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Bulletin du Laboratoire 01 (2025) 01 - 10

A new upper bound for the coalition

number
Soumia KOUIDER AIAD1, *, Noureddine IKHLEF ESCHOUF2 ,
Azeddine BENKACI2 and Sadek BOUROUBI1
1
Laboratory L’IFORCE, Faculty of Mathematics,
University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene,
P.B. 32 El-Alia, 16111, Bab Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria.
2
Laboratory LMA, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
University of Médéa, Algeria.

[email protected] ,[email protected] ,
[email protected] ,
[email protected]

Abstract : A coalition partition of a graph G = (V, E) is a partition of its

vertex-set into k ≥ 1 subsets V1 , V2 , . . . , Vk such that each subset Vi is either
(i) a singleton dominating set or (ii) not a dominating set but Vi ∪ Vj forms a
dominating set for some other subset Vj . Such a partition is called a c-partition.
The coalition number of a graph G, denoted C(G), is the largest number of
subsets in a c-partition of G. In this paper, we establish a new upper bound
for C(G) and characterize all triangle-free graphs achieving this bound.
Keywords: Coalition; Coalition partition; Coalition number.
2020 Mathematics Subject Classification: 05C69.

* Corresponding author: Soumia Kouider Aiad

2 S. KOUIDER AIAD, N. IKHLEF ESCHOUF, A. BENKACI, S. BOUROUBI

1 Introduction
In this paper, we consider only graphs that are finite, undirected and simple. Let G =
(V, E) be a graph of order n = |V | . The complement of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph
G defined on the same vertex set V, where two vertices are adjacent in G if and only
if are not adjacent in G. For a non-empty set A ⊆ V, we denote by G\A the subgraph
induced by V \A. For a vertex v of G, the degree of v is the number of edges incident
to v. A vertex of degree n − 1 is called a full vertex, while a vertex with degree zero is
called an isolated vertex. If all vertices of G are isolated, we call G an empty graph, and
we denoted it by K n . The distance between two vertices u and v in a connected graph
G is the length of the shortest path between them. The diameter, denoted diam(G) of
a graph G is the maximum distance between any two vertices in G. The union of two
vertex-disjoint graphs G and H is the graph G + H whose vertex-set is V (G) ∪ V (H) and
edge-set is E(G) ∪ E(H). For a given graph H, a graph G is called H-free if G does not
contain H as an induced subgraph. A bipartite graph G is a graph whose vertex-set V can
be partitioned into two disjoint subsets V1 and V2 such that every edge in G connects a
vertex in V1 to a vertex in V2 . A vertex v in V1 (respectively, in V2 ) is called a charismatic
vertex if it is adjacent to every vertex in V2 (respectively, in V1 ). If all vertices in V1
and V2 are charismatic, G is a complete bipartite and is denoted by Kp,q , where |V1 | = p
and |V2 | = q. As usual, Kn , Pn and Cn denote the complete graph, path and cycle on n
vertices, respectively. For other notation and terminology not defined here we refer the
reader to [8, 21].
A set D ⊆ V in a graph G is called a dominating set of G if every vertex not in D has
at least one neighbor in D. The domination number γ(G) of a graph G is the minimum
cardinality of a dominating set in G. A dominating set of G with cardinality γ(G) is
called a γ-set of G. The concept of the domination in graphs has been studied extensively
and several research papers have been published on this topic. For a survey on this area,
we refer the reader to [12].
For a given graph G with vertex set V, two subsets V1 and V2 of V are said to form
a coalition in G if neither V1 nor V2 is a dominating set, but their union V1 ∪ V2 is a
dominating set. A coalition partition (c-partition for short) in G is a partition of its vertex-
set into k subsets V1 , V2 , . . . , Vk such that every set Vi is either a singleton dominating set,
or is not a dominating set but forms a coalition with another set Vj (j 6= i).
The coalition number of a graph G, denoted by C(G), is the maximum k such that G
admits a c-partition of cardianlity k. A c-partition of G with k = C(G) is called a C(G)-
partition.
The concept of c-partition was first introduced and studied by Haynes et al. in [13]. They
proved that every graph G admits a c-partition and, as a consequence, deduced that every
graph G of order n ≥ 1 satisfies the following:

1 ≤ C(G) ≤ n. (1)

