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Program : M.E.(Process control and Instrumentation)

Semester : II semester
Course code :EIPCPC21
Course title : - INDUSTRIAL DATA COMMUNICATION AND CONTROL
Course Teacher: Dr.G.Sakthivel
Professor
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engg.
Annamalai university

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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UNIT IV
Network Models and Protocols: OSI model - Data link Control protocol. Media access
protocol: Command/response - Token passing - CSMA/CD, TCP/IP. Bridges - Routers -
Gateways. Standard ETHERNET and Industrial ETHERNET Configuration - Special
requirement for networks used for Control, Wireless LAN.Introduction to MODBUS,
CANBUS, LON WORKS, FIP.
OSI Model
Layers of OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture
with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively
to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are :

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the
two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and
full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.

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2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC
address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit
a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus
, flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-
layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address
are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of
the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are :
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer ,
breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the source
after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for
much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the
TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
SCENARIO:
Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, encrypted (if any secure data) and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can
be transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has
to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in the Internet because of its late
invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

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Data link control protocol

A data link control is a service that ensures reliable network data communication by
managing frame error detection and flow control. DLC is based on the Data Link layer of the
OSI model.

DLC handles the following tasks:

• Reliable link packet transmission

• Recovery and error detection during high-layer packet retransmission
• Error framing, which determines start and end packetization via three approaches:
length counts, bit-oriented framing and character-oriented framing

DLC character codes are based on standard character codes, such as the American Standard
Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC) is comprised of hidden characters.
Flow Control
When a data frame (Layer-2 data) is sent from one host to another over a single medium, it is
required that the sender and receiver should work at the same speed. That is, sender sends at
a speed on which the receiver can process and accept the data. What if the speed
(hardware/software) of the sender or receiver differs? If sender is sending too fast the receiver
may be overloaded, (swamped) and data may be lost.
Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:
• Stop and Wait

This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data frame to stop and wait
until the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received.

• Sliding Window
In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the number of data-frames after
which the acknowledgement should be sent. As we learnt, stop and wait flow control mechanism
wastes resources, this protocol tries to make use of underlying resources as much as possible.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Error Control
When data-frame is transmitted, there is a probability that data-frame may be lost in the transit
or it is received corrupted. In both cases, the receiver does not receive the correct data-frame
and sender does not know anything about any loss.In such case, both sender and receiver are
equipped with some protocols which helps them to detect transit errors such as loss of data-
frame. Hence, either the sender retransmits the data-frame or the receiver may request to
resend the previous data-frame.
Requirements for error control mechanism:
• Error detection - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must ascertain that there is some
error in the transit.
• Positive ACK - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should acknowledge it.
• Negative ACK - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a duplicate frame, it sends a
NACK back to the sender and the sender must retransmit the correct frame.
• Retransmission: The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period. If an acknowledgement
of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive before the timeout the sender retransmits the
frame, thinking that the frame or it’s acknowledgement is lost in transit.
There are three types of techniques available which Data-link layer may deploy to control the
errors by Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQ):

• Stop-and-wait ARQ

The following transition may occur in Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

o The sender maintains a timeout counter.

o When a frame is sent, the sender starts the timeout counter.

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o If acknowledgement of frame comes in time, the sender transmits the next frame in
queue.
o If acknowledgement does not come in time, the sender assumes that either the frame or its
acknowledgement is lost in transit. Sender retransmits the frame and starts the timeout
counter.
o If a negative acknowledgement is received, the sender retransmits the frame.
• Go-Back-N ARQ

Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.When the
acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-Back-N ARQ method,
both sender and receiver maintain a window.

The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple frames without receiving the
acknowledgement of the previous ones. The receiving-window enables the receiver to receive
multiple frames and acknowledge them. The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence
number.
When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up to what sequence number it has
received positive acknowledgement. If all frames are positively acknowledged, the sender sends
next set of frames. If sender finds that it has received NACK or has not receive any ACK for a
particular frame, it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK.

• Selective Repeat ARQ

In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space for its window
size and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the sender to retransmit all the frames
which are not acknowledged.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers, buffers the
frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or damaged.
The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.

Medium access control (MAC)

The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open system
interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It is responsible for flow control
and multiplexing for transmission medium. It controls the transmission of data packets via
remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network interface card.
MAC Layer in the OSI Model
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. The data
link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sublayers −
• The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
• The medium access control (MAC) sublayer

The following diagram depicts the position of the MAC layer −

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Functions of MAC Layer

• It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI network.
• It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via the physical
medium.
• It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups of destination
stations.
• It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be transmitted. It
determines the channel access methods for transmission.
• It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
• It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against transmission
errors.

MAC Addresses
MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a network
interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data transmission
within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is hardwired or
hard-coded in the network interface card (NIC). A MAC address comprises of six groups of
two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or no separators. An example of a MAC
address is 00:0A:89:5B:F0:11
Controlled Access Protocols in Computer Network

In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to find which station has
the right to send. It allows only one node to send at a time, to avoid collision of messages on
shared medium.
The three controlled-access methods are:
1. Reservation
2. Polling
3. Token Passing

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Reservation
• In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data.
• The time line has two kinds of periods:
1. Reservation interval of fixed time length
2. Data transmission period of variable frames.
• If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and each station has one
slot.
• Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot 1. No other station is
allowed to transmit during this slot.
• In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by inserting a 1 bit into i th slot.
After all N slots have been checked, each station knows which stations wish to transmit.
• The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that order.
• After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
• Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five slot reservation frame. In
the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In the second interval, only
station 1 has made a reservation.

Polling

• Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the teacher, a controller
sends a message to each node in turn.
• In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are secondary stations. All data
exchanges must be made through the controller.
• The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected for granting
access.
• Although all nodes receive the message but the addressed one responds to it and sends data, if
any. If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent back.
• Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high dependence on the reliability
of the controller.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Efficiency
Let Tpoll be the time for polling and Tt be the time required for transmission of data. Then,
Efficiency = Tt/(Tt + Tpoll)

Token Passing

• In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in form of ring and
access of stations is governed by tokens.
• A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from one station to the next
in the some predefined order.
• In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in the ring whereas
incase of Token bus, each station
uses the bus to send the token to the next station in some predefined order.
• In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has a frame queued for
transmission when it receives the token, it can send that frame before it passes the token to the
next station. If it has no queued frame, it passes the token simply.
• After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to send the
token to their neighbors and the other N – 1 stations to send a frame, if they have one.
• There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or insertion of new station,
removal of a station, which need be tackled for correct and reliable operation of this scheme.

Performance
Performance of token ring can be concluded by 2 parameters:-
1. Delay, which is a measure of time between when a packet is ready and when it is delivered.So,
the average time (delay) required to send a token to the next station = a/N.
2. Throughput, which is a measure of the successful traffic.
Throughput, S = 1/(1 + a/N) for a<1
and
S = 1/{a(1 + 1/N)} for a>1.
where N = number of stations
a = Tp/Tt
(Tp = propagation delay and Tt = transmission delay)

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network protocol for
carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer. It senses or
listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not, and defers transmissions
until the channel is free. The collision detection technology detects collisions by sensing
transmissions from other stations. On detection of a collision, the station stops transmitting,
sends a jam signal, and then waits for a random time interval before retransmission.
Algorithms
The algorithm of CSMA/CD is:
• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually monitors the channel to detect
collision.
• If a collision is detected, the station starts the collision resolution algorithm.
• The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame transmission.
The algorithm of Collision Resolution is:
• The station continues transmission of the current frame for a specified time along with a jam signal,
to ensure that all the other stations detect collision.
• The station increments the retransmission counter.
• If the maximum number of retransmission attempts is reached, then the station aborts transmission.
• Otherwise, the station waits for a backoff period which is generally a function of the number of
collisions and restart main algorithm.
The following flowchart summarizes the algorithms:

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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TCP/IP Model

Prerequisite – Layers of OSI Model

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it
was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on
standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike
seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows :

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control

Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict

boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and presentation

layer in the application layer itself. OSI uses different session and presentation layers.

TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance
provide assurance delivery of packets. delivery of packets.

TCP/IP model network layer only Connection less and connection oriented both services
provides connection less services. are provided by network layer in OSI model.

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered and
TCP/IP model. is easy to replace with the change in technology.

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The first layer is the Process layer on the behalf of the sender and Network Access layer on
the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for
the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about
declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as residing
in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.

2. Internet Layer –

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host
to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the number
of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams
and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host
from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP
and Inverse ARP.

3. Host-to-Host Layer –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It also
has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control mechanism.
It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features. Increased overhead
leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features. It is
the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very cost-
effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.

4. Application Layer –

This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP,
HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window,

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LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about these
protocols. Protocols other than those present in the linked article are :
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for
HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in
cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry out bank
transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It
sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP.

Repeaters, Bridges, Routers, and Gateways: A comparative study:

Repeaters
As signals travel along a network cable (or any other medium of transmission), they degrade
and become distorted in a process that is called attenuation. If a cable is long enough, the
attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable by the receiver.
A Repeater enables signals to travel longer distances over a network. Repeaters work at the
OSI's Physical layer. A repeater regenerates the received signals and then retransmits the
regenerated (or conditioned) signals on other segments.

To pass data through the repeater in a usable fashion from one segment to the next, the packets
and the Logical Link Control (LLC) protocols must be the same on the each segment. This
means that a repeater will not enable communication, for example, between an 802.3 segment
(Ethernet) and an 802.5 segment (Token Ring). That is, they cannot translate an Ethernet packet
into a Token Ring packet. In other words, repeaters do not translate anything.
Bridges
Like a repeater, a bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can also
divide a network to isolate traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one
or two computers or a single department is flooding the network with data and slowing down
entire operation, a bridge can isolate those computers or that department.
In the following figure, a bridge is used to connect two segment segment 1 and segment 2.

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Bridges can be used to:

i. Expand the distance of a segment.

ii. Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
iii. Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached computers.

Bridges work at the Data Link Layer of the OSI model. Because they work at this layer, all
information contained in the higher levels of the OSI model is unavailable to them. Therefore,
they do not distinguish between one protocol and another.
Bridges simply pass all protocols along the network. Because all protocols pass across the
bridges, it is up to the individual computers to determine which protocols they can recognize.
A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its own address. A bridge forwards
the packets based on the address of the particular destination node.
As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the computer addresses is then stored
in the bridge's RAM. The bridge will then use this RAM to build a routing table based on source
addresses.
Routers
In an environment consisting of several network segments with different protocols and
architecture, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all of the
segments. A complex network needs a device, which not only knows the address of each
segment, but also can determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to
the local segment. Such device is called a Router.
Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model meaning that the Routers can switc h and
route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific
information between separate networks.Routers have access to more information in packets
than bridges, and use this information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are usually used
in a complex network situation because they provide better traffic management than bridges
and do not pass broadcast traffic.
Routers can share status and routing information with one another and use this information to
bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Routers do not look at the destination node address; they only look at the network address.
Routers will only pass the information if the network address is known. This ability to control
the data passing through the router reduces the amount of traffic between networks and allows
routers to use these links more efficiently than bridge
Gateways
Gateways make communication possible between different architectures and environments.
They repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that each
environment can understand the other's environment data.
A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of the destination system.
Gateways can change the format of a message so that it will conform to the application program
at the receiving end of the transfer.
A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:
i. Communication protocols
ii. Data formatting structures
iii. Languages
iv. Architecture
For example, electronic mail gateways, such as X.400 gateway, receive messages in one
format, and then translate it, and forward in X.400 format used by the receiver, and vice versa.
To process the data, the gateway:
Decapsulates incoming data through the networks complete protocol stack. Encapsulates the
outgoing data in the complete protocol stack of the other network to allow transmission.
NIC
A NIC or Network Interface Card is a circuit board or chip, which allows the computer to
communicate to other computers on a Network. This board when connected to a cable or other
method of transferring data such as infrared can share resources, information and computer
hardware. Local or Wide area networks are generally used for large businesses as well as are
beginning to be found in homes as home users begin to have more then one computer. Utilizing
network cards to connect to a network allow users to share data such as companies being able
to have the capability of having a database that can be accessed all at the same time send and
receive e-mail internally within the company or share hardware devices such as printers.
Connectors
Network cards have three main types of connectors. Below is an example of what a network
card may look like.

