Introduction to Networking and data communication

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Computer network
“A group of computers linked together using a transmission media so that they
can communicate with each other, share resources (such as hard disk and
printer) and access remote hosts or other network.
Communication
This is the transmission and reception of information across a media with a feed
back loop between them
Data communication
Is the electronic transmission of data from one place to another
Communication channel/ media
This is the path / rout connecting a sending and a receiving end to allow
information flow through

Workstation
A workstation is a client. More specifically, it is a standalone computer equipped
with its own processor and system and application software. It can perform its
functions independent of the network. To expand its resources and knowledge,
it may get connected to a network

Server
A server is a computer that shares its resources across the network, and a client
are one that accesses shared resources. Depending on the size and requirements
of the network, servers can be classified as below:
 File Server
 Database Server
 Print Server
 Disk Server

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Transmission Impairments:
Impairments are defects that occur during data transmission: They can be
a) Attenuation

It’s the loss of signal strength during transmission i.e. when an

electromagnetic signal is transmitted along any medium, it gradually
become weaker at greater distances; this is referred to as attenuation. To
solve this problem amplifier is used. The amplifier boosts the signals and
extends the transmission distance.
b) Noise
Random electrical signals that can be picked up by the transmission
medium and result in degradation of the data.

PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING

Purpose of networking
i. Resource sharing
Different computers are connected to each other hence a user at one site
may be able to use the resource available at another site e.g. printer,
internet,
ii. Remote communication
This involves the transmission of data signals between two
communication devices loaded at different geographical locations.
Through remote communication people can be able to share ideas and
pass messages over the network
iii. Distributed processing
If a particular process can be subdivided into several sub-processes then
each sub-process can be processed at different sites concurrently hence
speeding up the entire process
iv. Cost effectiveness
Reduction of resources in a network leads to reduction of cost. In stead of
purchasing a printer for each computer you can share one printer thus
saving cost
v. Reliability
If one site fails in a computer network, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating

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Limitations of networking
i. Cost
It’s expensive to acquire networking equipments, train network
administrators, users and maintain the network
ii. Data security
Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access,
danger of data theft and also tapping of unauthorized people during
transmission
iii. Network failure
If the network fails there is the danger of paralyzing organization
operations besides damaging files and programs
iv. Moral and cultural effect
Large networks like internet have chart rooms and messaging services
that may enable underage children to meet peers and adults on the net
some of whom may have bad intensions. Apparently the access to
pornographic and other negative materials is also a problem.

v. Over reliance on networks

Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means
that all business process and society depend on computer networks. The
disadvantage of over reliance is that if the network fails then many
systems will stop operating

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ELEMENTS / COMPONENTS OF NETWORKING

The most common components of a network are:

i. Data communication media
ii. Communication devices
iii. Network software

a. Data communication media

A data communication media is a channel through which data is transmitted between
computers and other devices. Data communication media can be classified as follows

Communication media

Guided / bound media Unguided / unbounded media

Two wire open line cable Infrared transmission

Twisted pair cable Radio communication

Coaxial cable Microwave transmission

Fibre optic cable Satellite communication

Fig 1: Data communication media

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Communication using bound / guided media

Guided /physical / non-wireless / bounded media have a physical link between sender
and receiver. Mainly there are three categories of guided media: twisted-Pair, coaxial,
and fiber-optic.

1. Open wire
They consist of pairs of bare copper wire conductors that are tired to insulators
attached to cross-arms in telephone poles. They are currently being faced out due
to limitation of the numbers of pairs that can be carried in a single pole line, they
are prone to damage, vandalism and are affected by bad weather

2. Twisted-Pair Cable
Consist of two insulated copper wires twisted in a spiral pattern to minimize
electromagnetic interference (EMI). It’s the cheapest media used for both the
analogue and digital signals. They are mainly used in telephone systems
They are of two types

Unshielded Twisted (UTP) cable

UTP do not have a shield that prevent electromagnetic interference hence
they are susceptible to noise and external interference.

Shielded Twisted (STP)

STP includes shielding to reduce cross talk as well as to limit the effects of
external interference. For most STP cables, this means that the wiring
includes a wire braid inside the cladding or sheath material as well as a
foil wrap around each individual wire. This shield improves the cable's
transmission and interference characteristics, which, in tern, support
higher bandwidth over longer distance than UTP.