They also determined the exact coalition numbers for paths and cycles in [13]. The same
authors defined in [15] the notion of coalition graph and provided additional results in
[14, 16, 17]. Further studies have explored the c-partition problem in certain specific
classes of graphs. For instance, Bakhshesh et al. [4, 6] in trees and Alikhani et al. [1, 9]
A new upper bound for the coalition number 3

in cubic graphs. Other results regarding coalition partition for other parameters have
been undertaken by Alikhani et al. for total coalition in [3] and for connected coalition
in [2, 11]; Samadzadeh et al. for independent coalition in [22] and for paired coalition in
[23]; Jafari et al. [18] for k-coalition; Mojdeh et al. for perfect coalition in [20] and for
edge coalition in [19]; Golmohammadi et al. [10] for strong coalition. Further works on
this topic can be found in [5, 7].
The main purpose of this paper is to propose a new upper bound for C(G) and characterize
all triangle-free graphs that attain this bound.

2 Preliminary Results
We start this section by giving an upper bound for the coalition number C(G) in terms
of n and γ(G).

Theorem 1 Let G be a graph with order n and domination number γ. Then

C(G) ≤ n − γ(G) + 2. (2)

This bound is sharp.

Proof. For the case γ(G) = 1, the result is obvious from (1). So, assume that γ(G) ≥ 2.
Therefore G has no full vertex. Set k = C(G) and let π = {V1 , V2 , . . . , Vk } be a C(G)-
partition of G. Then, we can write

n = |V1 | + |V2 | + · · · + |Vk | . (3)

Without loss of generality, assume that V1 and V2 form a coalition. Then |V1 |+|V2 | ≥ γ(G).
Combining this with (3), we obtain

n ≥ |V1 | + |V2 | + k − 2 ≥ γ(G) + k − 2. (4)

This completes the proof.

The inequality (2) is sharp, for instance, for K n , for Kp + Kn−p and for Kp + K n−p (with
2 ≤ p ≤ n − 1), although this is not the case for complete graphs and stars. As γ(G) ≥ p
when G has p components, the following result is immediate from Theorem 1.

Corollary 2 If G is a graph of order n with p ≥ 2 connected components, then

C(G) ≤ n − p + 2.

Proposition 3 Let G be a graph of order n, diameter diam(G), domination number γ

and with p connected components. If C(G) = n, then the following properties hold.

(i) γ(G) ≤ 2.

(ii) p ≤ 2, with equality if and only if G is the disjoint union of two complete graphs.
4 S. KOUIDER AIAD, N. IKHLEF ESCHOUF, A. BENKACI, S. BOUROUBI

(iii) If G is connected, then diam(G) ≤ 3.

Proof. (i) Follows from (2).

(ii) If p ≥ 3, then γ(G) ≥ 3, contradicting (i). Assume now that p = 2 and let G1 and
G2 be the two components of G. For each i in {1, 2}, let vi be any vertex in Gi . Since
C(G) = n, {v1 } form a coalition with some singleton set in G2 , say {v2 }. In this case,
vi must be adjacent to all the other vertices in Gi . Thus G1 and G2 both are complete
graphs.

iii) Suppose that d ≥ 4 and assume that v0 -v1 -· · · -vd be a diametral path in G. In this
case, the set {v2 } cannot form a coalition with any other singleton set, which contradicts
that C(G) = n.

3 Main result
Our aim result is the following.

Theorem 4 If G is a K3 -free graph with at least two vertices, then equality holds in (2)
if and only if G ∈ G ∪ H ∪ {C5 , K2 + K p (p ≥ 1), K n (n ≥ 2)}.

The proof of Theorem 4 relies on the following definitions and lemmas.

Definition 1 (Family G) A graph G is in class G if it is obtained from p ≥ 1 disjoint

stars, each with at least three vertices, by adding a new vertex and connecting it to all the
leaves of the stars, and possibly adding some isolated vertices. When G has no isolated
vertices, it must hold that p ≥ 2.

Definition 2 (Family H) A graph G is in class H if its vertex set can be partitioned

into two disjoint classes X1 and X2 such that:

ˆ G is bipartite with bipartition (X1 , X2 ), where |X1 | , |X2 | ≥ 2.

ˆ Every vertex in X1 (respectively, X2 ) has at most one non-neighbor in X2 (respec-

tively, X1 ).

