Evena person withouta background in physics hasa collection of words that can be used to

describe moving objects. Words and phrases such as going fast, stopped, slowing
down, speeding up, and turning providea sufficient vocabulary for describing the motion of
objects. In physics, we use these words and many more. We will be expanding upon this
vocabulary list with words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
and acceleration. As we will soon see, these words are associated with physical quantities
that have different definitions. The physical quantities that are used to describe the motion of
objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is eithera vector ora scalar.

Scalai Quantities:
All those physical quantities which can be specified by a magnitude anda proper unit are
known as"Scalar Quantities".
Scalar quantities do not need direction for their description. Scalar quantities are added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules of algebra.
Examples:
Work, electric flux, volume, viscosity, density, power, temperature and electric charge etc.
S'ectois Qllantities:
All those physical quantities having both magnitude and direction with proper unit and
also obeys the Vector Algebra are known as"Vector Quantities".
We can not specifya vector quantity without mention its direction.
Examples:
Displacement, Velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, etc.

Representation of Vcctoi i:
Vector quantities can be represented in two ways
H Analytical Or Symbolic representation
H Graphical representation

Analy'tical Oi Symbolic representation:

In analytical method vectors are denoted bya letter with arrow or bold letters such as:
A,B , or a, b, A,C
Graphical representation:
In graphical method vectors are denoted by a line
segment with arrow, the starting point of line is called
tail and the ending point of line having arrow is known
as head of vector. The length of line showing the
magnitude ofgiven vector as shown infigure2.l
Tail

Fig: 2.1 Rei›resentatioii of‘ vectoi

Addition of vectors by Head to J“ail method
(Graphical Method):
Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of
the easiest methods used to find the resultant vector
of two of more than two vectors.
Consider two vectorsA andB acting in the directions “
as shown infigure 2.2:
Head to tail rule isa method of vector addition in
which tail of second vector is connected by head of
first vector. All vectors are connected in this way.
Finally, from tail of first vector to the head of last Fig: 2.2
vector we will drawa vector called resultant vector. Addition of sectors A anclD

Mathematically forresultant vector ‘R’

OB —— OA + AB
R ——A + B ......(2.1)
Addition of ¥’cctors:
Pi *l*C”^eS (If vectoi aclclition:

Commutative law ofvector addition:

Consider two vectorsA and B . Let these two vectors
represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. We
constructa parallelogram
OACB asshown inthediagram. The diagonal OC represents
the resultant vector R.
R ——A -I-B
R ——B -I-A
Therefore Fig: 2.3
A + B ——B + A ......(2.2)
This fact is referred to as the commutative law of vector addition. it shows that the order in
which vectors are added hasno physical significance as shown
infigure 2.3.

Associative law of vector atldition:

The law states that the sum of vectors remains same irrespective
of their order or grouping in which they are arranged.
Consider three vectors A,B andC
Applying "head to tail rule" to obtain the resultant of (A -1- B)
and (B -1- C) Then finally again find the resultant of these three
vectors:
 OJt = OP + PR Or
R ——A -I- (B -1- C)
and
on — oq + qn
R —— (A -i- B) -i-C
Thus from eq.(i) and (ii)
A -1- (B -1- C) = (A -I- B) -i-C ...... (2.3)
This fact is known astheAssociative Law of Vector Addition as shown infigure 2.4.
Nlagnitude of resultant vector:
Magnitude orresultant vector can be determined by using either Cosine law or Sine law.

Resultant by cosine law ft = 2 + B 2ABcos< AB ...... (2.4)

Resultant by sine law ...... (2.5)

Multiplication and division of vector by number:

A vector can be multiplied and divided bya number using simple algebraic rules. In case of
multiplication/division by positive number (non zero) only changes the magnitude of given
vector. If number is negative then the change comes inthedirection of vector also as shown in
figure 2.5 (a) and (b).