Fig 2: Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable

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Advantages of twisted pair cable

i. They are easy to install
ii. They are cheap since they are readily available for telephone use

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

i. Have low data transmission rate
ii. They have high electromagnetic interference
iii. Suffer high attenuation

3. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two conductors that share the same axis. A solid copper wire
runs down the center of the cable, and this wire is surrounded by plastic foam
dielectric material / insulation. The foam is surrounded by a second conductor,
wire mesh tube, metallic foil, or both. The wire mesh protects the wire from EMI.
It is often called the shield. A tough plastic jacket forms the cover of the cable,
providing protection and insulation.

Where Ethernet is concerned, there are two types of coaxial cable

i. Thin Ethernet (also known as thinnet or thinwire,)
ii. Thick Ethernet (also known as thinnet or thickwire)

Advantages of coaxial cable

i. They are immune to external electrical interference because of insulation
ii. High data transmission rate
iii. They are stable even under high data load
iv. Has capability of carrying more signal

Disadvantages of coaxial cable

i. They are expensive to buy
ii. They are bulky thus difficult to work with
Assignment: Draw the diagram of coaxial cable from your textbook Longhorn book 4

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4. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. In a fibre
optic cable light only moves in one direction. For a two way communication to
take place, a second connection must be made between the two devices. This is
the reason for the cable to contain two strands i.e. the core and the glass fibre

The electric signal from the source are converted to light signal, then propagated
along the fibre optic cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need a light
emitting diode (LED) at the transmitter. At the receiving end, a photosensitive
device can be used to convert the light signal back to electric signal that can be
processed by the computer

Cladding

Core

Glass fibre

Plastic primary

Nylon coating
/ Jacket

Fig 3: Fiber Optic cable

Parts of the fibre optic cable

i. The Core
It is a glass strand: a strand is responsible for one direction
communication. The core is used to send data in one direction. While the
glass fibre sends data in the opposite direction. Light from the laser
travels through this glass to the other device on the receiving end

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ii. Cladding
It is a highly reflective material that redirects light back to the core. It has
some light bending characteristic that is why even if the cable is bent into
coils and a light signal is inserted at one end it will still be seen coming
out from the other end.
iii. Plastic primary
It’s used for insulating between the glass fibre and the nylon; It protects
the inner components from the outer components
iv. Nylon coating / jacket
Protect the cable from the actual physical damage

Fibre optic cables are of two types

i. Single mode
It has a very narrow core. The light in the cable therefore take only one
path through it making it to have a low attenuation rate. It allows for
faster transmission time and longer distances but costs more
ii. Multimode
It has a thicker core and allows several light rays to be fed in the cable. It
has a high attenuation rate and it is used for nearby connection especially
within a building as it is relatively cheaper.

Advantages of Fiber Optic

i. Noise resistance: it is immune to EMI
ii. Less signal attenuation: signal can run for miles without requiring
regeneration
iii. Higher bandwidth: fibre optic cable can support dramatically higher
bandwidths (and hence data rate) than all other cables.
iv. Smaller and lighter than copper cable hence space limited situations
v. Can be used in hazardous (highly flammable) places because they do not
generate electrical signals

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic

i. Cost : most expensive among all the cables
ii. Installation / maintenance: is high
iii. Fragility : glass fibre is more easily broken than wire
iv. They are complex to configure

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Table 1: Summary Table of the Characteristic of All Cable Type

Factor UTP STP Coaxial Fiber Optic

Cost Lowest Moderate Moderate Highest
Installation Easy Fairly easy Fairly easy Difficult
Bandwidth 10 Mbps 16 Mbps 10 Mbps 100 Mbps –
Capacity
1 Gbps
Node 2 2 30 (10Base2) 2
Capacity 100
Per Segment (10Base5)
Attenuation High High Lower Lowest
EMI Most Less Less No effect by
vulnerable vulnerable vulnerable EMI
to EMI than UTP than UTP

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Unguided Transmission Media

Unguided/non-physical/wireless/unbounded media have no physical link between
sender and receiver.