ˆ If |X1 | =
6 |X2 | , then both X1 and X2 contain at least one charismatic vertex.

Remark that every member G of H is connected unless G is 2K2 . In addition, G has no

full vertex, implying that γ(G) ≥ 2. Since, there exists a vertex u in X1 and a vertex v in
X2 such that u and v together dominate all vertices in G, it follows that γ(G) = 2.

The Figure 1 shows an example of three graphs : one is in the family G and the others
are in the family H, along with their domination numbers.
A new upper bound for the coalition number 5

γ(G) = 4 γ(H1 ) = 2 γ(H2 ) = 2

Figure 1: Example of three graphs G ∈ G and H1 , H2 ∈ H with their domination numbers.

Lemma 5 Let G be a graph of order n ≥ 2 and domination number γ(G). If G is a

member of G ∪ H, then C(G) = n − γ(G) + 2.

Proof. From(2), it suffices to show that C(G) ≥ n − γ(G) + 2. If G ∈ H, then it

is straightforward to check that the partition of V (G) into n singleton substes is a c-
partition of G. Thus C(G) ≥ n = n − γ(G) + 2 (since γ(G) = 2 by the remark before
Lemma 5).
Assume now G ∈ G. Let D be a γ-set of G, and let I (possibly empty) denote the set
of isolated vertices in G, with q = |I| . Clearly I ⊆ D. For each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , p}, let ci
be the center of the i-th star, and let u be the vertex adjacent to all leaves of the p ≥ 1
stars. By definition of G, we have p + q ≥ 2. We first show that |D| = p + q + 1. Indeed,
to dominate all vertices of G, the minimality of D requires that D must include all center
vertices together with I and exactly one vertex among V (G)\(I ∪ {c1 , c2 , . . . , cp }). This
imples that |D| ≥ p + q + 1. To establish equality, we construct a dominating set D of
size p + q + 1 by taking all vertices of I, all the center vertices of the stars, and u. Thus
|D| ≤ p + q + 1 implying that

|D| = γ(G) = p + q + 1. (5)

Now, let S = {c1 , c2 , . . . , cp } ∪ I and let v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−(p+q) be the vertices of V (G)\S. It

is easy to check that {S, {v1 }, {v2 }, . . . , {vn−(p+q) }} is a c-partition of G with cardinality
n − (p + q) + 1. Therefore C(G) ≥ n − (p + q) + 1. Combining this with (5), we get the
desired result.
In both cases, we have shown that C(G) = n − γ(G) + 2.

Recall that a chord of a cycle is an edge joining two nonconsecutive vertices of the cycle.

Lemma 6 Let G be a graph. If γ(G) = 2, then G contains no odd cycle of length greater
than 5.

Proof. Suppose for the sake of contraction that G contains an odd cycle C : v1 -v2 -· · · -
v2q+1 -v1 (in this order) with q ≥ 3. Assume that C has minimum length among all odd
cycles of G. Observe that C has no chords, as otherwise, G would contain a smaller odd
cycle C 0 such that V (C 0 ) ⊂ V (C), which contradicts the choice of C. Let D = {x, y} be
a γ-set of G, and consider the following two cases.
6 S. KOUIDER AIAD, N. IKHLEF ESCHOUF, A. BENKACI, S. BOUROUBI

Case 1. One of x and y, say x lies on C.

Without loss of generality, we can let x = v1 . Since C has no chords, the neighbors of x
on C are exactly v2 and v2q+1 . Next, we consider two possibilities, depending on whether
y lies on C or not.

Possibility 1. y ∈ C. Similarly, y is adjacent to exactly two vertices of C. Thus D can

dominate at most 6 vertices on C (two vertices dominated by x and two by y, plus x and
y themselves). However, C contains 2q + 1 ≥ 7 vertices, meaning that D cannot dominate
all vertices of C, a contradiction.

Possibilty 2. y ∈
/ C. Since D is a γ-set of G, y must dominate all the remaining vertices
of C, in particular v3 and v4 . But then {y, v3 , v4 } induces a triangle, a contradiction.
Case 2. Neither x nor y lies on C.
Since D is a γ-set of G and C is odd, by the pigeonhole principle, one vertex in D, say x
must be adjacent to two consecutive vertices of C, meaning that x is adjacent to vi and
vi+1 for some i in {1, 2, . . . , 2q + 1}. But in this case, {x, vi , vi+1 } induces a triangle, a
contradiction.
In both cases, we have a contradiction and thus the required is done.