BNC connector:As illustrated in the above picture the BNC connector is a round connector,
which is used for thin net or 10Base-2 Local Area Network.

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DB9 (RJ45 JACK): The DB9 connector not to be confused with the Serial Port or sometimes
referred to as the RJ45 JACK not to be confused with the RJ45 connection is used with Token
Ring networks.
DB15 Connector: The DB15 connector is used for a Thick net or 10Base-5 Local area
network.
RJ45 connector: Today one of the most popular types of connections used with computer
networks. RJ45 looks similar to a phone connector or RJ11 connector however is slightly
larger.
LED - The LED's as shown in the above illustration indicates if it detects a network generally
by a green light which may flash as it communicates and then a red light which indicates
collisions which will generally flash or not flash at all.
Cables
The following is a few examples of some of the more commonly used types of cables found
with networks.

As illustrated in the above picture you can see three of the main types of cable used today. The
first two pictures illustrate Unshielded and Shielded twisted pair cables. Unshielded twisted-
pair cable is generally found in phone cables today and are used more often then shielded
twisted pair today as it has been found that simply twisting the cable provides more efficient
means of protection against interference. In addition shielded twisted-pair cable required the
one end of the cable to be grounded. If both ends were to be grounded however this would
cause a grounding loop causing low voltage and infinite amperage and various other hazards
to the network.
The third picture in the above illustration shows a coaxial cable, which are the most commonly
used and known types of cables. This cable can be found for cable TV and when used with
networks utilize the BNC connector.
As illustrated in the above picture you can see three of the main types of cable used today. The
first two pictures illustrate Unshielded and Shielded twisted pair cables. Unshielded twisted-
pair cable is generally found in phone cables today and are used more often then shielded
twisted pair today as it has been found that simply twisting the cable provides more efficient
means of protection against interference. In addition shielded twisted-pair cable required the
one end of the cable to be grounded. If both ends were to be grounded however this would

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cause a grounding loop causing low voltage and infinite amperage and various other hazards
to the network.
The third picture in the above illustration shows a coaxial cable, which are the most commonly
used and known types of cables. This cable can be found for cable TV and when used with
networks utilize the BNC connector.
Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other
words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not
have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.

Types of Hub
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean, boost
and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as wiring
centre. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
Ethernet
What is Ethernet?

Ethernet is the major local-area network (LAN) in which we connect our computers, routers,
and printers. It has taken an important role in the industrial engineering world, having become
the established standard connection for the Internet of Things.According to Cisco in 2003,
Ethernet makes up 85% of the world’s LAN connections. Industrial Ethernet differs from
commercial Ethernet in that it applies the Ethernet standards toward the development of data
communication to control and operate manufacturing networks.

Beginnings of Ethernet

ALOHAnet was a wireless data network that connected several computer systems separated
throughout the Hawaiian island college campuses. They attempted to have independent data
radio nodes to communicate with each other on a peer-to-peer basis without interference.
ALOHAnet’s solution was a multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) concept.
This idea inspired Bob Metcalfe from Xerox to base his PhD studies on finding improvements.

In the initial days of the Ethernet, there were two common options for configurations: 10Base2
and 10Base5. The operating speed for both configurations was 10 Mbps and used coaxial cable
with nodes via tee connectors or through attachment unit interfaces in a multi-drop bus
configuration.

The unit interfaces or nodes are typically computers with network interface cards (NIC). The
max allowed segment lengths for 10Base2 was 185 ft when using RG 58 coaxial cable, also
known as “Thin Ethernet.” 10Base 5 offered greater distances between segment nodes;
however, it required thick coaxial cable which was difficult and bulky to manage.

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Other configurations started to develop, such as 10Base-FL, which allowed networks to use
fiber optic media and increase distances to greater than 2,000 ft. 10Base-T became a popular
physical layer option due to its ease of install and use of inexpensive unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) Category 3 (CAT3) cable. Each computer is required to be less 100 feet from each other
with standard RJ-45 connectors. By the 1990s, 100 Mbps Ethernet equipment became
available. These NICs would adjust automatically between 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps operating
speed.
Today’s standard for computer setups is to have NICs implement 100Base-TX. Category 5e
UTP cables (CAT 5) are the standard, with the lengths the same as used with 10Base-T
networks—100 ft or less. What was once a coaxial-based network is being replaced by fiber
optics specifically for point-to-point links. 100Base-FX uses two optical fibers for full duplex
point-to-point communications which a reach 2,000 ft. Gigabit Ethernet or 1000 Mbps
connections are available using twisted pair and fiber optic media.
Ethernet Data Link Layer and Frame

The hierarchy depicted above shows how Ethernet connections are used at different levels,
depending on the devices being connected. (Image courtesy of Profibus and Profinet North
America)Ethernet specifies the physical layer and data link layers of a network’s function. It
became the basis for the IEEE 802.3 network standard. The physical layer specifies electrical
signals, signaling speeds, media, connector types, and network topologies. The technology
can be used over optical fiber and twisted pair-cables. Four different type of data rates are:

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The data link layer defines the media access method. Half-duplex link are those connected in
a bus or star topologies: 10/100Base-T, 10Base2, 10Base 5, etc. They use carrier sense,
multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). This allows for multiple nodes to have
equal network access. All nodes on an Ethernet network continuously monitor for
transmissions on the given media.

Nodes wait for a network to be idle prior to starting a transmission. When nodes transmit at the
same time, the signals overlap and corrupt the originals. When nodes see a different signal from
the one they are trying to send, they detect the collision and stop transmitting. They re-attempt
to transmit after a preset delay. This method of media access allows for nodes to be simply
added or removed from a network.

A node once connected begins to listen and transmit on the network. This, however, will
eventually lead to decreased access and an increase in collisions. This makes Ethernet networks
probabilistic networks. In full-duplex point-to-point Ethernet links like 10Base-FL or 100Base-
FX collisions are not an issue. This is due to the fact that only two nodes are present and there
are separate send and receive channels available. Data can also be sent in both directions
simultaneously, hence doubling the data transfer rate.

The Ethernet Frame defines the format of the data message sent on the network. The message
format contains several fields of information, including the data to be transferred. The data unit
is defined as the actual data to be sent and can contain between 46 and 1500 eight-bit bytes of
binary information. The length of the data unit is determined and included in the message as a
field for the receiver to determine which part of the message is data.

The MAC address is the six-byte binary number set which includes the source and destination
information for the nodes. A MAC address is included in each message sent over the network,
and each Ethernet node has a unique MAC address.
The data link layer specifies the frame structure of messages transmitted or received and how
communication occurs over the media. Nodes, switches, and hubs can be added and removed
simply, and the technology can be easily troubleshot. These factors have made Ethernet
connections the new standard for industrial network applications. The functions of the OSI
layers are to designate how data and application demands are transmitted.

There are seven layers in the OSI reference model. The lower layers (1-4) focus on data-
transport, while the upper layers (5-7) focus on applications. The lowest layer (1) is the physical
layer closest to the physical network medium. The physical layer and the lower data link layers
are implemented in hardware and software such as cabling, or Ethernet (which exists on Layer
2).

Layer 3 is used for logical addressing and routing. Its most common application is the use of
the Internet Protocol (IP). Layer 4 is the transport layer that ensures the data is delivered error-
free and in the correct sequence. It uses Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) to transmit data. Industrial Ethernet differs from commercial
Ethernet in that it encompass all the lower layers for its solution ,and not just Layer 2.

The upper layers for the OSI reference model are used for application tasks, and are usually
implemented for software only. Layer 5 deals with the session. It is responsible for dialing
control and synchronization of the session connection (i.e., establishing and managing
sessions) between networks and applications.
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Layer 6 is for data presentation use. This layer presents the data and coding type, and defines
the used characters. It ensures that data may be exchanged between hosts and across the
network, and that it is compressed and encrypted. Layer 7 is for application use; it is used by
software to prepare and interpret the data. As the top layer, it is closest to the end user.
Ethernet Connection Types and Industrial Systems

Above is an example of an industrial layout—from the programmable logic controllers, to

the machine-operated hardware, back to the human machine interface operated by the
engineer. (Source: Siemens USA)

TCP/IP over Ethernet networks offers the possibility of a level of standardization. Historically,
network applications based on time-critical processes have used deterministic networks. When
using Industrial Ethernet, it is important to note the speed and determinism of the
communication. Speed is how fast the network can send information over the Ethernet.

Determinism is the network’s ability to communicate in a predictable timespan. For motion

control systems, it is essential for Ethernet connections to transmit data to and from devices on
a regularly scheduled basis. These are networks based on master/slave or token passing
schemes.

The use of Ethernet networks must be controlled at levels no greater than 10% or they would
suffer from inadequate performances. Segmenting networks via switches and routers minimize
unwanted network traffic and reduce use. Another method is to use newer and higher-level
protocols to incorporate prioritization and synchronization of messages to ensure better timed
delivery.

The result of these methods is shift of using Ethernet for industrial control on the plant floor
and into the cell field levels. This increase of Ethernet implantation is due to their ease of
installation and low cost of hardware. The use of bridges and fast switches help raise the
determinism of a network. Eventually as gigabit, 10Gbit, and 100Gbit become more commonly
used, determinism concerns will reduce.