1. Microwave transmission
In microwave transmission signals travel in a straight line and therefore the
transmitter and the receiver must be in a direct line of sight to each other.
Microwave transmission is suitable for point to point transmission.

Microwave signals propagate in one direction at a time, which means that two
frequencies are necessary for two ways communication such as telephone
communication. One frequency is reserved for transmission in one direction and
other for transmission in other. Each frequency requires its own transmitter and
receiver. Today, both pieces of equipment usually are combined in a single piece
of equipment called transceiver, which allows a single antenna to serve both
frequencies and functions.

Building A River Building B

Microwave Transmission

Fig 4: Microwave transmission

Terrestrial microwave systems are typically used when using cabling is very
costly and difficult to set.

Advantages of microwave transmission

i. They operate at a high speed
ii. It is less prone to transmission errors unlike twisted pair cable
iii. Are capable of operating in digital or analog data

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Disadvantages of microwave transmission

i. Its signals are affected by atmospheric conductors like lightning
ii. Require additional number of repeaters after every few kilometers
iii. If any object come in between the transmission line of sight it affect signal
transmission

2. Satellite Communication
A satellite is an electronic device placed in an orbit around the earth to receive,
amplify and then transmit the signal. Satellite stay in a stationary orbit above the
earth; Signals are beamed up to the satellite from a station on the ground. This is
called up link. These signals are relayed down to the earth station. This down
transmission is called down link.

A satellite transmission system has three main components

i. Transmitter earthstation – set up the uplink
ii. A satellite –
iii. Receiving earth station – one receiving the sent signal on the other end

The geographical area where satellite signals can be located or accesses clearly is
called a satellite footprint. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipients’
earth stations to form a point to multipoint transmission.

The new trend in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small
aperture terminals (VSAT) technology. This VSAT refers to a very small satellite
dish used both in data, radio and TV communication. Many business are
adopting this new technology because it enable direct access to satellite
communication instead of having to go through state owned or licensed satellite
gateways

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Satellite in space

Satellite

Uplink Downlink

Receiving
Transmitter Satellite dish earthstation
earthstation Satellite dish

USA
Singapore

Fig 5: satellite communication

Advantages of satellite communication

i. Satellite microwave can provide transmission capability to and from any
location on earth, no mater how remote
ii. Has the second highest band width after fibre optic
iii. Earth station can be installed on the customer property than layering
extensive cables

Disadvantages of satellite communication

i. Its extremely expensive to install
ii. Any station can receive the signals
iii. Heavy rains or bad weather will increase loss of signals

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3. Infrared Transmission
Infrared media uses infrared light to transmit signals. LEDs transmit the signals,
and photodiodes receive the signals. The remote control we use for television,
VCR and CD player use infrared technology to send and receive signals.

The transmitter and the receiver of the infrared signals must be within the line of
sight in the same room. Infrared signals do have a downside; the signals cannot
penetrate walls or other objects, and they are diluted by strong light sources.

4. Radio transmission
Radio waves are omnidirectional meaning that the waves start at a central point
and spread outwards to all directions. The waves are radiated into the
atmosphere by radio frequency antennae at a constant velocity (Draw the
diagram in Longhorn Fig 1.13 page 20)
The radio wave can be HIGH (HF) high frequency, very high frequency (VHF) or
ultra high frequency (UHF). The high frequency radio wave signal is transmitted
by directing it to ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere will reflect it back to
the earth surface and the receiver will pick the signal. It was the only way to
communicate before the invention of satellite

VHF radio waves are transmitted along the earth surface. UHF radio waves use
the line of sight principal thus there should be no barrier between the sending
and the receiving devices.
Used in : Radio and television broadcast, walkie-talkies

Disadvantages
i. Signals can be intercepted by a unauthorized parties
ii. VHF require repeaters at strategic points to overcome attenuation
iii. The sender and the receiver must be in line of sight as with UHF

Used Assignment
Read on Blue tooth

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B. COMMUNICATION DEVICES

Introduction
Networking means connecting two or more devices for the purpose of sharing data and
resources. When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or
resources, they become an internetwork (or internet). The devices required to link
number of LANs into an Internet are known as internetworking devices.
There are many devices available to accomplish these tasks. The following diagram will
help to understand different types of connective devices. Can also be referred to as
Communication devices
Connecting Devices