When multiplied by When multiplied by

a positive number a negative number The product ofa vectorP by a scalar
quantity (m) follows the following
rules:
V (m) P = P (m) ... commutative law
of multiplication.
—2V m(nd) = (mn)P ... associative law
of multiplication.
Figure 2.5 (a) and (b): multiplication of’ (m + n) V —— m V -F
vector by positive ancl negative numbei n Y ... distributive law of
multiplication.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What happens tothedirection ofa vector when it undergoes scalar multiplication?
2. If vector A has components (3, -2) and vectorB has components (-1, 5), what arethe
components ofA + B?
 Cai iesialt cooi dinatc sJstein:
Cartesian coordinate system isa set of three mutually perpendicular lines (X-axis, Y-axis
and Z-axis) with common initial point called origin used to find out location of any point
as shown infigure 2.6. I
Such as you arepresenting data ona line graph, or
simply
finding the location of a car park on a map ofa
National Park, you will need tohave an understanding a,
of coordinates.
There are many coordinate systems among them e
Cartesian or Rectangular coordinate system is one of Fig: 2.6 Cni tesian cooi dinates
most used and easy tounderstand.
Ina rectangular coordinate system, vectors can be classified into different types based on their
characteristics and properties. Here aresome commonly defined types of vectors in relation to
a rectangular coordinate system:
Unit vector:
"A unit vector is defined asa vector in any specified
direction whose magnitude is unity i.e. 1. A unit vector Equal Vectors
only specifies the direction ofa given vector." Two vectors are considered equal
A unit vector can be determined by dividing the vector by ifthey have thesame magnitude
its magnitude. and direction
For example, unit vector ofa vector A is given by:
A A —+
A
(2.6) B

The symbol is usuallya lowercase letter witha "hat/ cap/

circumflex", such as:

(Pronounced "a-hat")
In three dimensional coordinate system unit
vectors (t ,j,k ) having the direction of the positive X-
axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are used as unit vectors. These
unit vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other as
shown infig: 2.7. Fig: 2.7 Unit vectors i, j,k
Free vectoi:
A free vector can be moved ortranslated without changing its
essential characteristics, such as magnitude and direction.
It is represented by an arrow and is not attached to any specific
point in space. Considera free vectorA changing its position in
XYZ plane without changing its direction and magnitude is an A free vector
example of free vector as shown infig: 2.8
Fig: 2.8 free vector
Position vector:
A Vector that indicates the position ofa point ina coordinate
system is referred to as position vector.
Suppose we have a fixed reference point O, then we can
specify the position the position ofa given pointP with respect
to pointO by means of a vector having magnitude and
direction represented bya directed line segment OP, this O (o, o, o)
vector is called position vector and represented by r as Fig: 2.9 position vector
shown infigure 2.9.

These are some of the types of vectors commonly XHOF

encountered in a rectangular coordinate system.
Understanding these types and their properties can be two
vector equal in magnitude but
helpful in various mathematical and physical applications opposite in direction are known as
involving vectors. negative vector of each other.

Resoltltioit of vector:
The process of splittinga vector into rectangular A —A
components is called "RESOLUTION OF VECTOR"
We canresolvea vector into three components. Such as
x-component, y-component, z-component along the £t null vector isa resultant vector
three axis of coordinates system respectively. of two equal vectors acting in
These components are called rectangular components of opposite directions.
vector. O ——A -\- (—A) —— |0I

ñlethotl ofi esolvinga vector intoi ectangulai coirqninents:

Considera vectorK acting ata point making an angle8 with positive X axis. VectorK is
represented bya line OA as shown infig: 2.10. From point A drawa perpendicular AB on X-
axis. Suppose OB and BA represents two vectors. Vector OA is parallel to X-axis and vector
BA is parallel to Y-axis. Magnitude of these vectors are Vx and Vy Respectively. By the
method ofhead totail we notice that the sum of these vectors is equal to vector K.
Thus V, and by aretherectangular components of vector P
x' Horizontal component ofK along x-axis
Vy ' Vertical component ofK along y-axis

Vi
Fig: 2.10
Magnitude ofhorizontal component
Consider right angled triangle
OB
Cos 8 ——
OA
OB —— OA Cos 8

Magnitude of›'ertical component

Consider right angled triangle
BA
Sin8 ——
OA
BA —— OA S/ti8
Pg = P Sin 8

Direction of tlte ¥'ector

BA
8 =
OB

tdtlition ofi eetors by rectangular components inethoil:

Consider two vectors * and <2 making angles 8iand 82 with we x-axis respectively.