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The major Ethernet connection types are:

Modbus TCP/IP

o First industrial protocol on Ethernet, introduced in 1999.

o Based on Modbus protocol, which was developed by Modicon in 1979.
o Advantages:
o Uses standard Ethernet layers: hardware and TCP/IP transport layer
o Open and relatively simple Ethernet protocol
o Disadvantages:
o Not a hard real-time protocol
o Largest supplier: Schneider Electric
o Multi-vendor consortium: Modbus IDA
o Factory automation technology: RTPS
EtherCAT

o Open-source, based on IEC 61158 and other similar standards.

o Advantages:
o Hard real-time industrial protocol
o Efficient and straightforward communication
o Disadvantages:
o Total number of devices used is limited
o Not designed for standard TCP/IP packets and EtherCAT packets
o Largest supplier: Beckhoff
o Multi-vendor consortium: EtherCAT Technology Group (ETG)
o Factory automation technology: Shared Frame
Ethernet/IP

o Extends DeviceNET concepts to Ethernet

o Advantages:
o Uses Ethernet transport layers (i.e., TCP and UDP)
o Disadvantages:
o Networks can be overloaded with UDP messages if not correctly configured
o Largest supplier: Rockwell Automation
o Multi-vendor consortium: Open Device Vendors Association (ODVA)
o Factory automation technology: CIP
Profinet

o Application protocol that extends Profibus to Ethernet

o Advantages:
o Supports both standard and deterministic Ethernet traffic
o Implements IEEE 1588 and Quality of Service (QoS) to add determinism
o Disadvantages:
o For Real Time and Isochronous Real Time managed switches, QoS is
recommended
o Largest supplier: Siemens
o Multi-vendor consortium: Profibus and Profinet International
o Factory automation technology: Profinet IO

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Wireless LANs
Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves instead of
cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around
within the area of network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11
or WiFi.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows
1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected to the
wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

• Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless
routers that form the base stations or access.
• Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:
• Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
• Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Advantages of WLANs

• They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the network at a
greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not bounded by
the length of the cables.
• Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more interference
from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors. So, they
require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

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Introduction to Modbus
Modbus is a communication protocol developed by Modicon systems. In simple terms, it is a
method used for transmitting information over serial lines between electronic devices. The
device requesting the information is called the Modbus Master and the devices supplying
information are Modbus Slaves.
Modbus is a communication protocol for transmitting information between electronic devices
over serial lines (original version) or via the Ethernet, and is commonly used in process and
factory automation. While it’s an open protocol and anybody can use it, “Modbus” is a
registered trademark of Schneider Electric USA, Inc. (current owner of the Modicon brand).
The Modbus.org organization was created to further the use of Modbus and Schneider Electric
has been a partner in it. This article is an introduction to Modbus and its basic functions—
Modbus.org has extensive coverage on Modbus, the specifications for the various types of
Modbus, software, testing, interface code and more. The Internet also has available tutorials
and specific information on individual device Modbus implementations.

Modbus serial protocol (the original version) is a master/slave protocol, e.g. one master that
controls the Modbus data transactions with multiple slaves that respond to the master’s requests
to read from or write data to the slaves.

Modbus is one of the most popular protocols used in the industrial world. Supporting traditional
serial protocols of RS232/422/485 and Ethernet protocols allow industrial devices such a PLCs,
HMIs and meters to use Modbus as their communication method. When communicating with
Modbus via serial and Ethernet networks, a communication gateway is a necessity. Modbus
serial servers from B+B SmartWorx enable smooth connectivity by translating Modbus/TCP
to Modbus/ASCII/RTU protocols. This allows devices such as PLCs to communicate to
devices such as sensors, meters and instruments.

Introduction to Controller Area Network

Controller Area Network (CAN) is a serial network technology that was originally designed for the
automotive industry, especially for European cars, but has also become a popular bus in industrial automation
as well as other applications. The CAN bus is primarily used in embedded systems, and as its name implies,
is a network technology that provides fast communication among microcontrollers up to real-time
requirements, eliminating the need for the much more expensive and complex technology of a Dual-Ported
RAM.
CAN is a two-wire, half duplex, high-speed network system, that is far superior to conventional serial
technologies such as RS232 in regards to functionality and reliability and yet CAN implementations are
more cost effective.

While, for instance, TCP/IP is designed for the transport of large data amounts, CAN is designed for real-
time requirements and with its 1 MBit/sec baud rate can easily beat a 100 MBit/sec TCP/IP connection when
it comes to short reaction times, timely error detection, quick error recovery and error repair.

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CAN networks can be used as an embedded communication system for microcontrollers as well as an open
communication system for intelligent devices. Some users, for example in the field of medical engineering,
opted for CAN because they have to meet particularly stringent safety requirements.

Similar requirements had to be considered by manufacturers of other equipment with very high safety or
reliability requirements (e.g. robots, lifts and transportation systems).

The greatest advantage of Controller Area Network lies in the reduced amount of wiring combined with an
ingenious prevention of message collision (meaning no data will be lost during message transmission).

Without CAN - With CAN

The following shows a need-to-know overview of CAN’s technical characteristics.

Controller Area Network

• Is a serial networking technology for embedded solutions.
• Needs only two wires named CAN_H and CAN_L.
• Operates at data rates of up to 1 Megabit per second.
• Supports a maximum of 8 bytes per message frame.
• Does not support node IDs, only message IDs. One application can support multiple message IDs.
• Supports message priority, i.e. the lower the message ID the higher its priority.
• Supports two message ID lengths, 11-bit (standard) and 29-bit (extended).
• Does not experience message collisions (as they can occur under other serial technologies).
• Is not demanding in terms of cable requirements. Twisted-pair wiring is sufficient.
CAN Interface Hardware
A great variety of microprocessor chips, such as the ARM Cortex-M3 processor, provide interfaces such as
Ethernet, digital I/O, analog I/O, USB, UARTS, and, last but not least, Controller Area Network. However,
that does not mean that you can use the chip “as is” and connect it to a network, sensors, etc. All of these
interfaces require some kind of a “hardware driver.” In case of serial technologies such as RS232 or CAN,
you will need the corresponding transceiver.

In the specific case of the CAN bus controller, we need a line driver (transceiver) to convert the controller’s
TTL signal to the actual CAN level, which is a differential voltage. The use of differential voltage contributes
to the vast reliability of CAN.

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The next image compares both signals, TTL and differential voltage:

The actual signal status, recessive or dominant, is based on the differential voltage between CAN_H and
CAN_L (2V during dominant bit time; 0V during recessive bit time).
Controller Area Network (CAN) is a serial network technology that was originally designed for the
automotive industry, especially for European cars, but has also become a popular bus in industrial automation
as well as other applications. The CAN bus is primarily used in embedded systems, and as its name implies,
is a network technology that provides fast communication among microcontrollers up to real-time
requirements, eliminating the need for the much more expensive and complex technology of a Dual-Ported
RAM.
CAN networks can be used as an embedded communication system for microcontrollers as well as an open
communication system for intelligent devices. Some users, for example in the field of medical engineering,
opted for CAN because they have to meet particularly stringent safety requirements.

Similar requirements had to be considered by manufacturers of other equipment with very high safety or
reliability requirements (e.g. robots, lifts and transportation systems).

The greatest advantage of Controller Area Network lies in the reduced amount of wiring combined with an
ingenious prevention of message collision (meaning no data will be lost during message transmission).

Controller Area Network

• Is a serial networking technology for embedded solutions.
• Needs only two wires named CAN_H and CAN_L.
• Operates at data rates of up to 1 Megabit per second.
• Supports a maximum of 8 bytes per message frame.
• Does not support node IDs, only message IDs. One application can support multiple message IDs.
• Supports message priority, i.e. the lower the message ID the higher its priority.
• Supports two message ID lengths, 11-bit (standard) and 29-bit (extended).
• Does not experience message collisions (as they can occur under other serial technologies).
• Is not demanding in terms of cable requirements. Twisted-pair wiring is sufficient.

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Applications

• Passenger vehicles, trucks, buses (gasoline vehicles and electric vehicles)

• Agricultural equipment
• Electronic equipment for aviation and navigation
• Industrial automation and mechanical control
• Elevators, escalators
• Building automation
• Medical instruments and equipment
• Pedelecs

LonWorks
LonWorks (local operating network) is a networking platform specifically created to address
the needs of control applications. The platform is built on a protocol created by Echelon
Corporation for networking devices over media such as twisted pair, powerlines, fiber optics,
and RF. LonWorks is a standard technology for many of the global standards organizations
including ASHRAE, IEEE, ANSI, SEMI and many others. In fact, LonWorks capability is a
prerequisite for participation in a growing number of automation projects.. LonWorks is
becoming a major network standard in the commercial buildings market with a number of
Building Automation Systems suppliers standardizing on LON including Siemens Building
Systems and Honeywell. In order to profit in this market it is important to support LON. The
technology has its origins with chip designs, power line and twisted pair, signaling technology,
routers, network management software, and other products from Echelon Corporation. In 1999
the communications protocol (then known as LonTalk) was submitted to ANSI and accepted
as a standard for control networking (ANSI/CEA-709.1-B). Echelon's power line and twisted
pair signaling technology was also submitted to ANSI for standardization and accepted. Since
then, ANSI/CEA-709.1 has been accepted as the basis for IEEE 1473-L (in-train
controls), AAR electro-pneumatic braking systems for freight trains, IFSF (European petrol
station control), SEMI (semiconductor equipment manufacturing), and in 2005 as EN
14908 (European building automation standard). The protocol is also one of several data
link/physical layers of the BACnet ASHRAE/ANSI standard for building automation.
China ratified the technology as a national controls standard, GB/Z 20177.1-2006 and as a
building and intelligent community standard, GB/T 20299.4-2006; and in 2007 CECED,
the European Committee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers, adopted the protocol as part
of its Household Appliances Control and Monitoring – Application Interworking Specification
(AIS) standards.
During 2008 ISO and IEC have granted the communications protocol, twisted pair signaling
technology, power line signaling technology, and Internet Protocol (IP) compatibility standard
numbers ISO/IEC 14908-1, -2, -3, and -4.

Modbus

Modbus is a network protocol best used for industrial automation systems

specifically for connecting electronic equipment. Although Modbus is best for
industrial applications, its simplicity allows it to be a useful tool for building
automation as well.

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BACnet Modbus LonWorks

Developed By: ASHRAE Modicon Inc. Echelon Corporation/ Motorola

Networking devices through power

Use Communication across devices Connection between devices
lines, fiber optics, and other media
Industrial, Transportation, Energy Home automation, industrial,
HVAC, Lighting, Life Safety, Access
Markets Management, Building Automation,
Controls, transportation and maintenance
transportation, and public utility
Regulatory and health and safety control networks.
Tasks such as request temperature Security, lighting systems, HVAC,
Boiler Control, Tank Level
Examples Measurements
reading, send status alarm, or fan machine control, manufacturing,
schedule metering

Proprietary No No Yes

Transmission
Ethernet, IP, MS/TP, Zigbee ASCII, RTU, TCP/IP MS/TP, network, SNVT
Modes
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 185 ;ISO- ANSI/EIA 709.1; ISO/IEC 14908-1,
Standards 16484-5; ISO-16484-6
IEC 61158
14908-2, 14908-3, 14908-4
High (proprietary); Limited users
Low; No charge for usage or Low; No charge for usage or licensing
Costs licensing fees fees
(exclusive to actual members; mostly
manufacturers)

Network Existing LANs and LANs U10/U20 USB Network Interface;

Traditional serial and Ethernet protocols
Interfaces infrastructure i.LON SmartServer; i.LON 600

Modbus TCP Conformance Testing Products must conform to LonWorks

Testing BACnet Testing Labs
Program protocol

• Scalability between cost,

performance and system • Easy connection to Modicon
size
• Suitable for small/medium
• Endorsement and adoption volumes of data (≤255 bytes) • Web based tool; saves time
by nearly every major
• Data transfer designed for and cost
vendor in North America
and many other countries
industrial applications • Numerous developers of
Advantages • Openly published and royalty- Lonworks products in the
• Robust internetworking market
free
including multiple LAN
types and dial-up • Easy to deploy and maintain • Less Architecture at device
• Unrestricted growth and • Moves raw bits or words level
the ability to add new without placing restrictions on
innovations and new vendors
features anytime

• Limited the number of data

• Outdated
types; Large binary objects are
not supported. • Controlled devices &
variables are connected to a
• No standard method for a node
separate control device.
• Limited the number of to find the description of a data
(Not recommended due to
field devices that can object, i.e. finding a register
network interruptions
connect to a master station value represents a temperature
producing system failures)
between 30◦ and 175◦.
except Ethernet TCP/IP • Extensions are allowed
• MT/TP-Wire Length • No security against
only through the LonMark
Disadvantages unauthorized commands or
• Ethernet-Infrastructure interception of data
Consortium.
• New standard has security • Hardware specific, and
• Transmissions must be
standard but not requires the Neuron chip
contiguous which limits the
implemented in all devices for network movement of
types of remote
the protocol.
communications devices to
those that can buffer data to • Close to “plug & play”
avoid gaps in the transmission. ability, yet still far from
achieving interconnectivity
• Great amount of configuration
using Microsoft Windows.
and programming required

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LonWorks™ was Created by Echelon Corp (www.echelon.com) in 1988. LonWorks is a

leading networking solution for Building Automation. Estimates for the number of nodes
installed worldwide range into the millions. The LonMark Interoperability Association with
over 300 member companies reflects the strength LON now has in the automation market.

