internalize
their parents’ values and goals.
c. Modeling motivated achievement behavior - working hard and persisting with
effort at challenging tasks.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Parenting style is also related to achievement and certain social behaviors are
found in the research by Diana Baumrind, an expert in developmental psychology and
parenting. She identified four parenting styles and the outcomes of each of these styles.
She found that authoritative parents tend to have children who are high- achievers and
who interact with peers using competent social skills. While authoritative parents set
rules and boundaries, they encourage open discussion and reasoning. This could be the
reason why their children achieve highly and are socially competent. On the other hand,
children of authoritarian parents perform worse academically, are less independent and
are generally unhappy. Children of indulgent parents encounter more problems in
relationships and interactions. On the other hand, children of uninvolved or neglectful
parents tend to be more impulsive and cannot regulate their emotions. In the absence of
contradicting data, the results show a trend where authoritative parenting style, is the
best. (“4 Parenting Styles,” n. d.).

Similar results have been obtained in the study of Munyi (2013) and kingsley
Nyarko where they found that adolescents who were raised under authoritative parents
were performing well, academically. The opposite was found among adolescents raised
by parents who were either indulgent or uninvolved.

Parents as Part of the Learners’ Human Learning Environment

The learner spends at least six hours in school. The rest, he/ she spends at
home. Parents, therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be with their
children than teachers.
Parents who are supportive of their children’s learning are observed to do the
following:

 Follow up status of their children’s performance

 Supervise their children in their homework/ project
 Check their children’s notebooks
 Review their children’s corrected seatworks and test papers
 Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers and Community Association
(PTCA) or (PTA)
 Are willing to spend on children’s projects and involvement in school activities
 Participate actively in school- community projects
 Confer with children’s teachers when necessary
 Are aware of their children’s activities in school
 Meet the friends of their children
 Invite their children’s friends at home

Provision for Specific Experiences at Home

The kind of experiences and resources, made available to the children by their
parents at home are also found to influence students’ interest and motivation to pursue

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

various activities. For example, reading to one’s preschool child was found to be
positively related to the child’s later reading achievement and motivation (Wigfield &
Asher, 1984, in Santrock, 2011). Also it was found that work habits and skills of children
when they enter kindergarten best predict academic motivation and performance in
elementary and high school (Entwisle & Alexander, 1993 in Santrock, 2011). The extent
to which parents emphasize academic achievement or sports and provide opportunities
and resources for their children to participate in these activities in the elementary school
years influence whether the children are likely to continue to choose course work and
extracurricular activities consistent with these activities in adolescence (Santrock, 2011).

Mariah Evans and associates did study on the importance of providing resources
such as books at home. They found that having books at home is twice as important as
parental education in determining children’s academic and education level. The findings
are the same for both Chinese and American parents. This suggests that having
educational resources at home is a better predictor of achievement than ethnic.

Peer Influence

Peer influence was also found to affect a students’ motivation in many ways. It
was found that students who are more accepted by their peers and who have good
social skills often do better in school and have positive academic achievement
motivation. In contrast, students who were rejected, especially those who are aggressive
are at risk for problems in achievement including low grades and dropping out of school.
A recent study revealed that having disruptive friends in adolescence was linked to lower
likelihood of graduation from high school. In the same manner, having friends who are
academically oriented is linked to higher achievement (Dodge, 2010; Croesno et. al.
2008 in Santrock, 2011).
Kirk Johnson made an analysis of data on peer influences and social interaction
and other factors linked to academic achievement, taken from the 1998 National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). From his analysis, he came up with the
following findings:

a. The peer effect is particularly a strong effect on achievement especially

among fourth graders.
b. The peer effect is independent of other variables like ethnicity, gender,
income, and other background variables.
c. Family background such as household environment and parental education
also play a big hand explaining achievement and this was true to both 4 th and
8th graders.

It is worth noting that the basic social unit, which is the family, has been found
across researches to be linked to achievement and performance.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Similar results regarding the link between peer influence and achievement were
obtained from the research of Liu (2010) where she found that peer influence and
academic outcomes in reading and mathematics were strongly related.