Fig: 2.11 (b)

Resolve vector KJ into two rectangular
I v‹y
components UJg andK as shown infig: 2.11 (c).
Magnitude of these components are:

Fig: 2.11 (C)

Resolve vector <2 into two rectangular components **2. and <2, as shown infigure 2.11(c)
Magnitude ofthese components are:

2y ' 2 Citi82
Now move vector KJ parallel to itself so that its initial point (tail) lies on the terminal point
(head) of vector >i as shown intheFig: 2.11 (c).
Representative lines of KJ and <2 are OA and OB respectively. JoinO andB which is equal to
resultant vector of PJ and **2

Resultant vector along X-axis can be determined as:

OD — OC -F CD
OD —— OC + AE CD —— AE

' 1 COS 1 + z Cos 8 ......(2.7)

Resultant vector along Y-axis can be determined as:
DB — CA -F EB
OD —— DE + EB CA —— DE

Now we will determine the magnitude of resultant vector by using the Pythagoras’ theorem.
ffypofienous2 = Bnse2 + Perpendicular2

**= (Ti Cos & + z Cos 82)* -1- (KJ Sin & + PJ Sin 82)'......(2.9)
Finally the direction of resultant vector will be determined.
Again intheright angled triangle < D OB:
B
tart < DOB —— ‘

tan
< DOB —— tnn8 = p’

8 Inn*'(—’) ......(2.10)
Where8 is the angle that the resultant vector makes with the positive X-axis. In this way we
can add a number of vectors ina very easy manner. This method is known as addition of
vectors by rectangular components method.
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Definea unit vector and its significance in vector representation.
2. What isa position vector, and how is it used inCartesian coordinates?

Proiluct of’ two vectors:

There aretwo types of vector product which can be classified as
P Scalar product Dot product)
4 Pecfor product (Cross product).

Scalar or dot product:

The scalar product of two vectorsA and B is written as A.B and is defined as,
“When two parallel vectors are multiplied, their resultant
quantity will bea scalar, this is called scalar or dot product.”
A.B —— AB cos B......(2.11)
Where A andB arethemagnitudes of vectors A and B and 8 is the
angle between them.
For physical interpretation of dot product of two vectors A and B,
these are first brought toa common origin.
Then, A.B —— (A) projectionof B on A)
As shown infig: 2.12. Fig: 2.12
A.B A (magnitudeof componentof B inthedirectionof A)
A.B ——A (B cos 8) —— AB cos 8
Similarly B.A —— B (A cos f) BA cos 8
We come across this type of product when we consider the work done bya forceF whose
point of application movesa distanced ina direction making an angle8 with the line of action
of F, as shown infig: 2.13.
F
Work done —— Forcex Displacement
lVork done = Fd cos8
F.d —— Fd cos 8 —— work done
Where& is the angle betweenF andd
Figure 2.13
Worked Eaample 2.1
C liaracteristics ot“ scalar product:
A.B —— AB cos 8
B.A —— BA cos 8
lt can be used to find the angle between two vectors.
A.B —— B.A
The order of multiplication is irrelevant. In other words scalar product is commutative.
The scalar product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero, hence thèse vectors
are also called as Orthogonal vectors.
A.B —— CB cos900 = 0 since cos9OO 0 as shown infig:2.14
In case of unit vectorsî ,) and k, since they are mutually perpendicular, therefore,
i .j = j .k —— k .i = 0
The scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the
product of their magnitudes. Thus, for parallel vectors
(8 = 00)
A.B —— AB coso’ —— ABsince cosOO —— 1
In case of unit vectors
i.i = j.j —— k.k —— 1
And for antiparallel vectors (8 = 1800)
A.B —— CB cos 1800 = — CB since cos0° —— —1
The self-product ofa vector A is equal to square of its magnitude.
A.A —— AA cosOO ——A2
Scalar product of two vectors A andB in terms of their rectangular components
A•B —— (A i + Af + A k)• (B + Bye+ By k)
A.B —— AqB + AqB + AqB
Vector or cross product:
The vector product of two vectors A and B, isa vector
which is defined as
“When twoperpendicular vectors are multiplied, their
resultant quantity will bea vector, this is called vector
or cross product.”
A x B —— AB sin8Û ......(2.12)
Where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane Counter clockwise
containing A and B as shown in fig: 2.15. its direction
can be determined by right hand rule. For that purpose, R
A
place together, the tails of vectorsA and B to define the
plane of vectors A and B. the direction of the product B
vector is perpendicular to this plane. Rotate the first
vector A intoB through the smaller of the two possible
angles and curl the fingers of the right hand in the Fig: 2.15
direction of rotation, keeping the thumb upright. The direction of the product vector will be
along the upright thumb, as shown inthefig: 2.15. because of this direction rule,B x A isa
vector opposite in sign to A xB as shown infig: 2.16. Hence,