We are now ready to prove Theorem 4.

Proof of Theorem 4. The sufficiency is immediate for G ∈ {C5 , K2 + K p (p ≥ 1), K n

(n ≥ 2)}. Furthermore, if G is a member of G ∪ H, it follows directly from Lemma 5. To
establish the necessity, let G be traingle-free graph of order n ≥ 2 and set

k = n − γ(G) + 2. (6)

If k ≤ 3, then (6) yields γ(G) ∈ {n, n − 1} implying that G is isomorphic to K n or

K2 + K n−2 (n ≥ 3). So, assume that k ≥ 4 and let π = {V1 , V2 , . . . , Vk } be a c-partition
of G. If γ(G) = 1, then (6) becomes k = n + 1, contradicting (1). Thus γ(G) ≥ 2. Based
on this, we consider two cases.

Case 1. γ(G) ≥ 3.
Then n = k + γ(G) − 2 ≥ 5. Assume that |V1 | ≥ |Vi | for all i ≥ 2 and define two subsets
A and B of V (G) as follows:

ˆ A = {x ∈ V (G)\V1 : x has a neighbor in V1 },

ˆ B = V (G)\(V1 ∪ A).

Clearly V1 , A and B are pairwise disjoint sets and V (G) = V1 ∪ A ∪ B. Let I (possibly
empty) be the set of isolated vertices in G.

Claim 1.

(i) |Vi | = 1 for each i 6= 1, and |V1 | = γ(G) − 1 ≥ 2.

A new upper bound for the coalition number 7

(ii) For all i ≥ 2, Vi must necessarily form a coalition with V1 .

(iii) |B| = 1, A is a nonempty independent and further A ∪ B induces a star centered at

the unique vertex of B. As consequence, I ⊆ V1 .

(iv) V1 is an independent that contains I as a subset and V1 \I 6= ∅.

(v) Every vertex in V1 \I has at least two neighbors in A, and every vertex in A has
exactly one neighbor in V1 \I.

Proof of Claim 1. (i) Assume without loss of generality that V1 forms a coalition with V2 .
Clearly,
|V1 | + |V2 | ≥ γ(G). (7)
Suppose to the contrary that for some i0 ≥ 3, |Vi0 | ≥ 2. Using (7), we get:

|V1 | + |V2 | + |Vi0 | ≥ γ(G) + 2, (8)

which, combined with (3) implies that n ≥ γ(G) + k − 1, Contradicting (6). Hence,

|Vi | = 1 for each i ≥ 3. (9)

It remains to show that |V2 | = 1 and |V1 | = γ(G) − 1. Indeed, by (9) and (3), we have:

n = |V1 | + |V2 | + k − 2. (10)

Substituting k with n − γ(G) + 2 into (10), we get

|V1 | + |V2 | = γ(G). (11)

Suppose to the contrary |V2 | ≥ 2. Then by the choice of V1 and (11),

|V2 | ≤ |V1 | ≤ γ(G) − 2. (12)

Taking into account (9) together with (12) and the fact that γ(G) ≥ 3, we see that the
set Vi (for i ≥ 3) does not form a coalition with any other set in π, a contradiction. Thus
|V2 | = 1 and by (11), we have |V1 | = γ(G) − 1. As γ(G) ≥ 3, it follows that |V1 | ≥ 2.

(ii) Directly follows from (i) as γ(G) ≥ 3.

(iii) B 6= ∅, for otherwise V1 forms a dominating set with cardinality γ(G)−1, a contradic-
tion. Thus, pick b ∈ B. By (ii), {b} must form a coaltion with V1 . Therefore, since there
is no edge between V1 and B, it follows that {b} must dominate all the other vertices of
B. Combined with G being triangle-free, this implies that B is a clique with at most two
vertices.
In view of (i), we know that |π| = k = 1 + |A| + |B| . As |B| ≤ 2 and k ≥ 4, it
follows that A 6= ∅. Let a ∈ A. Using reasoning similar to that for b, we deduce that {a}
dominates all vertices of B. Hence there are all possible edges between A and B. If |B| ≥ 2,
then two adjacent vertices in B together with some vertex in A would induce a triangle,
contradicting the triangle-free property of G. Similarly, if A is not independent, then two
8 S. KOUIDER AIAD, N. IKHLEF ESCHOUF, A. BENKACI, S. BOUROUBI

adjacent vertices in A together with some vertex in B induce a triangle. Consequently,