When used in an industrial environment a LonWorks solution is very different from the open
device networks like DeviceNet, Profibus and Modbus typically found on the factory floor.
First unlike these popular device busses LonWorks is a completely peer-peer network. Instead
of moving data through a “Master” device, any device can exchange data with any other
LonWorks device on the network. Second, LonWorks is not tied a single physical
communication layer. Where DeviceNet is limited to CAN and Profibus and Modbus are
limited to RS485, LonWorks can use twisted pair, Ethernet or even a power line as its
communication channel. Finally, network data exchanged on LonWorks is configured by a
network configuration tool. This operation called “binding” ties an input of one device to an
output of another device independent of the operation or application software in either device.

LonWorks is a standard technology for many of the global standards organizations including
ASHRAE, IEEE, ANSI, SEMI and many others. In fact, LonWorks capability is a prerequisite
for participation in a growing number of automation projects.. LonWorks is becoming a major
network standard in the commercial buildings market with a number of Building Automation
Systems suppliers standardizing on LON including Siemens Building Systems and Honeywell.
In order to profit in this market it is important to support LON.

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UNIT V

Common Industrial Protocols:HART: Introduction - Evolution of Signal standard - HART

Communication protocol - Communication modes - HART Commands – HART and the OSI
model.Field Bus: Introduction - General Field bus architecture - basic requirements of field
bus standard - field bus topology - Interoperability - Interchangeability.

HART
HART (“Highway Addressable Remote Transducer”) is a communication protocol designed
for industrial process measurement and control applications. HART is an open standard and
vendor independent. Because of this, it is the world’s most broadly supported protocol for the
process industry, with thousands of HART based products available from different vendors.
It’s called a hybrid protocol because it combines analogue and digital communication. It can
communicate a single variable using a 4-20mA analogue signal while also communicating
added information on a digital signal that is superimposed on the standard 4-20mA current
loop. Using an analogue signal, information is sent only one way, either from the device to
the host (inputs) or from the host to the device (outputs). Digital information can travel in
both directions using HART. Traditional analogue devices communicate only a single
process variable, and you typically have no easy way to tell if the information they’re sending
is valid. With HART, you will get the process variable – but other types of information too.
Information items are standard in every HART device such as:
• Device status and diagnostic alerts
• Process variables and units
• Loop current and percentage range
• Basic configuration parameters
• Manufacturer and device tag information

How does HART work?

HART digital communications uses a request/reply communications model. This means that
in general, HART devices won’t transmit any information unless a request is sent from the
host to the device. The exception to this is the burst mode where the HART device can send a
single piece of information continuously without repeated host requests. A common use for
burst mode is to send the process variable as a digital value to verify the analogue signal.
Many control systems aren’t designed to accept HART information in digital form so it is
common to see external multiplexers reading the digital signal. In this approach, the HART
device is attached to both the control host and to the multiplexer. Although this increases the
cost of the installation, reductions in maintenance cost generally pay back the investment in a
very short time. Some hosts, such as Emerson’s DeltaV are able to capture and pass HART
digital information to other applications (e.g., AMS Asset Management Suite) using a
mechanism commonly called “HART pass through”. Using a system that supports HART
pass through reduces the cost of acquiring and using the HART information by eliminating
the need to install separate multiplexer systems.

“HART” is an acronym for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. The HART

Protocol makes uses Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard to superimpose digital
communication signals at a low level on top of the 4-20mA. This enables two-way field
communication to take place and makes it possible for additional info rmation beyond
just the normal process variable to be communicated to/from a smart field instrument.
The HART Protocol communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the 4 -20mA signal
and allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second
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from a smart field device. As the digital FSK signal is phase continuous, there is no
interference with the 4-20mA signal. The HART Protocol provides two simultaneous
communication channels: the 4-20mA analog signal and a digital signal. The 4-20mA
signal communicates the primary measured value (in the case of a field instrument)
using the 4-20mA current loop - the fastest and most reliable industry standard.
Additional device information is communicated using a digital signal that is
superimposed on the analog signal.
The digital signal contains information from the device including device status,
diagnostics, additional measured or calculated values, etc. Together, the two
communication channels provide a low-cost and very robust complete field
communication solution that is easy to use and configure .

HART Communication occurs between two HART-enabled devices, typically a smart

field device and a control or monitoring system. Communication occurs using standard
instrumentation grade wire and using standard wiring and termination practices.

Two Communication Channels

HART technology is a master/slave protocol, which means that a smart field (sla ve)
device only speaks when spoken to by a master. The HART Prot ocol can be used in
various modes such as point-to-point or multidrop for communicating information
to/from smart field instruments and central control or monitoring systems.
The HART Protocol provides for up to two masters (primary and secondary). This
allows secondary masters such as handheld communicators to be used without

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interfering with communications to/from the primary master, i.e. control/monitoring

system.

Primary and Secondary Masters

The HART Protocol permits all digital communication with field devices in either
point-to-point or multidrop network configurations:

Point-to-Point Configuration

Multidrop Configuration
There is also an optional "burst" communication mode where a single slave device can
continuously broadcast a standard HART reply message. Higher update rates are
possible with this optional burst communication mode and use is normally restricted to
point-to-point configuration.

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HART COMMANDS
The HART Protocol is a master-slave communication protocol which means that during
normal operation, each slave (a field device) communication is initiated by a request
(or command) from the master (host) communication device. The master or host is
generally a distributed control, PLC, or PC-based asset management system for
example. The slave device is typically a field measurement device such as pressure,
level, temperature, flow or other transmitters.
In order to make certain any HART-enabled device from any supplier can communicate
properly and respond to a command with the correct information, the set and types of
commands are defined in the HART Specifications and implemented in all HART
registered devices.
Users need not worry about these commands because they are included in the functions
of the host. The specific capabilities of a device (device specific commands) are
available to the host when the host is given the instructions included in the Device
Description (DD) of a specific device.
An important point is that defined device status indications are included with each
communication response to the host. The host then interprets these status indicators and
may provide basic device diagnostic information.
The HART Command Set provides uniform and consistent communication for all field
devices. Host applications may implement any of the necessary commands for a
particular application. The command set includes three classes:
Universal
All devices using the HART Protocol must recognize and support the universal
commands. Universal commands provide access to information useful in normal
operations (e.g., read primary variable and units).
Common Practice
Common Practice commands provide functions implemented by many, but not
necessarily all, HART Communication devices.
Device Specific
Device Specific commands represent functions that are unique to each field device.
These commands access setup and calibration information, as well as information about
the construction of the device. Information on Device Specific commands is available
from device manufacturers.

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HART Commands:

Common Practice Device Specific

Universal Commands
Commands Commands

• Read • Read selection of up • Read or write low-

manufacturer to four flow cut-off
and device type dynamic variables • Start, stop, or clear
• Read primary • Write damping time totalizer
variable (PV) constant • Read or write
and units • Write device range density calibration
• Read current values factor
output and • Calibrate (set zero, • Choose PV (mass,
percent of range set span) flow, or density)
• Read up to four • Set fixed output • Read or write
pre-defined current materials or
dynamic • Perform self-test construction
variables • Perform master reset information
• Read or write • Trim PV zero • Trim sensor
eight-character • Write PV unit calibration
tag, 16-character • Trim DAC zero and • PID enable
descriptor, date gain • Write PID set
• Read or write • Write transfer point
32-character function (square • Valve
message root/linear) characterization
• Read device • Write sensor serial • Valve set point
range values, number • Travel limits
units, and • Read or write • User units
damping time dynamic variable • Local display
constant assignments information
• Read or write
final assembly
number
• Write polling
address

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HART Communication modes

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The HART Protocol is the leading communication technology used with smart process
instrumentation today. The HART Protocol continues to grow in popularity and recognition
in the industry as a global standard for smart instrument communication. More than two-
thirds of all smart instruments shipping today communicate using the HART Protocol.
EASY TO USE
HART is field-proven, easy to use and provides highly capable two-way digital
communication simultaneously with the 4-20mA analog signaling used by traditional
instrumentation equipment.

UNIQUE COMMUNICATION SOLUTION

Unlike other digital communication technologies, the HART Protocol provides a unique
communication solution that is backward compatible with the installed base of
instrumentation in use today. This backward compatibility ensures that investments in
existing cabling and current control strategies will remain secure well into the future.

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Designed to compliment traditional 4-20mA analog signaling, the HART Protocol supports
two way digital communications for process measurement and control devices. Applications
include remote process variable interrogation, cyclical access to process data, parameter
setting and diagnostics.
STRUCTURE
Specification of the HART protocol is based largely on the OSI 7-Layer Communication
Model (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. OSI 7-Layer Model

The HART protocol specifications directly address 3 layers in the OSI model: the Physical, Data Link
and Application Layers. The Physical Layer connects devices together and communicates a bit-stream
from one device to another. It is concerned with the mechanical and electrical properties of the
connection and the medium (the copper wire cable) connecting the devices. Signal characteristics are
defined to achieve a raw uncorrected reliability (see the FSK Physical Layer Specification).

While the Physical Layer transmits the bit stream, the Data Link Layer is responsible for reliably
transferring that data across the channel. It organizes the raw bit stream into packets (framing), adds
error detection codes to the data stream and performs Media Access Control (MAC) to insure orderly
access to the communication channel by both master and slave devices.

The bit stream is organized into 8-bit bytes that are further grouped into messages. A HART
transaction consists of a master command and a slave response. Media access consists of token
passing between the devices connected to the channel. The passing of the token is implied by the
actual message transmitted. Timers are used to bound the period between transactions. Once the timer
expires, control of the channel is relinquished by the owner of the token. For more information see the
Data Link Layer Specification.