Fig: 2.16 (a) and (b)

Characteristics of cioss protlllct:
Since A xB is not the same asB x A, thecross product is non-commutative.
A B —— — B A
The vector product is associative i.e. if m isa scalar, then
(m A) x B —— A x (m B)
—— m (A x B)
Vector product is distributive over the addition i.e.
A (B + C) ——A B + B C
(A B) -I- C — A C + B C
The cross product of two perpendicular vectors has maximum magnitude
A x B —— AB sin900 n sincesiri900 = 1
—— AB ñ
The cross product of two parallel vectors is null vector, because forsuch vectors
8 = 00 or1800.hence
A z B —— AB sinOO ti sin00 = 0, sinl80' = 0
A x B —— AB sin 1800 ri
A B —— 0
As a consequence
A x A —— 0
Also
i xi = J xj = k xk —— 0
In case of unit vectors, since they forma right handed system and are mutually
perpendicular.
i x jq —— fig,

E x r = y
Cross product of two vectors A andB in terms of their rectangular components is:
A x B —— (Cgi -I- Aq j -F Aq k) X (ByI + By + By lJ)
A x B —— (Ay By A By) I + (A By - A By) -I- (A By fiyB) k
Cross product or vector product can be written as,
The magnitude ofA x B is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed with A andB as two adjacent Ft,:2.17 ci oss product ofAx B
sides as shown infig: 2.17.

Examples ofvector product:

Whena forceF is applied ona rigid body ata point whose
position vector isr from any point of the axis about which
thebody rotates, then the turning effect of the force, called
the torque
r ——r z ’F
Lets consider the Force of 5N is acts perpendicularly on
edge of door to open it, the distance from the axis is 2m.
calculate the torque produced.
v = 2m x 5N
z = 10Nm
Theforce on a particle of chargeq and velocity v ina Fig: 2.18
magnetic field of strengthB is given by vector product.
F —— q(v z B)

Position ectoi Or Displacement› ectoi.

A vectorr which is directed towards the pointP in
rectangular coordinate system is known asposition or .t(n›)
displacement vector. The position vector can be written 1 2 —1 II 1 i 'i
in terms of its components as shown infig:2.18.
r —— rzi+ ryj+ r,k

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. If two vectorsA andB are parallel to each other, what is the value of their cross product?
2. If vector A has components (2, -3, 5) and vectorB has components (-1, 4, 2), what is their
dot product A B?

Stieecl aitd ›elocitj.

Speed isa measurement of how fast an object moves relative toa reference point. It does not
havea direction and is considereda magnitude or scalar quantity. So we can also consider the
speed as the magnitude of velocity. Speed can be figured by the formula:
Speed = Distance/Time
 or
s = d/t
The direction of V„ is the same as thedisplacement
Ar. Two dimensions
The standard unit for speed is m/s. theposition of an object is
described by its position
Dimensional formula of speed is [LT 1].
vector r(I) always points
f ferent types of speed Such as:
There aredi to particle from origin.
Average spced: Displacement can be
The average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the e£tS
" d i'
S

magnitude of the average velocity overa given interval of time. ' 2 1

The two are equal only if the path length is equal to the = >'— FJ
magnitude of thedisplacement.

Unifoi m Speed:
Ifan object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time than
the speed of the moving object is called uniform speed. In this
type of motion, position —time graph is alwaysa straight line.