A ∪ B induces a star centered at the unique vertex in B.

iv) From (i) and (iii), we can let v ∈ V1 and B = {b}. If v has a neighbor in V1 , then, by
considering (i) and (ii), the set (V1 \{v})∪{b} is a dominating set of cardinality γ(G)−1, a
contradiction. Hence V1 is an independent set. The definition of A implies that V1 \I 6= ∅.

v) As V1 is independent, every vertex in V1 \I must have at least one neighbor in A. Let

a ∈ A be a neighbor of v in A . If a is the only neighbor of v in A, then, by taking
(i) and (ii) into consideration, we see that the set (V1 \ {v}) ∪ {a} is a dominating set of
cardinality γ(G) − 1, a contradiction. Thus every vertex in V1 \I must have at least two
neighbors in A, which implies |A| ≥ 2.
Suppose now that a has another neighbor in V1 \I, say v 0 6= v. In this case, (V1 \ {v, v 0 }) ∪
{a, b} forms a dominating set of cardinality γ(G) − 1, a contradiction again. Thus every
vertex in A has exactly one neighbor in V1 \I. This finishes the proof of Claim 1.

By Claim 1, we see that |V1 | ≥ 2, |A| ≥ 2 and the subgraph induced by (V1 \I)∪A consists
of p ≥ 1 stars, each contains at least three vertices, with a center in V1 \I and leaves in
A. Furtheremore, the set B contains a single vertex that is adjacent to all the vertices in
A. From this, we conclude that G ∈ G.
Case 2. γ(G) = 2.
Then from (6), it follows that k = n ≥ 4, implying that each set in π is a singleton. If
G is disconnected, Proposition 3-(ii) and the fact that G is triangle-free with n ≥ 4 yield
G = 2K2 ∈ H. Now, asume that G is connected. If G = C5 , we are done. Thus, we may
assume that G 6= C5 . We assert that

G is bipartite. (13)

Suppose not, and let C be the shortest odd cycle in G, with vertex-set V (C) = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vt }
and edge-set E(C) = {v1 v2 , v2 v3 , . . . , vt−1 vt , vt v1 }. By Lemma 6 and the triangle-free prop-
erty of G, it follows that t = 5 and C is an induced cycle. Since G 6= C5 and G is connected,
there exists a vertex u ∈ V (G)\V (C) that is adjacent to some vertex in C, say v1 . As G is
triangle-free, u cannot be adjacent to v2 , v5 and to one of v3 , v4 (assume v3 without loss of
generality). Now, consider a set {w} in π that forms a coalition with {u}. Such a set must
dominate v2 , v5 and v3 . However, the set {w, v2 , v3 } induces a triangle, a contradiction.
Thus (13) holds.

By (13), we can write V (G) = X1 ∪ X2 , where X1 and X2 are the two parts of G. As G
is connected and has no full vertex, it follows that |X1 | ≥ 2 and |X2 | ≥ 2.

Claim 2. Every vertex in X1 has at most one non-neighbor in X2 and vice versa.
Moreover, if X1 6= X2 , then for each i ∈ {1, 2}, Xi contains at least one charismatic
vertex.

Proof of Claim 2. Suppose on the contrary that there exists j ∈ {1, 2} such that Xj
contains a vertex having two non-neighbors u, v ∈ X3−j . In this case neither {u} nor {v}
A new upper bound for the coalition number 9

can form a coalition with any other set in π, a contradiction. To prove the second part,
assume without loss of generality that |X1 | > |X2 | . For each i ∈ {1, 2}, define

Yi = {v ∈ Xi : v has exactly one non-neighbor in X3−i }.

Clearly |Y1 | = |Y2 | and therefore X1 \Y1 6= ∅. Hence X1 contains at least one charismatic
vertex. If X2 \Y2 = ∅, then any vertex in X1 \Y1 cannot form a coalition with any other
set in π, a contradiction. Thus X2 \Y2 6= ∅ implying that X2 contains at least one vertex
charismatic. This conclude the proof of Claim 2.
It follows from our preceding discussions that G is a member of the family H. This ends
the proof of Theorem 4.

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