The Application Layer defines the commands, responses, data types and status reporting supported by
the Protocol. In addition, there are certain conventions in HART (for example how to trim the loop
current) that are also considered part of the Application Layer. While the Command Summary,
Common Tables and Command Response Code Specifications all establish mandatory Application
Layer practices (e.g. data types, common definitions of data items, and procedures), the Universal
Commands specify the minimum Application Layer content of all HART compatible devices.

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Fieldbus
Fieldbus is a digital two-way multidrop communication link between intelligent field devices.
It is a local area network dedicated to industrial automation. It replaces centralized control
networks with distributed control networks and links the isolated field devices such as smart
sensors/ transducers/actuators/controllers.
Foundation Fieldbus H1 and PROFIBUS-PA are the two fieldbus technologies used in process
control. In this two-way communication, it is possible to read data from the smart sensor and
also write data into it. The multidrop communication facility in fieldbus results in enormous
cable savings and resultant cost reduction.

A comparison between a 4–20 mA system and a fieldbus system is shown in Table.

A conventional 4–20 mA current transmission system has two wires each for each of the
individual field devices employed.
HART Versus Fieldbus Devices
Compared with this, a fieldbus system has two wires running for many devices that belong to
the same segment. A segment may consist of 32 devices.

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The above Figure shows a conventional point-to-point communication system and its fieldbus
counterpart. There are as many wire pairs as the number of field devices for a point-to-point
communication system, while it can be only a single wire pair for a fieldbus system.

History

With digital communication making its way into process automation systems several decades
back, different vendors started developing their own protocols—independent of each other. In
the initial stages of fieldbus introduction, design engineers were confronted with several
problems.First, a particular vendor could not provide all the parts/components needed for a
plant and that a particular manufacturer cannot make all the devices better than others. This led
to either choosing the less-than-the-best devices from a single manufacturer or else settling for
choosing the best devices from different manufacturers.

The latter option would give rise to an integrability problem and lead to isolated islands of
automation and consequent inter operability difficulty with devices from different
manufacturers.

Fig : Fieldbus interface unit in a fieldbus transmitter

Initially when fieldbus was introduced, it suffered from numerous problems such as proprietary
protocols, slow transmission speed, and different data formats. Improvements in field signal
transmission technology resulted in increasing levels of decentralization.

In 1985, industry experts in the field sat together to work out a vendor independent fieldbus
standard—i.e., it would be interoperable. The bus standard would provide bus power, intrinsic
safety, and the ability to communicate long distances over existing wires—the basic
requirements for a process plant automation system.

Partly due to the complexities of instrumentation automation systems and mostly due to the
reluctance on the part of the manufacturers, a single standard protocol architecture is yet to be
established. Foundation Fieldbus and PROFIBUS are now the two most dominant fieldbus
technologies that are ruling the process automation field. Devices embracing these two
technologies cannot communicate with each other because of protocol mismatch and thus
seamless interoperability is yet to be achieved.

There are many types of fieldbuses in use today; the particular type to be used depends on the
type of industry—discrete or manufacturing automation. Different types of fieldbuses include:

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Foundation Fieldbus, PROFIBUS, DeviceNet, ControlNet, InterBus, HART, AS-i, MODBUS,

CAN Bus, Ethernet, LonWorks, and WorldFIP.

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UNIT III
DCS :- Local Control Unit(LCU) and architecture - LCU languages - LCU - Process interfacing
issues. Operator interface - requirements Engineering interface - requirements - displays -
alarms and alarm management. Factors to be considered in selecting a DCS. Introduction to
SCADA, OLE for Process control(OPC).

Introduction to DCS (Distributed Control System )

Posted on : April 18, 2016 By denizen robo

Automation

What is Distributed Control System ?

There are many definitions of distributed control, but the basic concept is always the same:
divide a large application into multiple smaller subsystems, each of which carries out a
portion of the application, and allow these subsystems to communicate with one another.
Distributed control systems have evolved from two older technologies — direct digital
control, and hybrid control made up of discrete devices.

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Hybrid Control System :

Hybrid control systems include individual discrete-control hardware, typically programmable

logic controllers (PLCs) or analog loop controllers, and a computer to collect process
information and generate management reports. Panel-board instrumentation, located in a
central control room, is typically used as the operator interface.

While hybrid control systems offer distributed hardware, they do have problems: Each
system is custom-designed using controllers made by different vendors, making interfacing
difficult. In order to expand a system, specialists in several different technologies are
required. Actual control is usually done using an analog controller, which suffers the familiar
problem of drift. Installations typically take a long time, due to complexities in interfacing
various subsystems together. Because several subsystems are linked, system response is slow
and unpredictable. And, lack of a central database makes decision-making more complex.

Digital Control System :

Direct digital control solves many of the interfacing problems of hybrid control. Using a
computer to control an entire process allows information to be collected and reported quickly.
A major disadvantage of this approach is that the computer represents a vulnerable point —
the entire process could shut down if the computer fails. Redundant control systems that
consist of either a second computer or analog instruments are usually installed to protect
against a total system shutdown, but these backups add greatly to the cost and complexity of
the control.

Distributed Control System :

With the advent of the microprocessor, true distributed-control systems became practical.
This approach to problem-solving combines the best features of hybrid control systems and
direct digital control. It allows the application to be broken into subsystems that use digital,
rather than analog, control techniques and that can be interfaced together easily. These
systems can easily be expanded to accommodate future plant requirements and to take
advantage of the latest control technologies.

Many elements make up the subsystems of the distributed control system (DCS). Typical
elements that make up a DCS today include input/output

(I/O) devices, individual controllers (such as PLCs and loop controllers), operator interfaces
(such as color CRT cathode ray tube screens), computers for data manipulation, engineering
workstations, and communication networks for remote and local information exchange.

An important concept in distributed control is that of breaking down the software program
into logical pieces, independent of system hardware. Doing this makes system design much
more efficient, since programs are smaller and, therefore, easier to write, debug and maintain
than the larger programs in computer and PLC systems. This concept is known as
multitasking. It allows multiple small programs to run on a single processor in a priority-
structured manner, which ensures that system response will be repeatable.

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Advantages of DCS

Because a system can be broken down into subsections that communicate freely with one
another, DCS makes the design, implementation and maintenance of complex control
strategies easier. Although simpler design and (to some extent) implementation appear to
benefit primarily the DCS supplier, the user also benefits — from shorter leadtimes, simpler
systems, improved reliability, reduced downtime, reduced installation costs due to wire
savings, and greater flexibility to make future enhancements.

Ideally, the DCS will use common hardware throughout. This simplifies the design, since the
programming methods and documentation become independent of the subsection that is
being designed.

If the DCS is well designed, the engineer has a great deal of freedom to construct the system
in a logical manner, taking into consideration the effects of single-point failures on the
operation of the process. Unlike control systems based on other strategies, the DCS can
continue to operate in a semiautomatic mode when one control section fails. The process can
be kept operational while the failed section is repaired, although the process may operate at
less than peak efficiency.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTING A DCS

Depending upon the application and design, the controllers differ in size,I/O capability,range
of functions & architectural parameters.
• Controller size
This refers to the number of function blocks and or language statements that can be
executed by the controller, as well as the number of process I/O channels provided by
the controller.
• Controller functionality
This refers to the mix of function blocks or language statements provided by the
controller (continuous control,logic control,arithmetic functions,or combinations of the
above) and also the mix of process input and output types provided by the controller.
Controller scalability
• Controller performance
It is the rate at which the controller scans inputs process function blocks or language
statements,and generates outputs and also includes the accuracy with which the controller
performs these operations.

• Communication channels
In addition to the process inputs and output channels the controller must provide other
communication channels to operator interface devices and to other controllers and devices in the
system. The number type and speed of these channels are key controller design parameters.

• Controller output security

In real-time process control system a mechanism must be provided usually manual backup
or redundancy to ensure that the control output is maintained despite a controller failure so that
a process shutdown can be avoided.

Other important features to examine in the selection of a DCS for continuous processes:
--Span of control (the number of points that can be handled)

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--The number of operator stations supported and the incremental cost of adding operator
stations
--The extent and accessibility of distributed databases
--The ability to reconfigure control software without shutting down the process

Advantages of DCS:

Flexibility – probably the most outstand advantage particularly changing the control strategies and
expanding easily both size and capabilities of DCS

Lower installed cost

In the process can profit from extensive use of complex controls, then DCS is particularly
favorable because conventional system require so much hardware and labor to accomplish similar
function. One of the key saving is reduced cost of field wiring (or cabling)

Higher reliability

In the DCS even if the man-machine interface has failed, the controller will continue to control
the process and even if the controller fails it may affect either one or few loops. Reliability is further
ensured by providing 100% redundancy for critical parts of the system.

Diagnostic facility

DCS offers automatic diagnostics to show system problems and helps in speeding up
troubleshooting. If any hardware failure occurs it is displayed on the CRT and alerts the operator
through in audible alarm by showing in which station which card/power supply failed. Software failure
is also announced as in which file what type of error has occurred.

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comparison of hardwired and distributed control system:

LOCAL CONTROL UNIT ARCHITECTURE

Introduction
The local control unit (LCU) is the smallest collection of hardware in the distributed control
system that performs closed-loop control. That is, it takes inputs from process-measuring devices and
commands from the operator and computers the control outputs needed to make the process follow the

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commands. It then sends the control outputs to make the process follow the commands. It then sends
the control outputs to the actuators, drives, values, and other mechanical devices that regulate the flows,
temperature, pressures, and other variables to be controlled in the plant. Since an LCU malfunction can
cause a condition that is hazardous to both people and equipment, its proper design is critical to the safe
and efficient operation of the plant.

Basic elements of a microprocessor-based controller

The basic elements of a generalized microprocessor-based LCU can be defined as shown in the
Figure. The microprocessor along with its associated clock comprise the central processing unit (CPU)
of the controller. Read only memory (ROM) is used for permanent storage controller programs, and
random-access semiconductor memory (RAM) is used for temporary storage of information. Depending
on the type of microprocessor used, RAM and ROM can be located on the microprocessor chip or on
separate memory chips.
The LCU also must have input/output (I/O) circuitry so that it can communicate with the
external world by reading in, or receiving, analog and digital data as well as sending similar signals out.
Generally, the CPU communicates with the other elements in the LCU over an internal shared bus data
that transmits addressing, data control, and status information in addition to the data.