I nstantaneoiis speed:
Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at any particular
moment intime. It is different from average speed because average speed is the total distance
divided by total time.
In this measurement, thetime At—›0.

v = lim
0
Instantaneous speed ' ......(2.13)

X c]ocitj.
When an object is in motion, its position changes with time. But how fast is the position
changing with time and in what direction? To describe this, we define the quantity average
velocity. Average velocity is defined as the change in position or displacement (Ax) divided
by the time intervals (At), in which thedisplacement occurs:

The rate of change of displacement of an object ina particular direction with respect to time is
called velocity.
Velocity =Displacement /Time
Velocity isa vector quantity its SI unit is meter per second (mls). Its dimensional formula is
[L T -IQ

Displacement-time graphs:
In physics graph is very powerful tool to find out the visually relation between two quantities.
Displacement-time graphs show how thedisplacement ofa moving object changes with time
as shown inFig: 2.19.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.19 (a)Zero velocity (b) Uniform velocity (c) Variable velocitv

Avei a•pe velocity:

It is the total displacement covered bya body divided by
total time taken as the graph of average velocity given in
the fig:2.20 (a) and (b).
If the instantaneous velocity ofa body becomes
equal to the average velocity, then body is said to
be moving with uniform velocity.
Mathematically average velocity ofa body can be
written as:
4 r
Average velocity V p t

ix .- k y
i +

Instantaneous velocity is the speed of an object at any

particular moment intime. In this measurement, the time
At—+0. v is tangent to the path in x-y graph;

br dr
v + limv — 1 ......(2.14)
t—r0 ° * ' Ar dt Fig: 2.20 (b)
p dr dx$+ dy ’. *’.
’x'’y
dt dt dt
 Worked Example 2.2
A turtle starts at the origin and moves with the speed ofv0=10 cm/s in the direction of 25° to
the horizontal.
(a) Find thecoordinates ofa turtle 10 seconds later.
(b) How far did the turtle walk in 10 seconds?

(a) (a)
Step 1: you can solve the equations independently for the horizontal (x) and vertical (y)
components ofmotion and then combine them!

X components:
v0 vo cos 25 = 9.06 cm/s Ar = v0 / = 90.6 cm
Y components:
v0 = v0 sin 25‘ = 4.23 cm/s A y —— v0 —— 42.3 cm
Step 2:
Distance from theorigin:
d —— + = 100.0 cm
Accclci ati‹in:
Acceleration can be defined as the change invelocity with respect to time.
Acceleration = Change invelocity /time taken
It isa vector quantity, Its SI unit is meter/ sec2 (m/s2).
< Its dimension is [L T 2].
It may be positive, negative or zero.
Positive Acceleration:
If the velocity of an object increases with time, its
acceleration is positive.

Negative Acceleration:
If the velocity of an object decreases with time, its
acceleration is negative. The negative acceleration is also
called retardation or deceleration graph of retardation is
given in the fig: 2.21. Fig: 2.21
 (i) Uniform acceleration: A body is said to have uniform acceleration if magnitude and
direction of the acceleration remains constant during particle motion.
Note: Ifa particle is moving with uniform acceleration, this does not necessarily imply
that particle is moving instraight line. e.g. Projectile motion.
(ii) Non-unifoi m acceleration: A body is said to have non-uniform acceleration, if
magnitude or direction or both, change during motion.
Average & Instantaneous .Acceleration:
Average acceleration:
The direction of average acceleration vector is the direction of the change invelocity vector as
kv
a „,p

Instantaneous acceleration:
bv dv,+ dVp
avg =liri»—=—
O dt dt dt dt
Instantaneous acceleration is defined as. The ratio of change in velocity duringa given time
interval such that the time interval goes to zero.
The magnitude of thevelocity (the speed) can change
The direction of the velocity can change, even though themagnitude is constant
Both themagnitude and thedirection can change
On Vx — t graph theslope of the tangent is the instantaneous acceleration fora particle.

Equations of hlotion For Uniform Acceleration:

Every motion can be described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time.
The relations between these quantities are known as theequations of motion. In case of
uniform acceleration, there are three equations of motion. Hence, these equations are used to
derive the components like displacement(s), velocity (initial and final), time(t) and
acceleration(a). Therefore they can only be applied when acceleration is constant and motion
is ina straight line. The three equations are,

Where displacement (s), initial velocity( U;), final velocity( Vf), acceleration (n) and time (t).

- Equations of kinematics are valid for uniform acceleration.

