PROPERTIES OF

PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
FLUIDS
 DEFINITIONS

C Dry gas (gaseous @ any p,T

conditions)
C2-C4 LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas

C5-C8 Intermediate components or

condensates
C13+ Heavy fractions
Qualitative phase behavior
of hydrocarbon systems
 Multi-Component Systems
Pressure-Temperature diagram – phase diagram

UNDERSATURATED GAS- CONDENSATE SINGLE PHASE

OIL RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS GAS RESERVOIRS
 Multi-Component Systems

Definitions…..

Bubble Point: pressure at which the oil releases the first gas bubble

Dew Point: pressure at which the gas releases the first oil drop

Cricondentherm: highest temperature at which liquid can exist

Critical Point: The intensive properties of the liquid and the gas phases
become identical and they are no longer distinguishable
 Hydrocarbons at Reservoir Conditions

Tr > Tcricondentherm

E: Dry gas reservoirs
Surface/transport conditions are outside the
two phase envelope

Tr > Tcricondentherm

D: Wet gas reservoirs Surface/transport conditions are inside the
two phase envelope
 Hydrocarbons at Reservoir Conditions

C: Gas-condensate reservoirs Tc<Tr < Tcricondentherm

A: Under-saturated oil reservoirs

Tr<Tc
B: Saturated oil reservoirs

C.H. Whitson. M. R. Brule. 2000. Phase behavior. SPE Monograph Series. Richardson, Texas.
 Hydrocarbons at Reservoir Conditions

Gas-condensate reservoirs

p > pD 1 phase in reservoir

p ≤ pD As the pressure decreases, liquid or “condensate” is

formed. This happens until a limiting value of the
pressure, after which further pressure reduction
results in re-vaporization.
The region in which this phenomenon takes place is
called the “retrograde condensation” region, and
reservoirs with this kind of behaviour are called
“retrograde condensate reservoirs”.
 Hydrocarbons at Reservoir Conditions

BLACK OIL UNDERSATURATED

OIL SATURATED
VOLATILE OIL

DRY GAS
GAS
CONDENSED GAS
Phase Envelopes
 Volumetric Relations

Liberated Gas

Pressure

Temperature
Expansion of
Oil Oil Liberated gas Oil previously
liberated gas

Liberated gas
 Termodynamic Conditions

NORMAL CONDITIONS:
•p=1 atm (14.69 psi)
•T=0°C (273.15 K)

STANDARD or STOCK TANK

CONDITIONS:
•p=1 atm (14.69 psi)
•T=15°C (288.15 K)

RESERVOIR CONDITIONS
•Pressure
•Temperature
 PVT properties of
hydrocarbon systems
a) Gas
 Gas Equation of State

Ideal gas

negligible molecular volume

negligible molecular attractive/repelling forces

pV = nRT
p = pressure

V = volume

T = absolute temperature
Wt
n = number of moles n=
MW
Wt = weight

MW = molecular weight

R = gas constant → R = 8.314 kJ kgmole-1 K-1

R = 10.73 psia ft3 lbmole-1 R-1
 Gas Equation of State

Real gas

 Real gases approach perfect gas behavior at high temperatures

and low pressures

 Negligible molecular volume compared to the volume of the gas

 No attractive forces

 At high pressure and low temperatures

Real gas behavior Perfect gas behavior

 Gas Equation of State

IDEAL GAS:

pV = nRT

REAL GAS:

pV = znRT

p = pressure
V = volume
z = compressibility factor
n = number of moles
R = gas constant → R = 8.314 kJ kgmole -1 K-1
R = 10.73 psia ft3 lbmole -1 R-1
T = absolute temperature
 GAS COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR

Function of:

 gas composition

 pressure T
z
 temperature

IDEAL GAS
z=1

p = 1 atm p

Ideal gas: z = 1
Real gas, S.C.: z = 1
Real gas, R.C.: z = 0.8 - 0.9
 z DETERMINATION

p n Vn = nz nRT r

p sc V sc = nz sc RT sc

p n Vn Tsc
zn =
p sc V sc Tr
z

T=Tr

p
 GAS VOLUMETRIC BEHAVIOR

For a given gas made of n components:

ith component Moles

Molar fraction yi =
Total number of Moles

n
Pseudo-critical pressure ppc = ∑ yi pc,i
i=1

n
Pseudo-critical temperature Tpc = ∑ yi Tc,i
i=1

Absolute pressure p
Pseudo-reduced pressure ppr = =
Pseudo-critic pressure ppc

Absolute temperature T
Pseudo-reduced temperature Tpr = =
Pseudo-critic temperature Tpc
 GAS VOLUMETRIC BEHAVIOR

For sour gas (presence of CO2 and/or H2S):

Corrected pseudo-critical temperature

T’pc = Tpc – ε3

Corrected pseudo-critical pressure

ppc T’pc
p’pc =
T’pc + yH S (1- yH S) ε3
2 2
 PSEUDO-CRITICAL CORRECTION FACTOR, ε3 , °F

22%

14%
z as function of ppr, Tpr
 GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, Bg

V(p,T)
Bg =
Vsc
Bg: volume of free gas at reservoir conditions in m3 (or bbl) occupied by 1
m3 (or 1 scf) of the same gas measured at standard conditions.