The controller structure shown in the Figure is the minimum required to perform basic control
function. In a non critical application in which the control function never changes, this structure might
be adequate (e.g., in a home appliance whose failure would not cause a safety problem).
The control algorithms could be closed in assembly language and loaded into ROM. After the
controller was tuned on, it would read inputs, execute the control algorithms, and generate control
outputs in a fixed cycle indefinitely. However, because the situation is not this simple in industrial
control applications, the controller structure shown in Figure 2.1 must be enhanced to include the
following:

1. Flexibility of changing the control configuration – In industrial applications the same controller
product usually is used to implement a great variety of different control strategies. Even for a
particular strategy, the user usually wants the flexibility of changing the control system tuning
parameters without changing the controller hardware. Therefore, the control configuration

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cannot configuration cannot be burned into ROM but must be stored in a memory medium
whose contents can be changed, such as RAM. Unfortunately, RAM is usually implemented
using semiconductor technology that is volatile; that is it loss its contents if the power is turned
off (whether due to power failure. routine maintenance, or removal of the controller from its
cabinet). Therefore. Some provision must be made for restoring the control configuration,
either from an external source or form a nonvolatile memory within the controller itself.
2. Ability to use the controller without being a computer expert-The typical user of an industrial
control system is generally familiar with the process to be controlled. Knows the basics of
control system design, and has worked with electric analog or pneumatic control systems
before. However, the user is usually not capable of or interested in programming a
microprocessor in assembly language. He or she simply wants to be able to implement the
selected control algorithms. Therefore, a mechanism for allowing the user to “configure” the
LCU’s control algorithms in relatively simple way must be provided.
3. Ability to bypass the controller in case it fails so that the process still can be controlled
manually-Shutting down the process is very expensive and undesirable for the control system
user. Since all control equipment has the potential of failing no matter how carefully it has
been designed, the system architecture must allow an operator to “take over” the control loop
and run it by hand until the control hardware is repaired or replaced.
4. Ability of the LCU to communicate with there LCU's and other elements in the system has
shown in the generalized system architecture in Figure 1.4 Controllers in an industrial control
system do not operate in isolation but must work in conjunction with other controllers, data
I/O devices and human interface devices. A mechanism for allowing the LCU to perform this
interaction must be provided.

A COMPARISON OF ARCHITECTURES
While the above Figure describes basic element of all microprocessor based local control units,
the current offerings of controllers in the marketplace exhibit endless variations on this structure. The
controllers differ in size. I/O capability range of functions provided, and other architectural parameters
depending on the application and the vendor who designed the equipment.
Architectural Parameters
When evaluating the controllers on the market when specifying a new one, the control system
designer is faced with the problem of choosing a controller architecture that best meets the needs of the
range of applications in which the controller is to be used. Some of the major architectural parameters
that must be selected included the following:

1. Size of controller-This refers to the number of function blocks and or language statements that
can be executed by the controller, as well as the number of process I/O channels provided by
the controller.
2. Functionality controller-This refers to the mix of function blocks or language statements
provided by the controller (e.g.. continuous control, logic control, arithmetic functions, or
combinations of the above). This also refers to the mix of process input and output types (e.g..
analog or digital) provided by the controller.
3. Performance of controller-This refers to the rate at which the controller scans inputs processes
function blocks or language statements, and generates outputs; it also includes the accuracy
with which the controller performs these operations.

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4. Communication channels out of controller-In addition to process inputs and output channels
the controller must provide other communication channels to operator interface devices and to
other controllers and devices in the system. The number type and speed of these channels are
key controller design parameters.
5. Controller output security-In a real-time process control system a mechanism must be provided
usually manual backup or redundancy to ensure that the control output is maintained despite a
controller failure so that a process shutdown can be avoided .

Figure 4.6 LCU Architecture- A

onfigu ration A

Figure 4.6 LCU Architecture- B

Configu ration A

Figure 4.6 LCU Architecture- C

Cnfigu ration A
Unfortunately, it is not generally possible to select any one of these architectural parameters
independently from all of the others. Since there is a great degree of interaction among them. Therefore,
selecting the best combination for the range of applications to be considered is more a matter of
engineering judgment than a science. Each vendor of microprocessor based systems has a different
view of the range of applications intended for the controller and as a result designs an LCU architecture
that quite often differs from that of its competitors.
To illustrate some of the difference in LCU architectures, three representative LCU
configurations are shown in Figures 2.3 through 2.5 They are not intended to represent particular
commercially available products but rather, different classes of controllers on the market today.
Configuration A(Figure 2.3 represents a class of single-loop LCU that provides both analog and digital

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inputs and outputs and executes both continuous and logic function blocks. Configuration B (Figure
2.4) represents an architecture in which two different types of LCU’s implement the full range of
required continuous and logic functions.
Configuration C (Figure 2.5) represents a multi loop controller architecture in which both
continuous and logical functions are performed. For each example, the architecture is defined in terms
of its analog and digital I/O capacity and its continuous and logic function block capacity. In Table 2.1;
these architectures are compared on the basis of the parameters defined previously: size, functionality,
performance, communications, and output security provisions.
Table 2.1. Comparison of Architectures
ARCHITECTURE CONFIGURATION A CONFIGURATION B CONFIGURATION
PARAMETERS (SINGLE –LOOP) (2 LCU TYPES) C (MULTI-LOOP)
Controller size Number of functions Includes functions and System size is
needed for single PID I/O needed for eight equivalent to small
loop or motor control loops and a DDC system.
controller. small logic controller.
Controller Uses both continuous Continuous and logical Uses both
functionality and logic function function blocks split continuous and
blocks. between controllers logical function
blocks; can support
high-level
languages.
Controller scalability High degree of Requires both Not scalable to very
scalability from small controller types even in small systems.
to large systems smaller systems.
Controller Requirements cam be Because of functional Hard ware must be
performance met with inexpensive split performance high performance to
hardware requirements are not execute a large
expensive. number of
functions.
Communication Need intermodule Functional separation Large
channels communications for requires closer communication
control: only minimum interface between requirement to
needed for human controller types. human interface :
interface. minimum between
controllers
Controller output Controller has single Lack of single loop Size of controller
security loop integrity: usually integrity requires requires redundancy
only manual backup is redundancy in critical in all applications.
needed applications.

LOCAL CONTROL UNIT LANGUAGE

Since the local control unit (LCU) is a microprocessor-based device, the only functions of its
hardware elements are to bring signals in and out of the device and to provide an environment for the
execution of its programs stored in read-only memory. The control and computing functions that the
LCU performs are defined by these programs and by the parameters stored in nonvolatile memory. Of
course, the programs and parameters are stored in the LCU memories in the form of bits (binary digits-
0s and 1s) and bytes (groups of eight bits) as in the case of any computer-based device. Unfortunately,
the user of the distributed control system is not likely to be fluent in this machine-level-language of bits
and bytes. Therefore, a higher-level language must be provided to allow him to interact with the digital
hardware in defining the control and computational functions to be implemented in the LCU.

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LANGUAGE REQUIREMENTS
The control-oriented language selected for use in a distributed control system has a critical
impact on how well the user accepts the system. Since this language is one of the primary mechanisms
by which the user interfaces with the system. Therefore, one of the first requirements on the language
is that it must allow the user to specify the control and computing functions to be implemented in the
LCU in a comfortable manner. The definition of comfortable depends to a great extent on the
background of the user.
A user who has had experience primary in the area of conventional control devices probably is
not interested in becoming a computer programmer simply to use the control system. The user is used
to selecting control functions in the form of dedicated hardware modules (e.g.. summer, integrator, or
PID control modules), then interconnecting these modules and tuning them to implement the desired
control strategy. Such a user would like to interact with the distributed control system in a similar
manner-configuring the control strategy instead of programming it. On the other hand, a user who
comes from a computer control back ground is used to the power and flexibility of a general-purpose
computer language. This kind of user would not be disturbed by the prospect of doing some
programming to implement the precise control function in mind for the application. Selecting the
control language (or languages) for the LCU must take into account the needs of both these types of
user.
Another requirement is that the language must allow the user to implement at least the set of
control functions that have been provided in the past by conventional analog, sequential and
programmable control systems. Communication functions also are required to allow the LCU’s to
exchange information with other elements in the distributed control system. A representative list of
these control and communication functions includes:
1. Data acquisition and Signal conditioning functions. Such as input scanning, filtering,
linearization and conversion to engineering unit
2. Limit checking and alarming functions:
3. Modulating control function, including proportional-integral-durative (PID) control with all its
variations:
4. Sequential control functions implementing Boolean logics such as AND. OR. and NOT and
related functions. Such as time delays and latches:
5. Computational functions such as arithmetic addition subtraction multiplication and division
trigonometric (e.g. sine and cosine) and dynamic signal processing (integral derivative and
filter) fruitions:
6. Signal output functions both for control and for driving recorders and indicators:
7. Communication functions to allow signal transmissions between the LCU and other controllers
and elements in the distributed control system:
8. Communication functions to human interface devices that allow operators and engineers to
interact with the LCU.

Another desirable feature is for the language to allow the user to modify these standard
functions or to include custom functions within the control language structure. As the LCU’s become
more powerful in processing capability it is becoming feasible and cost-effective to distribute functions
previously performed by a central computer into the LCU’s.
These functions include plant performance monitoring long-term data storage and retrieval and
computing of optimal set points for plant operation. In the past these functions have been implemented

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using a general purpose programming language. Such as FORTRAN or BASIC in the central computer.
Therefore it is essential that the LCU’s be able to support these types of high level language so that the
user can make use of software already in his or her program library or available as standard commercial
packages.
As much as possible the control language selected should be transportable: that is it should not
be dependent on the microprocessor used in the LCU. There are two reasons for this requirement: (1)
the user may want to implement the same control logic on systems provided by different vendors. and
(2) the same control logic should be usable if the control system vendor decides to upgrade the LCU by
going to a new more powerful microprocessor.
Obviously the control language must be compatible with the hardware environment in which it
will run and with the performance requirements of the control system. The system must provide for
sufficient memory capacity to store the control algorithms and data in the LCU. The microprocessor
selected must be powerful enough to execute the control algorithms fast enough to meet the needs of
the process to be controlled.
The major language alternatives currently available to the industrial control user are:
1. Function blocks, preprogrammed functions whose parameters can be set by the user and which
can be linked together much like traditional discrete hardware modules:
2. Problem-oriented languages (POLs) that are customized for a specific type of control
application:
3. High-level language that offer the user some degree of flexibility in designing his or her own
control algorithms while maintaining compatibility with function blocks or POLs in the system.

FUNCTION BLOCKS
In current distributed control systems the most prevalent prepackaged control language at the
LCU level is one of function block. In this language approach, the user receives a standard library of
control and stored in ROM. The user then configures the control system by selecting the appropriate
blocks from the library linking them together and setting the various input and tuning parameters
associated with each block. Table 3.1 gives one example of a library of function blocks used an a
commercially available controller. It is clear from the example that many of the functions provided are
very similar to those available using hardware modules in discrete modulating and sequential control
systems. However, the functional capabilities of the software function blocks goes beyond that of
hardware modules in several areas:
Examples of function block library:
Sum-2 input 4 Integrator
Multiply Lead/Lag
Divide Moving average
Square root Analog time delay
Yx Ex High/low limit
LogX in X Rate time
Trigonometric Signal status functions
Generalised polynomials High/low alarm
Two-dimensional interpolation High/low select
Matrix addition Analog transfer
Matrix multiplication Digital transfer
Control functions Logic functions
PID control AND

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Pulse Positioner OR
Adapt block Qualified OR
Smith predicator NOT
General predicator Latch
Inter module communications Digital Timer
Analog input Up/Down counter
Analog input list Remote control latch
Analog output Pulse rate controller
Digital input Operator communications
Digital input list Control station
Digital output Indicator station
Ratio station

1. Functions are provided that would be very difficult or expensive to implement in hardware.
Example include the analog time-delay block used in the control of processes that have
transport delays the adapt block (which allows running parameters in one functions block to be
adjusted from an externally computed or transmitted signal). and the more complex
computational blocks (e.g.. exponential functions and matrix operations).
2. Since the functions blocks are implement in software instead of in hardware. One can easily
alter the control configuration without changing any controller wiring or purchasing additional
hardware assuming that the controller’s function block capacity has not been exceeded).
3. The computational capability of the digital controller allows the conversion of all physical
inputs to the system to engineering units (e.g.. from milliamps and volts to degrees Celsius or
pressure in atmospheres). All of the control and computing operations can then be carried out
using engineering units there by eliminating tedious scaling and conversion operations required
in conventional analog control systems.