Classmates- Bullying and the Need to Belong

Students form part of the human environment of the learner. In fact, they far
outnumber the teachers in the learning environment.
The need to belong is a basic human need. Students who are accepted by
teachers and classmates feel they belong to the class. Students who feel are part of the
class look forward to attending class and participating in class. The sense of
belongingness enhances their learning and performance. The prevalence of bullying,
however, obstructs the creation of a learning community where everyone feels he/she
belongs. With bullying in schools, the learning environment cannot be safe. Then by all
means, bullying should be eliminated in schools. Bullying takes on several forms. It can
be mild, it can be intense or deeply- seated, and highly violent. Today safety in schools
is being raised all over the world.

Teachers

Teachers are significant persons to students. Teachers carry with them a big
amount of influence on the learners. A study by Perry, Donahue, and Weinstein, (2007 in
Santrock, 2011) found that instructional and socio- emotional support were linked to first
grade students’ achievement. Also, the study examined students’ views on the qualities
of good relationships with the teacher by asking them how they knew if their teacher
cared for them. Results show that students had favorable impressions of teachers who
were attentive to them as human beings. Students also considered teachers’
instructional behaviours in evaluating how much their teachers cared for them (Wentzel,
1997 in Santrock, 2011). These results show that students’ motivation is optimized when
teachers provide them emotional and intellectual support.
Muntner (2008) identified ten important factors that should be considered in
classrooms to improve and increase student- teacher interaction, which they believe
should subsequently improve social development and learning. The ten factors have
been classified and lumped into three, namely: emotional support, classroom
organization, and instructional support.
Thus far, the different findings of research suggest the links between selected
factors with socio- cultural dimensions and learning. These studies have shown that
parenting style, child- rearing practices, provision of materials at home, parental
involvement in school, peers, all of which carry a socio- cultural character are related to
achievement or performance in school.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A. Conduct a simple survey by interviewing five grade 6 students. Ask each one
the following questions:

1. When you talk with your parents, what topics do you usually talk about?
Do they ask questions about how you are doing in school, or say what
score you got in the exam? (All the time- Sometimes- Never)

2. Do your parents come to school and talk to your teacher about how you
are doing? Why?
(Always- When needed- Sometimes- Never)

3. Do your parents attend meetings called by your teacher or the principal?

Support your answer.
(Always- Everytime- Sometimes- Never)

B. Compare the responses of the students on the three questions. Determine

whose parents are highly involved in the studies of their children. Whose
parents are least involved?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

A. Answer the following:

1. From the review of research findings, what factors with socio- cultural character
are linked to student learning and achievement?

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

2. Of what importance are research findings to teachers and practitioners?

B. Look for readings or related literature (from any available reading

materials/internet sources) about socio-cultural dimensions of learning. Make
a reaction paper based on the reading chosen. Please see format in the
appendices.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Significance of Developmental and

Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning
in Selecting Strategies and Methodologies

This chapter deals with the presentation and discussion of ideas on

methodologies and educational perspectives that can be deduced from the socio-cultural
theories of learning and the concomitant research findings, which teachers and other
practitioners can adopt in their respective classrooms.

For educational practitioners, both theories and findings of research serve as

sources of ideas on the applications of the socio-cultural dimensions of learning, to
classroom teaching. These applications have to do with methodologies, approaches,
and techniques to teaching: knowing what best practices in teaching to adopt; and being
discriminating of the various choices of methodologies and instructional materials
available for use.

 Determine the significance of developmental and socio-

cultural dimensions of learning in selecting strategies and
methodologies.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Recall a previously attended class. Cite instances that you were given an
opportunity by your teachers to construct your own learning.

Based on the activity (Let’s Do it), how did construction of your own learning help
you improve your performance in the class?

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY AND OTHER

CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES (ORMROD, 2015):

a. Learners can think more effectively when they acquire basic cognitive tools of
various activities and academic disciplines.

The implication of this perspective lies in the importance of developing

first among learners, the basic thinking tools that will enable them to solve
problems or answer questions that they will eventually meet. In Science or
Mathematics, children are basically taught the meaning of key concepts, basic
symbols and principles that will help children interpret, organize, and successfully
deal with the social and physical world.

b. Children learn and remember more when they talk about their experiences.