Bg

psc T
Bg = z
p Tsc

p
Bg ranges between: 0.002 m3/sm3 - 0.05 m3/sm3
0.0004 rb/scf - 0.009 rb/scf
 GAS COMPRESSIBILITY

1 dV 1 dρ
cg = - =
V dp ρ dp

1 1 1 dz
IDEAL GAS: cg = REAL GAS: cg = -
p p z dp

cg
1
cg ≈
p

cg = 2÷4 10-4 psi-1

p
 GAS DENSITY AND GAS GRAVITY

Gas Density

M Mp ρg,sc
ρg = = ρg(p,T) =
V zRT Bg

Gas Gravity

ρg Mg
G= G=
ρair Mair
SC

ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 Mair = 28.96 kg/mol

 GAS VISCOSITY

µg µg
p
T

T p

µg = 0.01 ÷ 0.02 cP (10-3 Pa s)

b) Oil
 OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, Bo

Bo: volume (m3 or bbl) of oil and dissolved gas at reservoir conditions that
must be produced to obtain 1 m3 (or 1 bbl) of stable oil at stock tank
conditions.

Bo

V(p,T)
Bo =
VsT
1
p
pb

Bo ranges between: 1 - 2.2 m3/m3ST or rb/stb

Bo can reach 2.8 m3/m3ST or rb/stb for volatile oils
 Solution Gas/Oil Ratio, Rs

Rs: volume of gas at standard conditions (m3sc or scf) which is dissolved in

1 mST3 (or 1 stb) of stable oil - measured at stock tank conditions - at
reservoir conditions.

Vgas, SC
Rs =
Voil, ST
Rs

0
p
pb
RS ranges between: 100 ÷ 350 m3sc/m3ST or ∼ 600 ÷ 2000 scf/stb
RS can reach 500 m3/m3ST (∼ 3000 scf/stb) for volatile oils
 OIL DENSITY

ρw, ST= 1000 kg/m3 or 62.43 lb/ft3

ρo, ST= 700 - 800 kg/m3

141.5
°API = - 131.5
ρo,rel
ST

° API=10 Water
° API<20 Heavy oil
25<° API<30 Medium oil
30<° API<40 Light oil
40<° API<50 Volatile oil

ρo,ST + ρg,sc Rs(p,T)

At reservoir conditions: ρo(p,T) =
Bo(p,T)
 Oil Viscosity

µo µO
T = constant
p=cost

T pb p

µo ranges between: 0.5÷50 cP or 0.5÷50 10-3 Pa s

µo can reach 250 cP for very heavy oils

 Oil Viscosity

µO
T = constant

µ = µ (p, dissolved gas)

p
pb
Dissolved
gas
µ

T=constant

p
 Oil Viscosity (heavy oils)

µo (cp)
p=patm

100 T

10

0.1 ° API
10 30 50
 Oil Compressibility

co

co = 0.5 ÷ 4 10-5 psi-1 (1 ÷ 3.5 10-3 MPa-1)

c) Water
 Formation Water

 Salinity: 30 ÷ 100 g/dm3

 Gas solubility in formation water : usually negligible

 WATER FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR: volume (m3 or bbl) of

water and its dissolved gas at reservoir conditions that must be
produced to obtain 1 m3 (or 1 bbl) of water at stock tank conditions.

V(p,T)
Bw = Bw ≈ 1
VsT

 Viscosity: µw = 0.4 ÷ 0.5 cP (10-3 Pa s)

 Compressibility:

cw = 2 ÷ 4 10-6 psi-1 (1.5 ÷ 3.5 10-4 MPa-1)

 Formation Water Viscosity

µw p

µw = 0.4÷0.5 cP (10-3 Pa s)
PRESSURE GRADIENTS
 Rock density [ML-3]