Example of Continuous Control

To introduce the function block concept, Figure 2.2 gave an example of how function blocks
are used in configuring a control strategy. This example can be interpreted as the implementation of a
simple flow control loop. Inputs 1 and 2 are the physical inputs to the LCU: input 1 is the flow set point
from an external operator input device, and input 2 is a signal input from a differential pressure
transducer. To convert input 2 is a signal, the user selects the square-root function
block from the library and identifies its input as coming from physical input2.
The user then enters appropriate values of the gain and bias parameters to accomplish the
desired square-root function and convert the input signal to engineering units (say, flow in gallons per
minute). Next the user selects the difference block in order to generate an error signal between the
actual flow and the flow set point. Again, the user identifies the inputs to the difference block and
chooses the gain corresponding to input 1 so that the set point also is in units of gallons per minute.
Using the output of the difference block as its input.

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Fig. 4.9 Continuous control example

The user then selects a proportional-integral (PI) block to perform the control function. The
tuning parameters (proportional gain and integral gain) that are appropriate for the valve and process
dynamics then are selected, and the high low control limits (if any) are set. Once the PI block output is
linked to the physical output from the LCU the control configuration is complete. Once the control
configuration has been created the LCU can be put on-line so that it can start executing the algorithms
in the configuration. In most systems, the function block parameters that do not affect the control
configuration can be turned changes while the LCU is on-line however, the LCU generally mist
be taken off-line if the control configuration itself must be changed. (This is equivalent to rewiring an
analog control system.)

PROBLEM-ORIENTED LANGUAGES
As in the function block approach to defining control system logic, problem-oriented languages
(POLs) do not require the user to have a knowledge of computer programming. In general, these are
special-purpose languages: each one is tailored to a particular vendor’s hardware, specific control
application, or both.
There are two popular types for POL: fill-in-the-form and batch languages. In the first type,
the user decides what the configuration of the control system will be and then literally fills in forms
provided by the vendor. This defines the configuration using the vendor’s hardware/software system. a
technician then enters the control configuration into the LCU through a terminal or other device, using
the form as the source of the input data. This approach was developed during the early years of computer
control systems as a first attempt on the part of vendors to provide prepackaged software for
nonprogrammers.
Figure gives an example of the fill-in-the-from approach to defining a single PID loop. Note
that this is an expanded version of the PID function in the programmable controller example in Figure
3.5. since a different form must be filled out for every function, it is clear that a large amount of
paperwork is involved in configuring a complex control scheme. On the other hand, once the forms
have been filled out, they provide a convenient means of documenting the control system configuration
for the user.
While this control language approach does not require user programming as such, it suffers
form the following defects:
1. The user cannot easily determine the structure of the control system from the form entries
themselves: separate documentation must be maintained to define the overall structure.

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2. The definition procedure is tedious and has more of the flavor of programming than any
other approach.
3. There is little or no standardization in the forms from one vendor to another.
The second popular type of POL is the batch language, used in control application of the same
name. It consists of a set of commands that direct the LCU to perform certain operations, such as
opening a valve, ramping a temperature (moving it from one value to another), or filling a tank.
Associated with each of the commands in one or more parameters that define the valve to be opened,
the beginning and end temperatures in a ramp, the time of the ramp, and so forth. Figure 3.7 lists a set
of example.
Initial Conditions: L1 = 0
V1, V2, V3 are closed.
Agitator is stopped.
Batch Program: START PROCESS
OPEN V1
WAIT UNTIL L1 = 10
CLOSE V1
START AGITATOR
START TIMER
ACTIVATE CONTROLLER C1
WAIT UNTIL TIMER = 10
DEACTIVATE CONTROLLER C1
WAIT UNTIL TIMER = 10
DEACTIVATE CONTROLLER C1
CLOSE V3
STOP AGITATOR
OPEN V2
WAIT UNTIL L1 = 0
CLOSE V2
STOP PROCESS
CONTROLLER C1 PARAMETERS:
Loop Tag: TC1 Proportional Gain: 1.5
Set Point Source: STA4 Rest Time: 30 min
Engineering Units: Deg. F Derivative Time: 30.0 min
Process Variable: T1 Track Set Source: R4
PV S PAN values: 0-300 Track Ref. Value: 0
Loop Output: v3 Scan Period 5 sec.

Batch language statements

A batch language can consume a significant amount fo processor and memory resources in the
OCU. Therefore, batch languages have not proved to be cost-effective for many general-purpose control
applications. As in the case of fill-in-the-from languages, batch control languages have been used
mainly in computer control applications. As the computing capabilities of microprocessor-based LCU’s
continue to increase, however, it is clear that LCU will be designed to support the use to batch control
languages.

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES
Until the early 1980s, high-level programming languages such as FORTRAN, BASIC, and
PASCAL) were restricted primarily to larger minicomputer systems used in direct digital
control, supervisory control, or data acquisition applications. In industrial control, they were not
seriously considered for use in dedicated microprocessor-based systems for a number of reasons. First.

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The performance and memory capabilities of the microcomputer hardware available were not inclined
to learn high-level programming languages. They were more comfortable with the other language
approaches., including function block and fill-in-the-form languages, discussed earlier.
However, this situation has changed significantly for a number fo reasons:
1. The increasingly widespread use of personal computer is creating a class of users who are
comfortable with certain high-level languages, such as BAISC.
2. Control system engineers are becoming more sophisticated and are demanding control
capabilities that are more specialized than can be provided by means of standard,
“canned” functions.
3. The continuing explosion in the performance capability of microprocessor and memory
systems is allowing the migration of control functions formerly performed by a computer
down into the level of the LCU. Therefore, functions formerly implemented in high-level
languages (e.g., supervisory control or plant performance calculations) can now be
considered for implementation in the LCU. While many of these functions can be
implemented using function blocks of POLs, the remainder require a high-level language
implemented at the LCU level

OPERATOR INTERFACE
introduction:
This automated equipment to be the use in safe an defective manner, however, it is absolutely
necessary to have a sell-engineered human interface system to permit error-free interactions between
the humans and the automated system. two distinct groups of plant personnel interact with the control
system on a regular basis:
1. Instrumentation and control system engineers – Theses people are responsible for setting up the
control system initially and adjusting and maintaining it from time to time afterwards:
2. plant operators- These people are responsible for monitoring. Supervising, and running the
process through the control system during startup, operation, and shutdown conditions
as the generalized distributed control system architecture in shows a human interface capability can be
provided at one or both or two levels:
1. Through a low-level human interface (LLHI) connected directly to the local control unit or data
input/output unit (DI/OU) via dedicated cabling:
2. through a high-level human interface (HLHI) connected to an LCU or DI/OU only through the
shard communications facility.

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Figure. Geographically Centralized Control Configuration

The low-level human interface equipment used in distributed control systems usually resembles
the panel board instrumentation (stations, indicators, and recorders) and thing devices used in
conventional electronic the at least display technology (e.g., CRTs or flat-panel displays) and
peripheral) devices (e.g., printers and magnetic storage) that are available on the market: it is configured
in a console arrangement that allows operator and engineer to be seated during use.
When it is included in the system configuration, the LLHI generally is located geographically
close to (within 100-200 feet of ) the LCU or DI/OU to which it is connected. on the other hand, the
HLHI can be located any where in the plant, including the central control room. The needs of the
application will determine whether the particular installation has one or both levels of interface.
Figure illustrates a relatively small and simple installation. A single LCU located in the plant
equipment room and the plant level human interface units locate in the plant equipment room
(sometimes called the relay room) performs all of the required control functions. Low-level human
interface units located in the equipment room and the plant control room provide the complete operator
and instrument engineer interface for the control system. this type of equipment configuration is typical
of a standalone control system for a small process or of a small digital control system installed in a plant
controlled primarily with conventional electrical analog or pneumatic equipment.

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Figure . : Geographically distributed control configuration

Figure shows a typical structure of a complete plant wide control system. Several LCUs are
used to implement the functions required in controlling the process; therefore, the control is functionally
distributed. However, the LCUs are all located in a central equipment room area, and so it is not a
geographically distributed control system. both high-level and low-level human interface devices are
located in the control room area for operational purposes most of the operator control functions are
performed using the high-level interface; the low-level interface is included in the configuration
primarily to serve as a backup in case the high-level interface fails. A high-level human interface is
located in the instrument engineer’s area so that control system monitoring and analysis can be done
without disturbing plant operations. This type of installation is typical of early distributed control
system configurations in which equipment location and operator interface design followed conventional
practices.
The Figure shows a fully distributed control system configuration. In this case, each LCU is
located in the plant area closest to the portion of the process that it controls. Associated low-level human
interface equipment (if provided) is also located in this area. The control room and instrument
engineering areas contain high-level human interface units, which are used to perform all of the primary
operational and engineering functions. The low-level units are used only as manual backup controls in
case the high-level equipment fails or needs maintenance. This configuration takes advantage of tow
areas of equipment savings that result from a totally distributed system architecture: (1) reduction in
control room size (by eliminating panelboard equipment), and (2) reduction in field wiring costs (by
placing LCUs near the process).
These examples of system configurations illustrate the point that human interface equipment in
distributed control system must be designed to meet a wide range of applications:
1. Large as well as small systems;
2. centralized equipment configurations (often used in retrofit installations made long after
original plant construction sas well as distributed ones likely in “grass roots” installations made
during plant construction:

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3. variety of human interface philosophies, ranging from accepting CRT-only operation to

requiring panelboard instrumentation in at least a backup role.

OPERATOR INTERFACE REQUIRMETNS

Despite the continuing trend toward increased automation in process control and less reliance
on the operator, the basis responsibilities of the operator have remained largely the same in the last fifty
sears most of the changes have come in the relative emphasis on the various operator functions and the
means provided to accomplish them. As a result, the operator interface in distributed control system
must allow the operator to perform tasks in the following traditional areas of responsibility: process
monitoring, process control, process diagnostics, and process record keeping. In addition, it is important
to design the operator interface system using human factors design principles (also called ergonomics)
to ensure that the operator can perform these tasks in an effective manner with that the operator can
perform these tasks in an effective manner with minimum risk or confusion error.

Operator Displays
The panelboard in a conventional control room uses many square feet of dedicated instruments
to provide the operator with the information and mechanisms needed to control the plant. In theory, the
operator has simultaneous access to all of these instrument s at one time, since they all are physically
located in the same room. In practice, of course, the operator must move about the room to be able to
see the indicators and manipulate the various stations needed to control the plant.
The video display unit in an system, in contrast provides a “window” to the process path allows
the operator to see only a relatively small amount of information at any one time on one or more CRT
displays. The operators is able to monitor and control the whole process only by calling up a number of
these displays, which usually are arrang3ed in a fixed logical structure or hierarchy. If this display
structure and the associated display access mechanisms are designed properly, the will provide the
operator with much faster access to the needed information than is possible by moving around a
panelboard (see Reference 6.8).

