Types of Variables in Research & Statistics | Examples

In statistical research, a variable is defined as an attribute of an object of study. Choosing which variables
to measure is central to good experimental design.

Example

If you want to test whether some plant species are more salt-tolerant than others, some key variables
you might measure include the amount of salt you add to the water, the species of plants being studied,
and variables related to plant health like growth and wilting.

You need to know which types of variables you are working with in order to choose
appropriate statistical tests and interpret the results of your study.

Types of data: Quantitative vs categorical variables

Data is a specific measurement of a variable – it is the value you record in your data sheet. Data is
generally divided into two categories:

 Quantitative data represents amounts

 Categorical data represents groupings

A variable that contains quantitative data is a quantitative variable; a variable that contains categorical
data is a categorical variable. Each of these types of variables can be broken down into further types.

Quantitative variables

When you collect quantitative data, the numbers you record represent real amounts that can be added,
subtracted, divided, etc. There are two types of quantitative variables: discrete and continuous.

Discrete vs continuous variables

Type of variable What does the data represent? Examples

Discrete variables (aka integer Counts of individual items or values.  Number of students in a class
variables)
 Number of different tree species
in a forest

Continuous variables (aka ratio Measurements of continuous or  Distance

variables) non-finite values.
 Volume

 Age

Categorical variables

Categorical variables represent groupings of some kind. They are sometimes recorded as numbers, but
the numbers represent categories rather than actual amounts of things.

There are three types of categorical variables: binary, nominal, and ordinal variables.
Binary vs nominal vs ordinal variables

Type of variable What does the data represent? Examples

Binary variables (aka Yes or no outcomes.  Heads/tails in a coin flip

dichotomous variables)
 Win/lose in a football game

Nominal variables Groups with no rank or order  Species names

between them.
 Colors

 Brands

Ordinal variables Groups that are ranked in a  Finishing place in a race

specific order.
 Rating scale responses in a
survey, such as Likert scales*

*Note that sometimes a variable can work as more than one type! An ordinal variable can also be used
as a quantitative variable if the scale is numeric and doesn’t need to be kept as discrete integers. For
example, star ratings on product reviews are ordinal (1 to 5 stars), but the average star rating is
quantitative.

Example data sheet

To keep track of your salt-tolerance experiment, you make a data sheet where you record information
about the variables in the experiment, like salt addition and plant health.

To gather information about plant responses over time, you can fill out the same data sheet every few
days until the end of the experiment. This example sheet is color-coded according to the type of
variable: nominal, continuous, ordinal, and binary.

Parts of the experiment: Independent vs dependent variables

Experiments are usually designed to find out what effect one variable has on another – in our example,
the effect of salt addition on plant growth.

You manipulate the independent variable (the one you think might be the cause) and then measure
the dependent variable (the one you think might be the effect) to find out what this effect might be.

You will probably also have variables that you hold constant (control variables) in order to focus on your
experimental treatment.

Independent vs dependent vs control variables

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

Independent variables (aka Variables you manipulate in order to The amount of salt added to each
treatment variables) affect the outcome of an experiment. plant’s water.

Dependent Variables that represent the outcome Any measurement of plant health and
Independent vs dependent vs control variables

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

variables (aka response of the experiment. growth: in this case, plant height and
variables) wilting.

Control variables Variables that are held constant The temperature and light in the room
throughout the experiment. the plants are kept in, and the volume
of water given to each plant.

Example data sheet

In this experiment, we have one independent and three dependent variables.

The other variables in the sheet can’t be classified as independent or dependent, but they do contain
data that you will need in order to interpret your dependent and independent variables.

What about correlational research?

When you do correlational research, the terms “dependent” and “independent” don’t apply, because
you are not trying to establish a cause and effect relationship (causation).

However, there might be cases where one variable clearly precedes the other (for example, rainfall leads
to mud, rather than the other way around). In these cases you may call the preceding variable (i.e., the
rainfall) the predictor variable and the following variable (i.e. the mud) the outcome variable.

Other common types of variables

Once you have defined your independent and dependent variables and determined whether they are
categorical or quantitative, you will be able to choose the correct statistical test.

But there are many other ways of describing variables that help with interpreting your results. Some
useful types of variables are listed below.

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

Confounding variables A variable that hides the true effect of another Pot size and soil type might affect
variable in your experiment. This can happen plant survival as much or more than
when another variable is closely related to a salt additions. In an experiment you
variable you are interested in, but you haven’t would control these potential
controlled it in your experiment. Be careful with confounders by holding them
these, because confounding variables run a high constant.
risk of introducing a variety of research biases to
your work, particularly omitted variable bias.

Latent variables A variable that can’t be directly measured, but Salt tolerance in plants cannot be
that you represent via a proxy. measured directly, but can be
inferred from measurements of plant
health in our salt-addition
Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

experiment.

Composite variables A variable that is made by combining multiple The three plant health variables
variables in an experiment. These variables are could be combined into a single
created when you analyze data, not when you plant-health score to make it easier
measure it. to present your findings.