Density range for the main rock types

igneous rocks

limestone

claystone

sandstone

alluvium

salt

kg/dm3
 Pressure Gradient

500 bar
Pressure
5000 psi

Depth

1000

Geostatic gradient
meters

5000

Normal hydrostatic
2000 gradient

OVERPRESSURED RESERVOIRS

3000 10000 ft
 Pressure Gradient

Definition: pressure increment with respect to the unit length

∆p
∆p
Gradient =
∆z ∆z

Z
 Relations between mass and force

mass
density =
volume

force
specific weight =
volume

Specific weight = density * g

m m
g = 9.80665 ≅ 9.81
s2 s2

pressure force/area
pressure gradient = =
length length

pressure gradient = specific weight = g density

 Gravity segregation

∆p
γg Gas
Gradient = γ=
∆z

GOC

γo Oil

WOC

γw Water

γg = 0.08 psi/ft = 1.8 kPa/m = 0.02 kgf /cm2/m

γo = 0.33 psi/ft = 7.5 kPa/m = 0.07 kgf /cm2/m

γw = 0.45 psi/ft = 10.2 kPa/m = 0.10 kgf /cm2/m

 Hydraulic communication in the reservoir

HYDRAULIC COMMUNICATION AMONG ALL WELLS ABSENCE OF HYDRAULIC COMMUNICATION

 Multi-layer separated reservoir

pressure, p well

OVERPRESSURE hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons
contact

water
depth, z

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
 Reservoirs with common aquifer

pressure, p
well

contact hydrocarbons

water

hydrocarbons
contact

water
depth, z
 Reservoirs with common aquifer

pressure, p

hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons

Contact Well A
Contact Well B

water
depth, z

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
 Multi-layer separated reservoir

pressure, p well 1 well 2

hydrocarbons
contact
water

hydrocarbons
contact
depth, z

water
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
 Separated reservoirs

pressure, p

hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons

Contact Well A
Contact Well B

water
depth, z

water
 Water drive reservoir

pressure, p

after production before production

PRESSURE
LOSS

new contact hydrocarbon gradient

original contact

water gradient
depth, z
 Depletion drive reservoir

pressure, p

after production before production

PRESSURE
LOSS
hydrocarbon gradient

contact (unchanged)

water gradient
depth, z
FLUID-ROCK INTERACTIONS
 Rock Petrophysical Properties

Routine core analyses: formation properties (RCAL)

 Porosity

 Water saturation

 Permeability

Special core analyses: fluid-rock interaction (SCAL)

 Wettability

 Capillary pressure

 Relative permeability
ROCK PROPERTIES
 Porosity - φ

From the reservoir-engineering standpoint, effective porosity is the

desired quantitative value because it represents the space occupied by
mobile fluids

Levorsen’s Classification:

< 5% very low porosity

5% - 10% low porosity
10% - 15% intermediate porosity
15% - 20% high porosity
> 20% very high porosity
 Porosity - φ

 original (primary) – developed during deposition of the sediment

(inter-granular porosity of sandstones, carbonates, ..)

 induced (secondary) – developed by some geologic process

subsequent to the deposition of the rock (fracture development in
shales and limestones)

Rocks having original porosity are more uniform in their characteristics

than those rocks in which a large part of the porosity is induced
 Fluid saturations

Fluid saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of the considered

fluid (Vf) in a porous rock to the pore volume (Vp) of the same rock.

Vw
Water saturation Sw =
Vp
V Vo
Sf = f Oil saturation So =
Vp Vp
Vg
Gas saturation Sg =
Vp

So + S w + S g = 1

Therefore, the volume of oil can be calculated as:

Vp Vo
Vo = Vb φ So = Vb
Vb Vp
 Rock Compressibility

In general:
cf ≈ 4 10-6 psi-1 (3.5 10-4 MPa-1)
same order of magnitude as water compressibility

However, higher compressibility values can be measured for

shallow, slightly consolidated formations
 Generalized Darcy’s Law

Assuming:
 porous medium saturated by a single fluid
 incompressible fluid
 no interactions between solid and fluid
 laminar flow
 steady state conditions

X
Y

L
Z

p + dp
p dL
 Generalized Darcy’s Law

q k  dp dz 
v= =−  − gρ 
A µ  dL dL 

or

q k
v = = − (∇p − gρ∇z )
A µ
 Permeability

Permeability: rock property describing the ease with which fluids

can flow through the rock interconnected pores (measurement
unit:[L2]).