Children almost always talk about their experiences as soon as they

begin to speak. The significant adults should join in the process. Talking about
their experiences helps children interpret their experiences in culturally approved
and appropriate ways.

c. Children should have opportunities to engage in activities that closely resemble

those that they will later encounter in the adult world.

These activities are called authentic activities, and teachers are

encouraged to make use of authentic activities and instructional materials. Since
authentic activities resemble real-world task and problems, students are able to
derive meaning from these because they can make connections between what
they learn in school and what they experience outside of school. Some authentic
activities may be writing an editorial, designing an electric circuit, planning a
family budget, developing an internet page and the like.

d. Children often acquire better strategies when they collaborate or work with adults
on complex tasks.

Working with adults will enable them to learn developmentally advanced

strategies.

e. Challenging task, especially when sufficient scaffolded tend to hasten cognitive

development.

This means that the teacher should provide as many support and aids.
Opportunities that children can perform successfully should be made available to
them.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

f. Technology-based software and applications can effectively scaffold many

challenging tasks, and occasionally offer good alternatives to real-world activities
and problems.

If real-life experiences and problems could not be made possible and

available technology can be a good substitute for these. These are computerized
instructional materials and applications which can be approximate real
experience and problems.

g. Children’s abilities should be assessed under a variety of work conditions.

Assessment gives the teacher a good understanding of the

developmental levels of the children; and know under what conditions they are
most likely to accomplish or not to accomplish tasks. By knowing these,
appropriate interventions to address gaps in the students’ abilities can be
properly done.

h. Group learning activities can help children internalize cognitive strategies.

Group learning activities like group study sessions, class discussions,

debates about controversial issues, collaborative problem-solving help the
learners develop and acquire more sophisticated strategies, than what they
would have learned in early interaction.

Peer Interactive Instructional Strategies

There is now a growing recognition of the value of having students work

together for them to construct their own meaning about the subject matter. In so
doing, they can explore, explain, discuss, and debate certain topics either in
small or big groups. When students work together, in essence they are engaged
in distributed cognition. It means that learning is spread across many minds, from
which the learners can draw multiple ideas. Peer interactive strategies enable the
learners to do the following and therefore benefit from these in many ways.

a. They can clarify and organize their ideas and justify their ideas.
b. They tend to elaborate on what they learned.
c. They are exposed to others’ views, widening their knowledge and
perspectives.
d. They may discover flaws or inconsistencies in their thinking and do
self-correction.
e. They can gain more complex and sophisticated thinking and reasoning
skills.
f. They can also practice their argumentation skills – skills which experts
use to advance knowledge.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

g. They can acquire a more sophisticated view of the nature of knowledge

and learning.

Important features of peer-interactive strategies lie on developing oral skills,

convergent and divergent thinking skills, organizational skills, and argumentation skills.

1. Class Discussion

Class discussion could be used in a variety of courses and disciplines. The

members usually engage in discussions where sometimes there may not really be a
correct answer as in interpreting classic works in literature. More importantly, the
students may take interest in or make sense of what they are reading.

2. Reciprocal Teaching

This involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the discussion and asking
questions. For the first minutes, the teacher leads the discussion, and asks questions in
the process. After sometime, the teacher turns over her role to a student, who will then
take over to lead the discussion and ask questions that the teacher has modeled.
Eventually, the students are on their own, able to derive meanings out of the discussion.

3. Cooperative Learning

Students work together in small groups to achieve a common goal. However,

cooperative learning is not just about grouping. For cooperative learning to be
successful, some structure must be in place such that cooperation is not just helpful, but
is necessary for academic success.

4. Peer Tutoring

In this strategy, students who mastered the topic and know it by heart teaches
those who haven’t. Under this structure, students with achievement difficulties can ask
questions more easily, and get immediate feedback, not readily available in a regular
classroom.

