ABUAD Journal of Engineering Research and Development (AJERD)

Volume 1, Issue 1, 95-99

Theoretical Analysis of Transmission Parameters and

Interference Issues in Power Line Communication
Systems
Adedayo O. AJIBADE1,*, Ilesanmi B. OLUWAFEMI2, Adedayo O. OJO1, Kehinde A. ADENIJI1.
1
Department of Electrical Electronic and Computer Engineering, Afe Babalola University, P.M.B. 5454, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti,
Nigeria.
[email protected]/[email protected]/[email protected]

2
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ekiti State University, P.M.B. 5353, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria.
[email protected]

*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Date of First Submission: 28/09/2017

Date Accepted: 01/11/2017

Abstract: Communication over the wireless network is becoming not require installation of any major infrastructure of software;
increasingly saturated as a result of global proliferation of wireless PLC couplers or adapters and only a few other accessories are
and mobile devices. Coupled with the requirement for in-home needed [3], [4]. Also, they display strong resilience against
devices and appliances to share information in real-time, powerline
natural hazards, and are still capable of transmitting low-
communication (PLC) systems are gaining rapid popularity as a
cost-effective alternative to wireless and other wire communication
voltage communication signals even with the occurrence
techniques. In this work, the salient properties of PLC systems faults that render them incapable of transmitting high-voltage
including mechanism of signal propagation, channel and noise electric power [1]. However, the use of powerline cables as a
characteristics, as well as signal interference within the PLC channel/medium for information and data transfer is fraught
network are expounded. Furthermore, the effect of interference of with some challenges [6]. First, powerline networks were
PLC signals with signals from other existing communication originally designed to carry high-voltage (relative to data
channels are emphasized. signal voltage) signal, which are typically at a low frequency
of 50/60Hz, while data signals are low-voltage signals at
Keywords: Power line communication (PLC), signal propagation,
frequencies in the MHz range [6], [13]. This frequency
channel, noise, interference
mismatch makes the powerline network a harsh
1. INTRODUCTION communication channel for transmitting higher-frequency data
signals [9], [13]. Thus, the propagation mechanism, channel
The concept of communication over the powerline is not a and noise characteristics of PLC channels are slightly different
new one; power companies have always used PLC technique from those of wireless and other commonplace wire
to send low-data control and monitoring signals over the communication channels like coaxial cables, optic-fibre cables
power network [1], [2]. Smart grid and smart metering are and twisted-pair cables [7]. Secondly, interference in PLC –
evolving technologies that rely on PLC for their functioning. mainly due to leakage of radio frequency (RF) signals
While smart grid allows devices and appliance connected to propagating the powerline cables. This interference may occur
the electrical network to share information, and ensure among devices that share data within the PLC network,
performance optimisation, smart metering helps to reduce resulting in undesirable degradation of transmitted signals and
power wastage by constantly learning and monitoring power reduction in throughput [18] or leakages from several devices
behaviour and consumption pattern of appliances on a may combine to form a strong signal that can totally distort
network [3], [4]. With these technologies, remote monitoring other signals transmitted on same range of frequencies [19].
and fault detection on the network as well as automated billing Because of similarities in many aspects of wireless and PLC
are achieved [4]. Given the successful deployment of PLC for signal propagation and channels, references to wireless
the above technologies, it has become a strong consideration systems will be made when necessary within this write-up.
for providing reliable and affordable in-home (or in-building) The subsequent sections of this paper give an overview of
communication services. Powerline networks are ubiquitous in signal propagation behaviour, channel and noise
nature i.e. they exist virtually everywhere across the globe; characteristics, and interference in PLC systems.
this makes PLC a cheaper alternative to other existing
communication techniques [3]. The deployment of PLC does

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ABUAD Journal of Engineering Research and Development (AJERD)
Volume 1, Issue 1, 95-99