Networking Devices Internetworking Devices

Switches
Hub Bridge Router Gateway

Brouters
Repeater
Figure 6: Networking & Internetworking Devices

Networking Devices
Expansion within a single network, called network connectivity. And to expand a
single network the following networking devices can be used.
i. Hub
ii. Network interface card
iii. Repeaters
iv. Bridges

Internetworking Devices
Expansion that involves and joins two separate networks called internetworking
connectivity. Following devices can be used for internetworking.
i. Routers
ii. Brouters
iii. Gateways
iv. Switches

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Hub
It’s a component that connects computers with the same network architecture /
communication protocol to enable rely of signals from one computer to another.
A hub organizes the cables and relays signals to the other media segments. Hubs
usually broadcast the data signals to all the computers in the network but only
the one whose address is on the message will receive.
Intelligent hubs are able to monitors the way computers are communicating on a
network and keep this information in their small database called management
information database (MIB). Intelligent hubs can isolate non-functioning
computers in a network
Broadcast storm is a condition where a network is overwhelmed with messages
broadcasted due to malfunctioning of the NIC or the hub related problem
especially when several hubs are joined together to expand the network

Network Interface Card (NIC)

It is a circuit board that can be inbuilt with the motherboard or fitted in the
expansion slot of the workstation and creates a physical interface / link between
computer and the networking media.

Repeater

It receives a signal from one segment of the network, cleans it to remove any
distortion, boots it and then sends it to another segment
A repeater installed on a link receive the signal before it becomes too week or
corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed signals
back onto the link.

Repeater
In co m i ng w ea k s ig na l s Re ge ne ra te d s i gna l s

Fig 7: Repeater

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Bridge
It’s a functional unit that interconnect two LANs that use the same logical link
control protocol but may use different medium access control protocol
It’s a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network
segment for which a message is meant for delivery through address filtering
Purpose
i. Extend the number of stations a segment can support
ii. Reduce the overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasting only in the
destination segment of the network

A C C to K D F

LAN 1
C to K

B E

Bridge

G L
C to K C to K

LAN 2

H I J K

Fig 8: Bridge
In above figure, the packet generated by computer C is intended for
computer K. The bridge allows the packet to cross and relay it to the entire
lower segment where it is received by computer K. IF a packet is destined on
a same segment (for example from computer A to computer F) the bridge will
block the packet from crossing into lower segment to reduce the traffic.

Internetworking

Router
Routers are used to connect separate networks. It makes the use of an internet
protocol and assumes that all the attached devices on the network use the same
communication architecture and protocol.

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Modern router can be used like bridges to connect multiple network segments
and filter traffic. Also, unlike bridges, routers can be used to connect two or more
independent networks.
For example a network X and Y with different internet protocol address (IP
Address) can interconnected so that users on each network can share resources
on the other network and still both network continue to function separately.
Brouters
Brouters combines the best of both bridges and routers. When brouters receive
packets that are routable, they will operate as a router by choosing the best path
for the packet and forwarding it to its destination. However, when a non-
routable packet is received, the brouter functions as a bridge, forwarding the
packet based on hardware address. To do this brouters maintain both bridging
table, which contains hardware address, and a routing table, which contains
network address.

Gateway
It’s a device that can be configured to provide access to wide area network or
Internet. Gateways operate in all seven layers of OSI model. A gateway is a
protocol converter. A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol
(e.g. AppleTalk) and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g.
TCP/IP) before forwarding it. It may be a computer configured to access the
Internet

Switches
Switches unlike the hub, they forward a packet of data directly on the address
node without broadcasting. It transmits the packet using the point to point
transmission as if they were linked by a direct cable between them. They are more
expensive than the hubs. Switching hubs are those hubs that incorporate the
switching mechanism.

Wireless communication devices

Access point (AP)

Used for wireless devices such as personal digital assistants, laptops and
computers with wireless links. This devices need to have an antennae in order to
detect signals in the surrounding. The signals may be radio waves, microwaves
or infrared waves in nature.

Personal computer memory card international association card (PCMCIA)

The PCMCIA is an add-on card inserted into a device such as a personal digital
assistant or a laptop in order to allow wireless communication between the
device and a wired network server.