5. Communities of Learners

For peer interactive methods, a sense of community is needed. This means

teacher and students have shared goals, respect and support of one’s efforts, and that
each one makes an important contribution to classroom learning (Hom & Battistich,
1995, in Ormrod, 2015. Transforming a classroom into a community of learners is a way
to create a sense of community. Teacher and students collaborate to build a body of
knowledge about a topic and help one another to learn more about it.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Identify which of the following situations or practices reflects implications derived

from socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

1. In Ms. Cruz’s class, the students are given an assignment to work on at home.
2. In Mr. Fernandez’s class, the four groups of students solve together a problem.
3. Ms. Santos tells her students to read the selection silently.
4. In Ms. Estrella’s class, the students work independently on their science
experiment.
5. Mr. Bonifacio has asked three students to help Albert solve a problem.
6. Mrs. Almera joined a group of students in a group discussion.
7. The teacher asked the brightest student to teach another student.
8. The teacher and the students take turns in leading the group discussion of a
topic.
9. The teacher encouraged the students to ask questions about the contents of the
presentation.
10. Ms. Silverio came up with a topic which the whole class can research on, so
they can build knowledge about it.

Name: ______________ Date: _

A. In your own words, say something about the following terms.

1. Reciprocal teaching

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

2. Cooperative Learning

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.

B. Name and describe three features common to peer interactive learning

strategies.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

PRE-TEST

I. MATCHING TYPE

Instruction: Match column A with Column B. Write the letter of your answer on
the space provided after each item.

Column A Column B

1. rapid numerical calculations ___ a. Range

2. ability to discover or find a rule ___ b. Poet
3. number of tasks at any given degree ___ c. Acrobats
4. rapidity of one’s response to situation ___ d. Politician
5. verbal/linguistic ___ e. ability to see
differences/similarities
among objects
6. kinesthetic ___ f. David Perkins
7. interpersonal ___ g. Number Factor
8. perception ___ h. Jean Piaget
9. reflective intelligence ___ i. Speed
10. sensorimotor stage ___ j. naturalist
k. Reasoning Factor

II. TRUE or FALSE

Instruction: Read and understand each item carefully. Write T if the statement is
correct and F if not. Write your answer on the space provided after each item.

1. Intelligence can be related to learning either in the formal or informal

settings. ___
2. Area refers to the total number of situations at each level to which the
individual is able to respond. ___
3. Philip Vernon asserts that we are all born with the potential to develop a
multiplicity of intelligences. ___
4. Intelligence is one of the factors in variation among individuals. ___
5. Experience and culture may contribute to one’s intelligence. ___

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

: Individual Differences
in Learning
“Everyone of us is different in some way, but for those of us who are more different, we
have to put more effort into convincing the less different that we can do the
same thing they can, just differently.”
― Marlee Matlin

Concepts of Individual
Differences in Learning

This chapter presents the various definitions and concepts related to intelligence
and to individual differences. It also tries to explain what intelligence is all about, using
the theories advanced by the experts in this area. Hence, you will also get to know the
different theories covering intelligence are further classified according to how they are
viewed and studied by their proponents. The theories will also give you an idea on the
role of intelligence in students’ academic performance.

 Analyze concepts of individual differences in learning

according to different theories of intelligence: structural and
process.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Try to know, feel and determine how much you have of each of the eight
intelligences. Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 7 on each of Gardner’s eight intelligences.

Intelligence Self-rating
Description
Component (number only)
Ability to use one’s body and physical
Bodily/Kinesthetic
aspects well.
Ability to sense other people’s feelings;
Interpersonal
Ability to put oneself on other people’s shoes
Ability to communicate well, orally or in
Linguistic
writing
Ability to know one’s own mind and body; and
Intrapersonal be aware of one’s own desires, feelings,
motives.
Ability to do science and mathematics.
Logical-mathematical Ability to handle complex problems and
discussions.
Ability to learn, perform, and compose music.
Musical
Ability to know and understand different
Naturalistic species, recognize patterns in nature and life
forms.
Ability to one’s location relative to fixed
locations.
Visual/Spatial
Ability to accomplish task requiring 3-
dimentional visualization.

1. Among the eight intelligences, in what area have scored the highest?

Answer:

2. Does the highest scored area correlate your ability preference?

Answer:

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

3. Does the highest scored area tend to be consistent throughout the time?

Answer:

Theory is a tentative statement that tries to explain a phenomenon, which in this

case, is the nature of intelligence.
To better understand the theories that explain the nature of intelligence, an
attempt has been made to categorize and come up with a system and put in proper
perspective what intelligence is all about. This categorizing process looks at theories of
intelligence as belonging to two groups: the factor theories and cognitive theories of
intelligence.