Derivation of Equation of Motion:
The equations of motion can be derived using the following methods:
Derivation of equations ofmotion by Simple Algebraic Method
Derivation of equations ofMotion by Graphical Method
Intheprevious classes you have learn to derive these equation by algebraic methods, In this
sections, the equations of motion arederived by graphical method

Derivation of First Equation of Motion by Graphical Method:

The first equation of motion can be derived usinga velocity-time graph fora moving object
with an initial velocity of u, final velocity v, and
acceleration a.
In the figure 2.22,
The velocity of the body changes from A toB in
timet ata uniform rate.
BC is the final velocity and OC is the total time t.
A perpendicular is drawn fromB toOC,a parallel
line is drawn from A toD, and another
perpendicular is drawn fromB toOE (represented
Fig: 2.22
by dotted lines).
Foffowitip details are obtained from thegraph above:
The initial velocity of the body, u = OA
The final velocityof the body,r = BC
From fihe graph, we know that
BC —— BD + DC
Therefore, v —— BD + DC
v —— BD -I- OA (since DC —— OA)
Firmly,
v = BD + u (since OF —— u) ... ... ... .... (i)
Now, since the slopeof a velocity — time graph is equal to acceleration a,
So,
a —— slope o/ fine AB
a —— BD/AD
Sinre AD —— AC —— t, the above equation becomes:
BD —— at .. . .. (ii)
Now, combinin,Q Equation (i)& (ii), the foffowittp is obtained:
r = u -1- at
Derivation of Second Equation of Motion by Graphical Method
From thefig: 2.23, we can say that
Distance travelled {s) —— Areaof /ipure OABC
—— Areaof triangle ABD + Areaof rectangle OADC
s —— (l j'2ABz BD) + (OA x OC)
Since BD —— EA, the nboUe equation becomes
s —— (l/2ABz EA)+ {u z t)
As EA —— nf, the eqttation becomes becauseV
—— at; EA represent the velocity (K)
s —— 1/2 x at x t -1- ut
by renrrnnpinp, the equation becomes
s —— ut -1- 1/2nt°
Fig: 2.23
Derivation of Third Equation of Nlotion by Gi aphical Method
From thefig: 2.24, we can say that The total distance travelled,s is given by the Area of
trapezium OABC.
Hence,

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. If the displacement-time graph isa straight line, what does it indicate about the object's
motion?
2. What does thearea undera velocity-time graph represent?
 Worked Example 2.3
A Car with an initial speed of1 m/sec was in motion for 10 minutes, and then it came toa
stop, the velocity right before it stopped was 5 m/sec. What was theconstant acceleration of
the car?

Solution:
Step 1: Write the known quantities and point out quantities to be found.
/nifinf Velocity = 1 m/sec
Finnf Pefocify = 5 m/sec
Time forwhich thecarwas inmotion = 10 mint
Acceleration =?

Step 2: Write the formula and rearrange ifnecessary

Using First equation of motion,
v = u -1- at

Step 3: Put thevalue in formula and calculate

5 = 1 -J- a x (10 x 60)
a x 600 = 4
a = 4/600
a = 0.0066 m/sec*

Worked Example 2.4

A cycle covered2 km in8 minutes and the initial velocity of the cycle was 1 m/sec. Find
the acceleration that the cycle had in its motion.

Solution:
Step 1: Write the known quantities and point out quantities to be found.
Displacement covered = 2km
Total Time Taken = 8minutes = 8 x 60 = 480 seconds.
Initial Velocity = 1 m/sec
Using Second equation ofmotion tofind the acceleration of the cycle,

Step 2: Write the formula and rearrange ifnecessary

Second Equation of motion,S = ut -1- 1/2(at2)

Step 3: Put thevalue in formula and calculate

2000 = 1 x 480 -I- 1/2(a x 4802)
2000 = 480 -1- 115200a
 Pio jcctile SJotion:
In this universe we see different objects motion in different dimensions, some aremoving
alonga linear path, likea car travelling alonga rectilinear path and some aremoving alonga
circular path/track. Ifa cricketer hitsa ball which is placed on the ground, this ball will follow
a curved path and will hit the ground, also ifa missile is fired
then we see it will always followa curved path which arethe
examples of two dimensional motion. In this section we will be
able to know theanswers of these questions that what affects
the motion of bodies which is responsible for the curved Path
motion ofbodies.
Projectile motion:
The motion of an object ina plane under the influence
of force of gravity of earth.
Gravitational force of earth is responsible for the
Projectile motion and the curved path followed by a
projectile is called its trajectory.
Assulnptions for piojectile motion:
It is easy to analyze the projectile motion if following
assumptions are in consider: FÎg' 2.25
1. The value of acceleration due to gravity is considered as constant throughout the
projectile motion and it is always directed downwards.
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.
3. Projectile motion is not affected due to rotation of an earth.