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Read more on Wireless communication devices

C. Network software

They can be classified into two main groups namely

i. Network operating system
ii. Network protocol

Network Operating system

This refers to a suit of programs that generally manage a network by optimizing the
networked computers ability to respond to service requests

Functions of a network operating system

i. Making sharing of resources possible
ii. Transmitting data across the network
iii. Respond to request from application programs running on the network
iv. Enable nodes on the network to communicate with each other more
efficiently
v. Implement network security features
vi. Supporting services

Network operating system provides network management tools to the network

administrator. These tools can be used for the following
i. Secure the network against unauthorized access
ii. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network
iii. Ensure interoperability between various systems on the network
iv. Performance maintenance to ensure maximum throughput on the network

Examples of network operating system

i. Windows NT /2000 / 2003
ii. Unix
iii. Linux
iv. Novell netware

Protocols
Are set of rules and technical procedures that govern communication between two
different devices. Data transmission procedure is broken down into discrete systematic
steps. At each step , a certain action takes place and it has its own rules and procedures

Network protocols are designed after the open systems interconnections (OSI) model.
Which has seven layers each performing a distinct function as shown below?

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Table 3: The 7 layers of OSI model

layer Function Protocol (Read more Pg 33) Services

7 Application The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access Simple mail transfer
Layer the network. It provides user interface and support for services such as protocol(SMTP)File transfer
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer. protocol (FTP)
6 Presentation Is concerned with now the information to be exchanged. The presentation layer
Layer ensures interoperability among communicating devices. It is responsible for
code conversion (e.g. from ASCII to EBCDIC and vice versa), if required. The
The
presentation layer is also responsible for the encryption and decryption of data
Internetworking
for security purposes. It also handles the compression and expansion of data
Layers
when necessary for transmission efficiency.
5 Session Layer The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the link between communicating devices. It also ensures that each
session close appropriately rather than shutting down abruptly and leaving the
user hanging. It provides organization, synchronization and timing of the
exchange of the data between end systems.
4 Transport Layer The transport layer is responsible for source to destination (end to end) delivery Transmission control protocol
of the entire message to ensure reliability (Manages data transfer over a (TCP), Sequential packet
network to ensure reliability) exchange (SPX), NetBEUI, Apple
transaction protocol (ATP)
3 Network Layer The network layer provides addressing, routing and multiplexing services. It Internet protocol (IP) The
ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its destination Interconnection
Internet-work packets exchange
successfully and efficiently Layers
2 Data Link Layer Data link layer adds error-checking information and formats data for physical
transmission.
1 Physical Layer The physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit streams
over a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the primary connections, such as cables and connectors.

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TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks may be categorized into three distinct groups depending upon the
physical of geographical area that they cover.
These groups are: -
i. Metropolitan local area network(LAN)
ii. Are network (MAN) and
iii. Wide area network (WAN).

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers in a limited
geographical area, such as a school computer laboratory, office, or group of
buildings. Two popular types of LANs are peer-to-peer networks and
client/server networks.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be
a single network such as a cable television network, or it may be a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be
shared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-to-device.

A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may be

a service provided by a public company, such as a local telephone company.
Many telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called Switched
Multi-megabit Data Services (SMDS).

Wide Area Network

A wide are network provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image,
and video information over a large geographical area that may comprises a
country, a continent or even the whole world.

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NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
What is a Topology?
Network topology specifically refers to the physical arrangement of the network,
specially the location of the computers, other devices and how the cables are run
between them.

Network topologies can be viewed in two ways namely

i. Logical /signal topology
Deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the network.
Examples of Logical topologies are Ethernet and token ring
Ethernet topology
All the computers listen to the network media and can only send data
when none of the others is sending
Token ring topology
A special package for data called token goes around the network and
only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will
take up the token to read the data then releases the token. The token can
then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit data
ii. Physical topology
Refers to the physical layout arrangement of components on the network. The
most common physical topologies are the bus, the star, the ring and the mesh.

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1. Bus Topology

How a Bus topology Works

All the devices are connected to a single central cable. Only one computer can send a
message at a time. All the computers on the network receive the information, but only
the one with the address that matches the one encoded in the message accepts the
information.