Cognitive Theories Factor Theories

Faculty Theories Uni-factor Theory
Guilford’s Model of the Structure Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
of Intellect
Cattell-Horn’s Fluid and Thorndike’s Multi-factor Theory
Crystallized Intelligence Theory
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Thurstone’s Primary
Theory Abilities/Group Factor Theory
Vernon’s Hierarchical Theory

FACTOR THEORIES

One-factor or Uni-factor Theory – asserts that all abilities are reduced to a single
capacity of general intelligence or “common sense”.

Charles Spearman’s Two-factor Theory – asserts that intellectual abilities comprise

two factors – one general ability or the g factor; and the specific abilities; also
known as the s factor. The g factor is the universal inborn ability, while the s
factor is acquired from the environment.
Edward Thorndike’s Multi-factor Theory – this theory asserts that there is no such
thing as general ability. It says that each mental ability requires an aggregate of
different sets of abilities. Following attributes of intelligence:
a. Level- the level of difficulty of the task that can be solve
b. Range- number of task at any degree given or level of difficulty

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

c. Area – total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able
to respond.
d. Speed – the rapidity at which the individual responds to the situation.

Louis Thurstone’s Primary Abilities/Group Factor Theory – asserts that intelligent

activities are not an expression of many highly specific factors as espoused by
Thorndike nor is it the expression of a general factor that pervades all mental
abilities as asserted by spearman. The seven primary factors are the following:
a. Number Factor (N) – ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and
accurately.
b. Verbal factor (V) – Ability to do task involving verbal comprehensions,
defined and understand works.
c. Space Factor (S) – Ability to manipulate imaginary objects in space
d. Memory factor (M) – Ability to memorize material quickly and recall
e. Word Fluency Factor – Ability to think of isolated words at a rapid rate.
f. Reasoning Factor (F) – Ability to discover or find a rule or principle
governing a series or group material.
g. Perception – ability to see differences and similarities among objects.

Philip E. Vernon’s Hierarchal Theory

This theory tries to bridge the gap between spearman’s and Thurstone’s theories
which view intelligence as occurring on the extremes. For example, spearman asserts
that there are just two abilities, the general ability and the specific abilities; while
Thurstone claims that mental operations can be grouped and are bound by a common
primary factor. On the other hand, Vernon contends that intelligence can be described
as comprising abilities at varying levels of generality, as follows:

a. the highest level: “g” (general intelligence ) factor with the largest source of
variance between individuals (Spearman)
b. the next level: major group factors like verbal-numerical-educational ability
c. the next level: the minor group factors are deduced from major group factors
d. the bottom level: “s” (specific) factor of Spearman

COGNITIVE THEORIES

Faculty Theory- the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence. It espouses that
the mind is made up of different faculties, like reasoning, memory, discrimination
and imagination.

Joy Paul Guilford’s Model of the Structure of Intellect – every individual task can be
classified according to a combination of any of the following:
a. Content – content has categories namely visual, auditory, symbolic, and
behavioral.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

b. Mental Operations- categorize namely cognition, memory, divergent

production, convergent production, and evaluation.
c. Products resulting from operations – the six categories are units, classes,
relations, system, transformations, and implications.

Cattell-Horn Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory – asserts that intelligence is a

basic capacity due to inherited genes and crystallized theory is the capacity resulting
from experiences, learning, and environment.
Hunt (1995, in Theories of intelligence, n. d.) contends that human intellectual
competence is divided into three dimensions which he derived from the works of Cattell
in 1971 and Horn. They are:

a. Fluid Intelligence. It is the mental efficiency and reasoning ability associated

with brain development. It has neurophysiological underpinnings related to
changes in volume of the brain. Fluid intelligence increases until late
adolescence and declines gradually with age.

b. Crystallized Intelligence. Ability to bring previously acquired often culturally –

defined problem solving methods to bear on the current problem. It is the
ability to apply problem – solving methods appropriate in the cultural context.
In there, the problem solver knows the method and recognizes they are
relevant to the current situation. Crystallized intelligence can increase
throughout the life span.

c. Visual-Spatial Reasoning. A somewhat specialized ability to use visual

images and visual relationships in problem-solving.