Average› elocitji ector:

The red ball is dropped at the same time that the yellow ball is fired horizontally as shown in
fig: 2.25. Photos are separated by equal time intervals, At. At any time the two balls have the
same: y,. The yellow ball has equal Ar, and v during each time Af. Projectile motion is
analyzed to two motions: horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical motion with
constant acceleration
l“licx and j mt›tion iii pi ojectile motion:
The motion of body inx,y plan is shown infig: 2.26
. i i ’ Ii› › i'I II ie i i.i c c t '.' ! ’.. 1 ie › r• i c c i i 1.w 1i .i °. z u I ‹ i '- c': t ! <“ .i1
 ax = 0
Horizontal Vertical

a,2
2
x — x0 -• . + 1
2 r —
1
y0 ' V0 y'+ 2 ay
2
+ 2a,(x — x0)

vo is constant. Vo. ' 0 COS 0 .....(2.16)

vow changes continuously. +0y' V0Sin80 ......(2.17)

After considering all the conditions the Equations will be

x——•0+ ›.* y——y +v,'— 2

Time taken by projectile to reach the maximum height:
If we considert is the time required to achieve the maximum height bya projectile then it can
be found by usinglst equation of motion.

0 =VoSin8 — gt
V Sin8 = gt

Total time of fiip•lit of projectile:

The time during which projectile remains in air is called its “Total time of flight” (T). from the
definition we know that total time of flight should be the sum of time requires to reach
maximum height •h and time required to hit back theground tg. So therefor

T — th -1- tg
•’• th ' t — t

T —— 2t VoSin8
2vOSin8
Thus T— -----(2.18) g
 Maximum heighti eached by the projectile:
The maximum vertical distance covered by the projectile is called maximum height. It is
denoted by ‘H’ the maximum height reached by the projectile can be found by using formula:

y t + 2— ayt
2
V y ' VoSinB
V Sin8 1 Vo SinB
H = VoSin8( g ) ( 8)
(

v sin28 v sin28
H =
2g
v§ sin2 8
H= 2g
......(2.19)

Range oftheprojectile:
The horizontal distance covered by the projectile between point of projection and point of
return to level of projection is called Range oftheprojectile and is represented by ‘R’ and can
be found by formula.
X ' oxT

Let's consider X = R ; Vox ' V Cos8

2vOsin8
and T-
g

After putting all these values Now

2VO Sin8
R =V Cos8
2 2 Sin8Cos8
R —— v( g ) 2SinB Cost = Sin28
2 S 28
R = ...(2.20)

Projectile ñlotion atX aiioiis Initial Angles:

From the mathematically relation of range we observe thatV and g are constants, so
maximum range of the projectile can be achieved only when Sin28 becomes maximum (Sin
28=1). as we know that Sin900 = 1; this relation shows that the maximum range can be
achieved only projectile will be launched at angle of 450.
Taking R = fi„,p, and 8 = 45°
 vO Sin2(450)
max '
O
VO Sin90

2
0
Rmax = ......(2.21)
} f)l)

Thus for the maximum horizontal range, "

the angle of projectile should be 45°. ‘'
Complementary values of the initial angle "'
result in the same range M i -.
The heights will be different The .' ', I
maximum range occurs ata projection
angle of 45° Fig: 2.27 range covered at dit‘l‘erent an plcs
The range of different projected bodies at different angle is shown infig:2.27.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. When anobject is projected horizontally, how does its vertical velocity change over time?
2. Can the range ofa projectile be increased by increasing its initial velocity? Explain your
answer.

Worked Example 2.5

A body is projected witha velocity of 20ms 1 at the angle of 50 degree to the horizontal plane.
Find the time of flight of the projectile.
Solution:
Step 1: Write theknown quantities and point out quantities to be found.
Initial Velocity Vo = 20ms*1
angle8 = 50°
g 9.8ms-2
Step 2: Write the formula and rearrange ifnecessary
Formula fortime offlight is,
2V Sin8
T=
g
Step 3: Put thevalue in formula and calculate
T = 2 x 20 x sin50°/9.8
T= 2 x 20x 0.766/9.8
T= 30.64/9.8
T = 3. 126 sec
Therefore time offlight is 3.126 second.