Without termination, when the signal reaches the end of the wire, it bounces back and
travels back up the wire. When a signal echoes back and forth along the un-terminated
bus, it is called ringing. To stop the signals from ringing, terminators are attached at
either end of the cable. The terminator absorbs the signals and stops the ringing

Terminator

Computer Computer Computer

Computer Bus Computer Computer

Fig 9: Bus topology

Advantages of Bus
i. The bus is simple, reliable in very small network, and easy to use.
ii. The bus requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers
together and is therefore less expensive than other cabling
arrangements.
iii. It is easy to extend a bus. Two cables can be joined into one longer
cable with a BNC barrel connector, making a longer cable and
allowing more computers to jinn the network.

Disadvantages of Bus
i. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
ii. A break in the cable or lake of proper termination can bring the
network down.
iii. It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus.
Bus topology is appropriate in following situation:

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i) The network is small

ii) The network will not be frequently reconfigured.
iii) The least expensive solution is required.
iv) The network is not expected to grow much

2. Star Topology
In a star topology, all the devices are connected to a central hub.

How a Star Network Works

Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends
the message either to all the computers (in a broadcast star network) or only to the
destination computer (in a switched star network).

Computer

Server
HUB
Hub
Computer

Computer

Computer Computer

Fig 10: Star topology

Advantages of the Star

i. It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without
disturbing the
ii. Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole star
network.
iii. Several types of cable can be used in the same network with a hybrid hub.
iv. When the capacity of the central hub is exceeded, it can be replaced with
one that has a larger number of ports to plug lines into (or multiple hubs
can be connected together to extend the number of ports)
v. The centre of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults.
Intelligent hubs (hubs with microprocessors that implement features in
addition to repeating network signals) also provide for centralised
monitoring and management of the network.

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Disadvantages of Star
1. If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
2. It cost more to cable a star network.

Star topology is appropriate in following situation:

1. It must be easy to add or remove client computer.
2. It must be easy to troubleshoot.
3. The network is large.
4. The network is expected to grow in the future.

3. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each computer is connected directly to the next computer in
line, forming a circle of cable. It uses token to pass the information from one
computer to another.

How a Ring Network Works

Every computer is connected to the next compute in the ring, and each
retransmit what it receives from the previous computer. The message flow
around the ring in one direction
If a computer has information to send, it modifies the token, adds address
information and the data and sends it down the ring. The information travels
around the ring until it either reaches its destination or returns to the sender.

Computer

Computer
Computer

Computer Computer

Fig 11: Ring topology

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When the intended destination computer receives the packet, it returns a

message to the sender including its arrival. A new token is then created by the
sender and sent down the ring, allowing another station to capture the token and
begin transmission.

Advantages of Ring
1. All the computers have equal access to the network.
2. Even with many users, network performance is even
3. Allows error checking, and acknowledgement.

Disadvantages of Ring
1. Failure of one computer can affect the whole network.
2. It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
3. Adding or removing computers disturbs the network.
Ring Topology is Appropriate in Following Situation:
i. The network must operate reasonably under a heavy load
ii. A higher-speed network is required.
iii. The network will not be frequently reconfigured.

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Introduction to Networking and data communication

4. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every
other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between
the two devices it connects.

Computer

Computer Computer

Computer
Computer

Fig 12: Mesh topology

Advantages of Mesh
i. Because of the dedicated link, no traffic between computers.
ii. Failures of one node computer not affect rest of the network.
iii. Because of the dedicated link privacy and security are guaranteed
iv. Point to point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh
i. Due to the amount of cabling and number of input output ports, it is
expensive.
ii. Large space is required to run the cables.
iii. Installation and reconfiguration are difficult.
When a Mesh Appropriates to Use
i. Direct transmission is required for privacy reason
ii. Need to have dedicated lint for fast transmission.

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Introduction to Networking and data communication

5. Tree / hierarchical topology

All the nodes are connected in form of a tree with nodes as leaves and link as
branches. The transmission media is a branching cable with no closed loop. The
branches in turn can have more sub branches. Branches are connected to each
other by a hub

Advantages
i. If the workstations below the main workstation fails the entire network
does not fail

Disadvantages
i. If the top node fails the entire network fails because it controls all the
other nodes
ii. Installation is expensive and complex

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