2. SIGNAL PROPAGATION MECHANISM IN PLC [7], [17]. The former is caused by constantly-changing
NETWORKS impedance status of the PLC network termination points from
Like any other communication channel, it is important to switching on/off of connected devices. This changing
discuss extensively, the signal propagation mechanism of PLC impedance values at termination points induce a change in the
channels, as this will enhance better understanding of the reflection and transmission coefficients of some propagation
channel and noise behaviour of the channel. While reflection, paths, resulting in variation of the channel response. Long-
diffraction, and scattering are the main mechanisms of term impedance variations also depend on the state of the
propagation in wireless channels, propagation in PLC connected electrical load – plugged and active, plugged but
channels is primarily based on reflection [11]. When a signal inactive or unplugged [7], [26]. Short-term impedance
propagates the PLC channel from the transmitter to the variation on the other hand stems from the cyclic nature of the
receiver, the signal experiences reflections at impedance mains alternating current (AC) [24]. The separation distance
discontinuities along the path. These discontinuities mainly between transmitter and receiver determines the extent of
result from line branching and load terminations on the channel variation from impedance dependency of the
network as shown in figure 1 [7], [8], [12]. electrical loads on the mains cycle [31]. Short-term impedance
variation in low-voltage PLC channels has a coherence time of
at least 600 microseconds [17], [24]. Coherence time in
communication is the duration of time over which the
channels remains time-invariant [7].

3. PLC CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 Multipath Propagation
In wireless propagation environments, the presence of
natural and man-made objects like trees, buildings, hills,
atmospheric moisture e.t.c., along the signal path causes the
transmitted signals undergo the effects of reflection,
diffraction, and scattering. This results in multiple copies of
the transmitted signals being received at the receiver i.e.
multipath propagation [9], [11]. These signals comprise the
direct path signal and many other attenuated and delayed
copies of the signal. These signal copies will induce deep nulls
at certain frequencies as a result of destructive interference
between signal paths. This phenomenon is referred to as
frequency-selective fading [9], [11], [13]. Similar to wireless
Figure 1: Customer Premise PLC Network channel environments, the powerline channel is an unstable
transmission environment due to impedance variations from
As a result, the received signal comprises of several the characteristic impedance of the cable, the topology of the
attenuated, delayed, and phase-shifted copies of the network, and the nature of the connected electrical appliances
transmitted signal, leading to time dispersion [7], [25]. [7], [8]. This time-variation of the PLC channel causes signals
Generally, in communications parlance, a parameter known as propagating it to experience multipath propagation effects.
root-mean-squared (RMS) delay spread is measure of the The multipath in PLC depends on the physical topology as
extent of time dispersion [7]. Several factors on the PLC well as the physical characteristics of the channel [4], [7].
network determine the extent of the RMS delay spread [7], Hence the PLC channel becomes frequency selective mainly
[30]. These include the number and length of branching nodes from reflections and transmissions caused by impedance
between the transmitter and receiver, the separating distance mismatches at branch discontinuities and network
between the transmitter and receiver, as well as the impedance terminations. Thus, the transmitted signals will arrive the
values of terminal loads. It has been observed that worst receiver with varying attenuation and delay [7], [10]. From
values of RMS delay spread are obtained for low and high Fourier analysis, a delay in the time domain will result in a
terminal load impedances [16], [17]. Several studies and periodic a phase-shift in the frequency domain. At the
measurements on RMS delay spread values in the frequency receiver, the direct signal and the phase-shifted signals
range of 30 MHz for low-voltage PLC networks have shown combine to produce notches/nulls at certain frequencies,
that it ranges between 2 and 6 microseconds [18], [19]. resulting in frequency-selective fading [7].
Asides time dispersion, wireless and PLC channels vary According to Zimmermann and Dostert [10], the PLC
with time i.e. are time-selective [9], [25]. Time-selectivity in channel can be completely characterised by its channel
wireless channels is due to relative mobility between the frequency response as:
transmitter and receiver [9], [11]. In PLC channels, it is
𝑁𝑁 𝐾𝐾 𝑀𝑀
primarily due to impedance variations at load terminations on
the network [7]. Time variation in PLC channels are induced 𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓) = � �� 𝛤𝛤𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � 𝐴𝐴(𝑓𝑓, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ) (1)
by changes in the reflection factors of the propagation paths, 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1
and are categorised into long-term and short-term variation