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory – he asserts that we are all born with
potential to develop a multiplicity of intelligences.
a. Bodily/kinesthetic – the ability to use one’s physical body well
b. Interpersonal – the ability to sense other people’s feelings and be in tune with
them
c. Intrapersonal – the ability to know and have a deep understanding of one’s
own mind and body.
d. Verbal/Linguistic – the ability to communicate well, orally an in writing.
e. Logical/Mathematical – the ability to learn science and mathematics.
f. Musical/Rhythmic - the ability to learn, perform and compose music.
g. Naturalistic – the ability to know and understand different species.
h. Visual/Spatial Ability – the ability to know where one is relative to fixed
locations; ability to accomplish tasks requiring 3-dimensional visualization;
ability to imagine and manipulate visual objects in one’s mind.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

1. Consider yourself as a classroom teacher. What advice can you give to a

parent who is feeling upset with the grades of her child?

2. Take an example where you have 30 students and you would want to have an
idea as to what type of intelligence each of them possesses. Without taking an
intelligence test, how would you determine the type of intelligence they have
based on Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences?

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

1. Cite the similarities as well as the differences in ideas or propositions among

theories of intelligence.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

REFERENCES

Books/Journals

Abu Bakar, Z., Lee, M. Y., Ng, S., & Tan, H. (2014). Goal Setting Learning
Principles. Journal of Education and Learning. 8(1). 41-50.

Brawner, D. G. (2018). Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching. Manila,

Philippines: Adriana Publishing Co. Inc.

Malouff, J. M., Rooke, S.S., Foster, R., & Bhullar, N. (2008). Methods of
Motivational Teaching. University of New England: Australia

Online Sources

Composition Rubric Scoring (n. d.) Retrieved from:

https://www.google.com/search?q=rubrics+for+essay+writing%5C&sourc
e=lmns&rlz=1C1GGRV_enPH792PH797&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiOj
sev0eXqAhUQA6YKHbIXAq4Q_AUoAHoECAEQAA

Kelly, J. (2012). Learning Theories. Retrieved from:

http://www.thepeakperformancecenter.com/?s=applicationoftheories+und
er+behaviorism.

Rubric for Student Reflections (n. d.). Retrieved from:

http://earlycollegeconference.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Portfolio-
Rubric-for-Reflection.PRINT_.pdf

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

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Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism Experiential Learning

Social Learning Theory 21st Century Learning Skills

Social-Constructivism Multiple Intelligences

Situated Learning Theory and Community Practice

1. Recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated. _______________

1. They cooperate and work in groups. _______________

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

9. Need much encouragement and support while learning.

1. Knowing how to use the cellphone. ______________

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

“Every student has the ability to be a successful learner.”

Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the

 Analyze learner-centered theories of learning

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Consult any available book or online readings on educational psychology or

Description/ View of View of

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

The definition of learning covers the following elements:

a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).

a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through

Learner-centered is a perspective that focuses on individual learners – their

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive,

Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism, which many behaviorists

a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to a

c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in the theoretical

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

understood if cognitive processes, be included as a factor, that explains

d. Learning involves a behavior change.

e. Organisms are born as blank slates.

f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.

g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious(or concise).

c. Giving bonus points

d. Giving participation points

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

The learner's mind is compared to a computer which does a lot of processing of

a. Classifying or chunking information

Each person may have a different interpretation and construction of the

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Following are some applications of social constructivism (Kelly, September 2012).

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners Intrinsic and

1. Social Learning Theory

Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education:

a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new

The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism

a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or

Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories suggesting that experiential learning

a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences

4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of practice is

a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon. People organize their

6. 21st Century Learning Skills

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Name: _______________________ Date: _____________

Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied

2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about

3. The teacher gave five algebra problems for

4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a topic on

5. The teacher asked the students to memorize

6. The teacher invited one resource person to

8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil who gave

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

9. In a statistics class, the students were asked to

10. The teacher asked the students to do

Name: ___________ Date: _

Name: ____________ Date:

Name: ____________ Date: _

Name: ________________ Date: