CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES

Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), is the accepted training programme,
Which is part of the approved Minimum Academic Standard in the various degree programmes
for all Nigerian Universities. The scheme is aimed at bridging the existing gap between theory
and practice Of Sciences, Agriculture, Medical Sciences (including Nursing), Engineering and
Technology, Management, Information and Communication Technology, and other professional
educational programmes in the Nigerian tertiary institutions. It is aimed at exposing students to
machines and equipment, professional work methods, and ways of safeguarding the work areas
and workers in industries, offices, laboratories, hospitals, and other organizations.

It Is a cooperative industrial internship program that involves institutions of higher learning,

industries, the Federal Government of Nigeria, the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), and the
Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC).

1.1 HISTORY AND MEANING OF SIWES

The student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) was established as a result of the
realization by the Federal Government of Nigeria in 1973 of the need to introduce a new
dimension to the quality and standard of education obtained in the country in order to achieve the
much needed technological advancement. It has been shown that a correlation exists between a
country’s level of economic and technological development and its level of investment in
manpower development (Oniyide, 2000). The ITF solely funded the scheme during its formative
years. But due to the elevated rate of financial involvement, it was withdrawn from the scheme in
1978. In 1979, the Federal Government of Nigeria handed the scheme to both National
University Council (NUC) changed the management and implementation of SIWES fund to ITF.
It was effectively taken over by ITF in July 1985 with the funding being solely borne by the
Federal Government. The Federal Government, ITF, the Supervising agencies NUC, NBTE,
NCE (National commission for colleges of Education), Employers of Labor, and the Institutions
contribute it one quarter in the management of SIWES. The various responsibilities are as
follows:

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1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

i. To provide an avenue for students in tertiary institutions to acquire industrial skill and
experience in their course of study.

ii. To expose students to work methods and technique in handling equipment and
machineries that may not be available in the institution

iii. To prepare students for the situation that they are likely to meet after graduation

iv. To provide students with the opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real
work situation, thereby bridging the gap between the university work and the actual work
practices

v. To expose students to the latest development and technological innova8tions their chosen
professions.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 FEED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Nutrient inputs on a farm consist of feed, animals, irrigation water, fertilizer, legume nitrogen,
etc. Outputs are meat, milk, animals, crops, and manure. When inputs exceed outputs, losses will
be present in feed or barnyard waste, in manure, and in lot runoff, etc. These losses may result in
excess nutrient storage in the soil. Nutrients may leach through the soil (nitrate) into ground
water or run off the soil surface (phosphorus and nitrogen) and directly transported to surface
waters.

Each farm should be seen as a complete system or cycle with inputs, outputs, storage, losses, and
recycling all taking place. To illustrate, a 120-cow dairy farm will require 29.2 tons of nitrogen
and 2.6 tons of phosphorus per year. Outputs (meat, milk, fiber, etc.) will be 6.9 tons of nitrogen
and .8 tons of phosphorus, resulting in 22.3 tons of nitrogen and 1.8 tons of phosphorus for
disposal, usually through spreading on available land. Similar calculations can be made for all
livestock species.

2.2 FEEDING MANAGEMENT

Feeding a balanced diet, avoiding overfeeding, and providing abundant supplies of cool, clean,
and pure water will help to optimize feed and nutrient use on an animal farm. One way to
understand nutrient requirements is to imagine a stave barrel. Only when all staves making up
the barrel are the same length will water stay in the barrel. If all staves are 3 feet long, all the
water will stay in the barrel. However, if one stave is a foot and a half long, then all the water
will run out of the barrel to the level of a foot and a half

Overfeeding can be harmful to animals and to the environment. Animals that become over
conditioned or obese may be unproductive and at greater risk of health problems. Excess feed is
often wasted and may remain in the feeding area, become contaminated, and end up in the
manure pile. Water is the most abundant, cheapest, and least understood of all nutrients required
for livestock production. Water is of concern whenever it is in short supply or contamination is
suspected. If subfreezing temperatures turn water into a frozen nutrient, it will mean trouble for

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domestic livestock. Distress is often brought on by cold wet winter weather requiring an animal’s
digestive system and metabolic processes to function at peak efficiency to convert feedstuffs to
energy so that they can remain warm, healthy, and productive.

Feed management practices in animals refer to the strategies and techniques used by farmers,
breeders, and caregivers to provide their animals with a balanced and nutritious diet that meets
their specific needs. These practices are crucial for maintaining the health, productivity, and
well-being of the animals, as well as for ensuring the quality and safety of the food they produce.

There are several key feed management practices that are important to consider:

Nutrient balance: Animals have different nutritional requirements at different stages of their
lives, so it’s important to provide a diet that is balanced and tailored to their specific needs. For
example, young animals may require more protein and energy than adults, while pregnant or
lactating animals may require more calcium and other nutrients.

Feed quality: The quality of the feed provided to animals is crucial for their health and
productivity. High-quality feed is fresh, free of contaminants, and provides the necessary
nutrients and energy for the animals.

Feed formulation: Feed formulation involves mixing different ingredients to create a balanced
diet that meets the nutritional needs of the animals. This may involve using a combination of
grains, proteins, vitamins, and minerals to create a complete and balanced feed.

Feed storage and handling: Proper storage and handling of feed is important to maintain its
quality and nutritional value. Feed should be stored in clean, dry conditions and should be
protected from pests and moisture.

Feed rationing: Feed rationing involves providing the animals with the appropriate amount of
feed at the appropriate time. This may involve providing more feed during periods of high
energy demand, such as during growth or lactation, and less feed during periods of lower energy
demand.

Monitoring and adjustment: It’s important to regularly monitor the animals’ health and
productivity, and adjust their feed management practices as needed. This may involve adjusting
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the amount and type of feed provided, or adding supplements to ensure that the animals are
receiving all the necessary nutrients.

Feed management practices in animals are critical for maintaining their health, productivity, and
well-being. By providing a balanced and nutritious diet, farmers, breeders, and caregivers can
help ensure the quality and safety of the food produced by these animals, while also promoting
their overall welfare.

2.3 FEED CONSERVATION

2.3.1 Animal Feed Conservation

Animal feed conservation refers to the practices and techniques used to preserve and store feed
for livestock in order to ensure its quality and availability throughout the year. This is crucial for
farmers and animal producers to maintain the health and productivity of their livestock,
especially during periods of scarcity or adverse weather conditions. The conservation of animal
feed involves various methods such as drying, ensiling, haymaking, and chemical preservation to
prevent spoilage and degradation. Additionally, proper storage facilities and management are
essential to minimize losses and maintain the nutritional value of the feed.

2.3.2 Methods of Animal Feed Conservation

Drying: Drying is a common method used to reduce the moisture content of feed such as hay,
grains, and forages. This process inhibits microbial growth and enzymatic activity, thereby
preserving the feed’s quality. Sun drying, mechanical drying, and artificial drying are some of
the techniques employed based on the type of feed and environmental conditions.

Ensiling: Ensiling involves the fermentation of high-moisture forages such as grasses and
legumes in an airtight environment. This anaerobic fermentation process preserves the feed by
lowering its pH, inhibiting spoilage organisms, and retaining nutrients. Silage is a popular form
of conserved feed produced through ensiling.

Haymaking: Haymaking is the process of cutting, drying, and storing grasses or legumes as hay.
Properly cured hay can be stored for extended periods without significant loss of nutritional
value. Techniques such as rapid drying in the field and baling help in preserving hay quality.
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Chemical Preservation: Chemical additives can be used to inhibit microbial activity and mold
growth in stored feed. These additives include organic acids, propionic acid-based preservatives,
and microbial inoculants that enhance fermentation during ensiling.

2.3.3 Importance of Animal Feed Conservation

Animal feed conservation is vital for several reasons:

i. Ensuring a consistent supply of high-quality feed throughout the year

ii. Minimizing losses due to spoilage and degradation

iii. Preserving the nutritional value of feed ingredients

iv. Mitigating the impact of seasonal variations in forage availability

v. Supporting livestock health, growth, and productivity

vi. Challenges in Animal Feed Conservation

Several challenges are associated with animal feed conservation:

Weather Conditions: Adverse weather can hinder drying processes and affect forage quality.

Storage Infrastructure: Inadequate storage facilities may lead to spoilage and nutrient loss.

Microbial Activity: Microorganisms can proliferate in improperly conserved feed, leading to

spoilage.

Best Practices for Animal Feed Conservation

To address these challenges, best practices include:

Timely harvesting of forages at optimal maturity

Properly maintaining equipment for haymaking and ensiling

Regular monitoring of stored feed for signs of spoilage

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Implementing effective pest control measures in storage facilities

2.4 Livestock Handling

Livestock handling refers to the management and care of domesticated animals, including cattle,
sheep, pigs, and poultry. Proper handling of livestock is essential for their well-being, as well as
for the safety of the handlers and the quality of the end products such as meat, milk, and eggs.
Effective livestock handling involves understanding animal behavior, utilizing appropriate
handling techniques, and providing suitable facilities and equipment.

2.4.1 Importance of Livestock Handling

Livestock Welfare: Proper handling reduces stress and fear in animals, leading to improved
welfare and overall health. It also minimizes the risk of injuries and diseases.

Human Safety: Safe handling practices protect workers from accidents and injuries caused by
agitated or frightened animals.

Product Quality: Gentle handling minimizes bruising and stress-related changes in meat quality,
resulting in better-tasting and more nutritious products.

Efficiency: Effective handling techniques improve the efficiency of operations such as milking,
shearing, and transportation.

Principles of Livestock Handling

Understanding Animal Behavior: Knowledge of species-specific behavior helps handlers

anticipate reactions and respond appropriately.

Low-Stress Handling: Techniques such as using calm movements, avoiding loud noises, and
minimizing sudden changes help reduce stress in livestock.

Facility Design: Well-designed handling facilities with features like non-slip flooring, curved
chutes, and proper lighting facilitate smooth movement of animals.

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Training: Handlers should be trained in proper techniques to ensure consistent and effective
livestock management.

2.4.2 Techniques for Livestock Handling

Point of Balance: Understanding the point at which an animal will move forward or backward
helps in directing its movement effectively.

Flight Zone: Animals have a personal space or “flight zone,” understanding which allows
handlers to approach or move them without causing undue stress.

Herding: Proper herding techniques involve positioning oneself correctly to guide animals in the
desired direction without causing panic.

Restraint Methods: Various methods such as halters, chutes, and pens are used to restrain
animals for procedures like veterinary treatments or transportation.

2.5 Ethical Considerations

Humane Treatment: Ethical livestock handling involves treating animals with respect and
minimizing fear or pain during all interactions.

Regulatory Compliance: Many countries have regulations governing the treatment of livestock to
ensure their well-being throughout their lives.

Continuous Improvement: The industry continually seeks better practices through research and
innovation to enhance animal welfare standards.

2.6 Clinical Techniques In Livestock

Clinical techniques in animal husbandry involve a range of methods and procedures used to
ensure the health and well-being of animals raised for food or other purposes. These techniques
can vary depending on the species of animal, but some common clinical techniques used in
animal husbandry include:

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Physical examination: Regular physical examinations are important for identifying any health
issues or abnormalities in animals. This can involve checking the animal’s temperature, pulse,
respiration rate, and other vital signs, as well as performing a visual inspection of the animal’s
body for any signs of illness or injury.

Blood testing: Blood tests can be used to check for a variety of conditions, such as anemia,
infection, or nutritional deficiencies. Blood tests can also be used to screen for certain diseases or
conditions, such as brucellosis or tuberculosis.

Vaccination: Vaccination is an important tool in preventing infectious diseases in animals.

Vaccines can be administered to animals at different stages of their life, depending on the type of
vaccine and the disease being protected against.

Parasite control: Parasites, such as ticks, fleas, and worms, can cause a range of health problems
in animals. Clinical techniques in animal husbandry may include the use of parasiticides, such as
medicated dips, sprays, or injectables, to control parasite populations.

Dental care: Regular dental care is important for maintaining the health and well-being of
animals. Clinical techniques in animal husbandry may include dental examinations, dental
cleaning, and extractions of damaged or infected teeth.

Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to treat health issues in animals. For example,
surgery may be used to remove tumors, repair injuries, or correct anatomical defects.

Radiography: Radiography, or X-ray imaging, can be used to diagnose a range of health issues in
animals, such as bone fractures, lung disease, or foreign bodies.

Ultrasonography: Ultrasonography, or the use of high-frequency sound waves to create images

of the body, can be used to diagnose health issues in animals, such as pregnancy, liver disease, or
kidney disease.

Endoscopy: Endoscopy, or the use of a flexible tube with a camera and light on the end to
examine the inside of the body, can be used to diagnose health issues in animals, such as
gastrointestinal disease or respiratory disease.

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Nutritional support: Proper nutrition is essential for maintaining the health and well-being of
animals. Clinical techniques in animal husbandry may include the provision of nutritional
supplements or the modification of feed rations to ensure that animals are receiving the
appropriate amount and type of nutrients.

2.7 Marking and Identification of Animals

Marking and identification of animals are crucial for various reasons, including research,
conservation, management, and ownership. There are several methods used for marking and
identifying animals, each with its own advantages and limitations.

2.7.1 Physical Marking

Physical marking involves the use of visible marks or tags on an animal’s body. This can include
ear tags, leg bands, tattoos, and branding. Ear tags are commonly used for livestock and are
usually made of plastic or metal. They contain information such as the animal’s identification
number, owner details, and sometimes health information. Leg bands are often used for birds and
poultry, while tattoos and branding are more permanent forms of identification.

2.7.2 Electronic Identification

Electronic identification methods have become increasingly popular due to technological

advancements. Microchipping is a common method where a small electronic chip is implanted
under an animal’s skin. These chips contain a unique identification number that can be scanned
using a handheld reader. Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags are also used for tracking
and identifying animals in various industries.

2.7.3 Biological Markers

Biological markers involve using the animal’s biological characteristics for identification. DNA
profiling has become a powerful tool for individual animal identification. It is particularly useful
in wildlife conservation and forensic investigations. Additionally, biometric recognition systems
based on features such as facial recognition or unique patterns on animals’ bodies have been
explored for identification purposes.

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2.7.4 Behavioral Markers

Behavioral markers rely on the unique behaviors or movements of animals for identification.
This can include tracking individual animals based on their migration patterns, vocalizations, or
other behavioral traits. In some cases, advanced technologies such as GPS tracking devices are
used to monitor and identify animals based on their movement patterns.

2.7.5 Regulatory Requirements

In many jurisdictions, there are regulatory requirements for marking and identifying certain
categories of animals. This is often seen in livestock farming, where traceability is essential for
disease control and food safety. Additionally, wildlife management programs may require
specific marking or tagging protocols for research and conservation purposes.

2.8 Challenges and Considerations

While marking and identifying animals offer numerous benefits, there are challenges to consider.
These include the potential for tag loss or damage, the need for standardized systems to ensure
compatibility across different regions or organizations, ethical considerations regarding invasive
procedures for marking, and the cost associated with implementing these methods on a large
scale.

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 References

National Research Council. 1989, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Horses,
Poultry, Beef, Swine, and Dairy. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Ralston, S. L. 1993. Analysis of Feeds and Forages for Horses. Rutgers Cooperative Extension.
NJAES. Factsheet – FS714.

Singer, J. W. and D. L. Lee. 1999. Feed and Forage Testing Labs. Rutgers Cooperative
Extension. NJAES. Factsheet – FS935.

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