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ABUAD Journal of Engineering Research and Development (AJERD)
Volume 1, Issue 1, 95-99

where Γ and 𝑇𝑇 are the reflection and transmission coefficients changing impulsive noise [8], [13]. The coloured background
along the propagation path respectively; 𝐾𝐾 and 𝑀𝑀 represent noise stems from the sum total of the harmonics of the mains
the number of reflection and transmission coefficients cycle as well as other low-power noise sources within the PLC
experienced by the propagating signal along a particular path system. This noise has a very low power spectral density that
𝑖𝑖; 𝐴𝐴(𝑓𝑓, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ) is the frequency- and distance-dependent varies directly with frequency. Narrowband noise is in the
attenuation arising from the physical characteristics of the form of sinusoidal signals with modulated amplitudes; it is
cable; exp(−𝑗𝑗2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝜏𝜏𝑖𝑖 ) represents the phase of the 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ mainly induced by interference from nearby short and medium
component due to the time delay 𝜏𝜏. The time delay, 𝜏𝜏𝑖𝑖 , is wave broadcast radio signals. Since their amplitudes vary very
related to the speed of propagation within the communication slowly over time, both coloured background noise and
channel (here, powerline cables) as: narrowband noise make up the background noise in PLC
systems [7], [13], [27]. Impulsive noise is regarded as the
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 √𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 most significant noise in PLC systems; it is the major cause of
𝜏𝜏𝑖𝑖 = (2) errors in data transmission over PLC channels. It is mainly
𝑐𝑐0
generated by intermittent and random interference on the
supply signal [27], caused by electrical appliances connected
where 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 is the dielectric constant of the insulation material; to the PLC network. These noises are of three different types
and 𝑐𝑐0 is the speed of light in a vacuum. [7] [8], [18]:
3.2 Attenuation
1) Periodic impulsive noise: This class of noise is
In wireless channels, signal attenuation is regarded as path synchronous to the mains frequency, and is induced by the
loss, determined by transmission frequency and propagation power supplies within the PLC network.
distance [9]. In a similar manner, the electrical characteristics 2) Periodic impulsive noise asynchronous to the mains
of the powerline cable and the transmission frequency band cycle: This noise is mainly generated from switching on/off
determine the extent of signal attenuation in PLC channels [4]. power supplies.
The signal attenuation in PLC systems is a result of the loss of 3) Aperiodic impulsive noise: This noise is induced by
power as the signal propagates the powerlines, transformers, switching transients within the PLC network, this type of
couplers, e.t.c. From transmission line theory, four parameters noise usually has a power spectral density significantly above
that describes the electric characteristics of a cable segment the background level.
include resistance, capacitance, conductivity, and inductance
[13], [22]. Equation (3) shows that the resistance of a unit-
length cable increases proportionally with the square-root of 5. INTERFERENCE IN PLC
transmitting frequency, hence the attenuation in PLC channels
is more pronounced at higher frequencies [13]. 5.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility of Wireless and PLC
Systems
𝜋𝜋𝜇𝜇0 Electrical signals travelling along a wire or cable causes
𝑅𝑅′ = � 2 𝑓𝑓 (3)
𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟 some radiation of the signals into the surrounding. These
radiated signals could interfere with nearby electronic
where 𝜇𝜇0 is the free-space permeability; 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑟𝑟 are the equipment, resulting in malfunctioning of such equipment
conductivity and radius of powerline cable respectively. [15], [28]. This is referred to as Electromagnetic Interference
Also, from extensive measurements carried out on low-
(EMI) [20], [28]. Other cable types - coaxial, optic-fibre,
voltage PLC networks, it has been shown that the attenuation
twisted-pair cables – by design are meant to transmit data
varies directly with frequency and distance, and is given by
signal while limiting potential antenna effects, powerline
the equation:
cables inherently tend to double as unintentional antennas
𝐴𝐴(𝑓𝑓, 𝑑𝑑) = exp((−𝑎𝑎0 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖 )𝑑𝑑 (4) [15], [20]. Hence, when the powerline network is used to
transmit radio frequency (RF) signals (in the range of 10 kHz
where 𝑓𝑓 is the frequency of the signal; 𝑑𝑑 is the distance – 30 MHz), some of these signals may leak, interfering with
covered by the signal; 𝑎𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑎1 , and 𝑘𝑘 are cable-dependent signals from other devices that are connected on the PLC
parameters that are derived from empirical measurements network [18], [28], [29]. This results in undesirable
[10]. degradation of transmitted signals and reduction in throughput
From equations (3) and (4), it can be deduced that the [20], [21]; Some of the connected appliances my also inject
attenuation experienced by signals propagating a powerline noise into powerline cables, contributing further to
channel increases as the transmitting frequency and distance performance degradation of the PLC network [29]. Of greater
increase [7], [ 10]. concern is the interference with signals propagating other
communication channels like short-wave, medium-wave, FM
4. PLC NOISE CHARACTERISTICS and DAB radio [28], [29]. RF signals leaking from several
Unlike wireless communication systems and most other devices on the PLC network in nearby buildings may combine
communication systems, where noise is modelled as an to form a composite signal significant enough to interfere
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN), noise on PLC with, and distort signals transmitted over these channels [28].
systems are complex in nature, consisting of a slow-varying Unfortunately, most of the regulations on PLC are restricted to
coloured background noise, narrowband noise, and a fast- a single device under monitoring and testing [18]. In a

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ABUAD Journal of Engineering Research and Development (AJERD)
Volume 1, Issue 1, 95-99

widespread PLC scenario, where numerous sources are 4) Reducing the power spectral density of PLC signals:
unintentionally radiating in parallel, the wire structures that Since PLC signal emissions are measured within a limited
transmit the PLC signals form an antenna array thereby bandwidth, shrinking the power spectral density immediately
contributing to the far field. Expectedly, certain portion of the lowers the radiation levels, while maintaining the same
transmitted power are radiated through ground and sky wave, transmitted power. This technique will facilitate the use of
affecting highly sensitive short-wave radio services like broadband multicarrier modulation schemes (like Orthogonal
amateur radios, wireless security services, and military Frequency-Division Multiplexing or OFDM) that will spread
surveillance stations [28]. the transmitted power across large ranges of frequencies.
In a nutshell, when PLC signal overlay frequency ranges of
wireless services, occurrence of interference becomes
unavoidable; the extent of this interference depends largely on 6. CONCLUSION
the transmission power and distance, as well as on the In this article, the salient physical attributes that
structural layout of wires [21[, [28]. The network and cable characterize power line networks have been outlined. First, the
symmetry determine the fraction of the injected signal power signal propagation mechanism was shown to be primarily by
that will be emitted by radiation [28]. Symmetry is defined in reflection, that induces a phenomenon termed RMS delay
terms of the impedance between a conductor and ground. For spread. This RMS delay spread depends on the impedance
a two-wire power line, if the impedances between each values of connected loads. Multipath propagation and
conductor and ground are equal, the line is regarded as being attenuation in PLC were also presented; different factors that
balanced or symmetrical. For symmetrical lines, signal induce multipath propagation were identified while the
propagation in the desired differential mode is possible, while transmission distance and frequency were shown to determine
non-symmetrical lines results in an undesired common-mode attenuation in PLC. The complex noise nature of PLC was
propagation [28]. For a common-mode cable pair, current also highlighted. Interference issues in PLC, especially with
signals flow in the same direction on both conductors, where signals that share the same frequency was considered, and
the return portions follow the ground path. Differential mode techniques of mitigating against it were suggested.
on the other hand, ensures that current signals flow in opposite Research efforts on the effects of interference of PLC
directions on the cable pair. Thus, a highly symmetrical line signals with other signals that share the frequency spectrum,
implies a large ratio of differential to common mode current to the best of our knowledge, remains scanty in literature.
flow, and by extension, very weak radiation, while a non- Therefore, concerted research efforts need to be directed
symmetrical line results in common-mode current flow, towards analysis of interference effects of PLC signal on other
inducing high radiation [28]. signals propagating other communication channels. It is also
imperative that international regulators consider embedding
5.2 Mitigating Radiation Effects in PLC PLC into existing electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) rules.
As discussed in the preceding section, wireless signals This will go well to resolve any interference concerns with
transmitting on short-wave, high-frequency spectrum are other spectrum users, and ensure faster adoption of PLC
susceptible to interference and in the worst case, blockage globally as a standard communication technology.
from PLC signals. In light of this, it is highly expedient to
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