Typical Display Hierarchy. The flexibility of CRT display technology makes it possible to conceive
a great number of different display structures that would be appropriate for industrial control systems.
A typical version of this hierarchy, illustrated in Figure 6.13, is composed of displays at four levels :

1. Plant level-Displays this level provide information concerning the entire plant, which (if large
enough) can be broken up into several areas of interest.
2. Area level-Displays at this level provide information concerning a portion of the plant
equipment that is related in some way, e.g., a train of separation processes in a refinery or a
boiler-turbine-generator set in a power plant.
3. Group level- Displays at this level deal with the control loops and data points relating to a single
process unit within a plant area, such as a distillation column or a cooling tower.
4. Loop level- Displays at this level dean with individual control loops, control sequences, and
data points.

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This general display structure is attractive from several points of view first, it covers the full
range of detail of information that is likely to be of interest to the operator, from overall plant conditions
to the status of each lop in the plant. Also, it allows for the grouping of available information in a way
that matches the structure of the process itself. Finally it provides a mechanism that allows the operator
to from a mental model of the relationships between the various pieces of information in the plant. This
is similar to the mental model of a panelboard that develops in the mind of an operator after gaining
experience with its layout. After a period of weeks or months, the operator no longer has to refer to the
labels on the panelboard to find a particular instrument, but moves to it instinctively. Similarly, a
meaningful display structure such as the one shown in Figure 6.13 allows the operator to learn to move
from one display to the next in a smooth and efficient manner.

Plant-Level Displays.
Typically, at the top level of this structure is a single type of plant of plant status display
(perhaps consisting of several pages) as Figure 6.14 illustrates. This display summarizes the day
information needed to provide the operator with the “big pocture” of current plant conditions. This
example shows the overall production level at which the plant is operating compared to full capacity. It
also indicates how well the plant is running (e.g., by plotting efficiency of energy usage) In addition,
some of the key problem areas (e.g., equipment outages or resource shortages) are displayed. A
summary of the names of the various areas in the plant serves as a main menu (index) to the next level
of displays. At the top of the plant-status display is a status line of information provided in all operating
displays. This line shows the current day of the week, the date, and the time of day for display labeling
purposes. In addition, it provides a summary of process alarms and equipment diagnostic alarms by
listing the numbers of the plant areas in which outstanding alarms exist. (The subject of alarming is
discussed further in Section 6.4.5)

Area-Level Displays.
After obtaining a summary of the plant status display hierarchy, the operator can move down
to the next level to look at the situation in a selected plant area. This can be done by means of several
types of displays; Figure 6.15 shows a composite of four of these types. The top line of the display is

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the system data and status line described previously. The upper left quadrant illustrates an area display
type known as deviation overview, which display in bar graph form the deviation of key process
variables from their corresponding set points. The deviation of key process variables from their
corresponding set points.
The deviations are usually normalized to reflect a percentage of total span, and are clustered
into a number of groups within each area. If the absolute value of deviation exceeds a predetermined
level (e.g., 5 percent of span) the process variable enters a deviation-alarm status condition and the bar
graph for that variable changes color. This approach to overview display derives from the green-band
concept in conventional analog instrumentation, in which the manual-auto stations for continuous
control loops are arranged side by side in a row on the panelboard. For each loop, if the process variable
is within a small percentage of the set point, the analog pointer for that variable remains hidden behind
a green band on the station face. The operator then can determine which loops are upset by simply
scanning the row of stations and seeing which pointers are outside the green band. The deviation
overview display provides the operator with the same information in a CRT display format.
The lower left quadrant of Figure 6.15 shows a variation of this approach in which a bar graph
indicates the absolute value of the process variable instead of its deviation from set point. some versions
of this display also show the set point and the high and low alarm limits on the process variable. When
one of these limits is exceeded, the bar graph changes than the previous one in that it accommodates
the alarming of process variables that are not used in control loops as well as those that are.

The two display types just described essentially mimic the analog portions of a conventional
panelboard. The upper right-hand quadrant of Figure 6.15 shows another approach to the area overview
display. Here the tag numbers of the various loops and process variables are arranged in clusters by
group. If the point associated with a particular tag is not in alarm, its tag number is displayed in a low-
key color. If it does go into alarm, it changes color and starts flashing to get the attention of the operator.
Underlining also can be used under the tag number, so that a colorblind operator still can see the alarm

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state clearly. This format of an overview display is similar to that of an alarm annuciator panel in a
conventional panelboard.
The lower right-hand quadrant shows a variation of this display. In addition to the tag number
it self, the current value of the process variable is displayed in engineering units to the right of the tag.
This provides the operator with information on the values of the key variables in a group in addition to
their alarm status.
In come implementations of area overview displays several of these approaches may be
intermixed in a single display. Also tow other types of area-level display often are provided:

1. Area graphics display-This display is similar to a piping-and-in strumentation diagram (P&ID)

or mimic panel used on conventional panelboards to illustrate the process equipment and its
associated instrumentation. It usually is designed to provide the same type of information that
other area displays give: alarm status and perhaps current values of key process variables. the
capabilities and use of graphics displays are discussed in more detail later in this section.
2. Alarm summary display – This display is simply a listing of the most current alarms that are
still outstanding in the area. Its format is similar to that of an alarm log produced by a computer,
and would include the following information on the points in alarm: tag number and description
of point in alarm, time of alarm, types of alarm (e.g., deviation, high, and low), current value
of point, and current alarm status (e.g., in alarm or not in alarm, returned to normal,
acknowledged or not acknowledged).

Group-Level Displays. The displays at the and area levels of the hierarchy in Figure 6.13 are designed
to provide the operator with information on the alarm and operational status of the key process variables
in the plant. To perform control operations, however, it is necessary of use the displays at the next lower
level in the hierarchy – the group level. As in the case of the higher-level displays, many of the display
formats at the group level are patterned after the layout of panelboard instrumentation designed to
accomplish similar functions.

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Figure shows one example of a typical group display. Mimics of manual and automatic stations
for continuous control lops occupy the upper left-hand corner of the display. These mimics include all
of the elements contained in a similar panelboard station: bar graphs showing values of set point, control
output, and process variables: manual, automatic, and cascade mode indicators; high and low alarm
levels; and other information as needed for the type of station implemented. (The next section will
discuss the mechright section of Figure 6.16 shows indicator stations that let the operator view (but not
control) selected process variables.
Also in this section is a logic operations such as opining and closing valves, as well as starting
or stopping sequential control sequences (e.g., for batch processes). The bottom half of the display is
devoted to plotting the trends of one or more process variables as a function of time, mimicking the
operation of a trend recorder on a panelbord. In some operator interface system, each screen “page” of
a group display can use only one type of station ro trend recorder: other provide much more flexibility
by allowing the user to mix and match the types on each display.
The type of group display shown in Figure 6.16 can be viewed as the equivalent of a section of
panelboard in conventional type of operator interface. Switching from one group display to another is
the equivalent of having the operator move around a panelboard to accomplish the monitoring and
control function. the CRT-based “panelboard” offers the user some significant benefits over the
conventional panelboard, however. first stations and recorders can be added to or removed from the
CRT “panelboard” by reconfiguring displays rather than cutting or patching real holes in a panel and
procuring additional instrumentation hardware. This provides a significant flexibility advantage during
initial plant startup. At which time the user often discovers that additional stations or recorders would
be very helpful in plant operations. Another benefit is that one can duplicate stations and recorders in
several displays without any additional hardware. This duplication capability can be significant aid to
improving plant operations-one whose cost could not be justified in a conventional panelboard.

Figure 3. Example of a Control Graphics Display

Of course, the capabilities of a VDU permit the configuration of operator displays that go
well beyond simple replacement of panelboard functions. One example of this is the graphic display for
a piping-and-instrumentation diagram (P&ID), shown in Figure 6.17. This differs from the area level
P&ID display described previously in two respects:
1. The scope of process covered is smaller- a group rather than an entire area.
2. Control capability is included in addition to the monitoring capability provided in area P&ID.

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The controller station shown on the right side of the display allows the operator to perform
control functions. The operator is able to select on e of the control loops shown on the graphic through
one of several possible mechanisms described in the next section can be used to perform a sequence
control or batch control operation using the graphic display.
It should be noted that in some systems, selected controller stations or logic stations on a
particular console can be designated as monitor only the operator cannot perform any control actions
but can only monitor the station variables on the display. This capability is useful in ensuring that
operator control actions are coordinated when the consoles are physically distributed in several
locations in the plant.
Two other types of displays also have proved useful at the group level:
1. Batch control displays-These are menu-oriented displays that allow an operator to observe the
progression of a batch recipe (such as that shown in Figure In Chapter) and interact with the
sequence; start it, stop it, provide permissive to allow it to continue, and so forth. This class of
displays also allows the operator to diagnose problems in executing a sequence, such as
identifying the part of the process that is preventing the sequence from continuing.
2. Operator guides-These are advisory displays that provide the following kinds of information to
the operator: problems diagnosed by the automatic system, suggested alternative courses of
action in an emergency, or step-by-step startup and shutdown procedures for a piece of plant
equipment. These displays may combine alphanumeric and graphic information. One can think
of them as CRT-based substitutes for a set of plant operating manuals. They differ from manuals
in that they can take current plant conditions into account as well as simply provide standard
operating procedures to the operator.

Loop-Level Displays. The displays at the group level are the operator’s primary working displays. The
operator uses a few types of displays dealing with single loops or data points for control and analysis
purposes. Figure shows one example, the X-Y operating display. Here one process variable is plotted
as a function of another to show the current operating point of this pair of variables.

Figure : Example of an X-Y Operating Display

The operator then can compare this operating point against an alarm limit curve or an operating
limit curve. In the example shown in the figure, the combination of temperature and pressure for a
particular portion of the process may be critical to safety. Therefore, this pair of variables is made

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available to the operator in the X-Y formal shown. If this pair can be controlled directly,
manual/automatic stations also can be included in the display for direct operator manipulation. This
approach to control and display is not possible using standard panelboard instrumentation. The CRT
format makes it feasible and cost-effective. The above figure shows and example of a tuning display
another single-loop display that is of use to both operating personnel and instrumentation engineers.
This display includes several elements that make the tuning function possible:
1. A “feast” trend-plotting capability:
2. A manual/automatic station to allow the operator to control the loop:
3. A list of the tuning parameters (e.g., proportional band, reset rate, and derivative rate) with the
loop.
The trend graph is used to plot set-point changes (in automatic mode), manual control output
changes (in manual mode), and the resulting responses of the process variable being controlled, based
on these responses, the operator or instrumentation engineer can make on-line adjustments to the tuning
parameters to improve the performance of the control loop. This example of integrating control,
trending, and tuning functions is one illustration of the ability of the CRT-based operator interface to
provide the operator with a very usable and convenient tool for plant operation.

Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university

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Dr.G.Sakthivel / Professor / EIE / Annamalai university