1 µm2 = 10-12 m2 1 Darcy = 0.987 10-12 m2 ≈ 1 µm2

Absolute permeability k: permeability of porous rock 100%

saturated with a single fluid or phase. It is an intrinsic
characteristic of a porous rock, it does not depend on fluids that
flow into the rock.
 Darcy’s Law

Radial Geometry
Assuming:
 negligible gravitational forces
 constant producing thickness
 well perforated across the entire producing thickness

p p + dp

rw dr
r

q k dp
=
A µ dr
 Darcy’s Law

3D Geometry

kx  ∂p 
vx = −  
µ  ∂x 
q k k y  ∂p 
v = = − (∇p − gρ∇z ) v y = −  
A µ µ  ∂y 
k z  δp δz 
v z = −  − gρ 
µ  δz δz 

k x 
k =  ky 

 k z 
 Homogeneity and Isotropy

In a heterogeneous material the value of k varies spatially.

In a homogeneous material k is independent of location.

Anisotropy implies that the value of k at a

given location depends on direction.
kx ≠ ky ≠ kz
Isotropy implies that the value of k at a
given location is independent of direction.
kx = ky = kz

References
C.R. Fitts. 2002. Groundwater science. Academic Press. London, UK
 Homogeneity and Isotropy

Kx= 100 mD Kx= 100 mD Kx= 200 mD Kx= 100 mD

Kz=100 mD Kz=100 mD Kz=200 mD Kz=100 mD

homogeneous and isotropic heterogeneous and isotropic

Kx= 100 mD Kx= 100 mD Kx= 100 mD Kx= 50 mD

Kz=200 mD Kz=200 mD Kz=200 mD Kz=100 mD

homogeneous and anisotropic heterogeneous and anisotropic

ROCK SAMPLING
 Core data (plugs)

The most direct and reliable method to determine

reservoir rock properties is to obtain a core sample from CORES
the zone of interest and perform laboratory analysis.
However, measurements are taken at surface conditions
and are available for a limited part of the reservoir section
in a limited number of wells.

PLUGS

Core drill bits

 Petrophysical characterisation

Synthetic facies profile

Medium grained Shaly

cross-laminated Siltstone
sandstone

Coarse Siltstone
grained
sandstone

Fine grained Shales

sandstone
 Core analysis

ROUTINE CORE ANALYSIS (RCA)

Non-continuous (every 30 cm) measures of :

• Porosity
• Horizontal and vertical permeability
• Irreducible Water Saturation
• Others

SPECIAL CORE ANALYSIS (SCAL) OTHER TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS

Scattered measures of: Scattered measures of :

• Capillary pressure • Grain size

• Volumes of residual fluids • Mineral components
• Relative permeabilities • Rock texture
• Wettability • Type of porosity
• “m” and “n” index • Type of cement
• Overburden pressure
• Other
ROCK FLUID INTERACTION
PROPERTIES
 Darcy Equation for multiphase flow

When more than one phase is present in the reservoir rock, the
resulting permeability to each phase is called effective
permeability (kw, ko, kg)

kw water
keff ko oil

kg gas

• It represents the conductivity of each phase at a specific

saturation
• It provides an extension of Darcy’s law in the presence and movement
of more than a single fluid phase within the pore space
 Effective Permeability

The fluids interfere with each other, and the individual effective
permeabilities to each phase as well as their sum is lower than
the absolute permeability

0<S≤ 1

0 ≤ keff ≤ kabs

(ko, kg, kw)<k

(ko+kg+kw)<k
 Multi-phase flow

k o dp
Oil qo = A
µ o dr

k w dp
Water qw = A
µ w dr

k g dp
Gas qg = A
µ g dr
 Relative Permeability

Effective permeability
Relative permeability =
Absolute permeability

• The shape of the relative permeability curves is a

function of the fluid distribution within the porous
medium

• Fluid distribution, in turn, is dependent on the saturation

history and on the rock wettability
 Relative Permeabilities

Oil-Water System

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

WATER SATURATION
 Relative Permeabilities

Gas-Water System

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

WATER SATURATION
 Relative Permeabilities

Tri-Phase System

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

GAS SATURATION
 Mobility

Mobility:
keff
λ=
µ

Mobility ratio:

λ displacing fluid λw kr,w µo

M= = =
λ displaced fluid λo kr,o µw
 Multi-phase flow

dp
Oil qo = Aλ o
dr

Water
dp
q w = Aλ w
dr

Gas dp
qg = A λ g
dr
 Gas/Oil Production Ratio (GOR)

qgas SC
GOR =
qo ST

0 < GOR < 50 Nm3/m3ST Heavy oil

50 < GOR < 200 Nm3/m3ST Medium oil

200 < GOR < 350 Nm3/m3ST Light oil

350 < GOR < 600 Nm3/m3ST Volatile oil

GOR > 700-800 Nm3/m3ST Gas condensate

GOR > 35000 Nm3/m3ST Dry or Wet gas

 Gas/Oil Ratio (GOR)

qgasSC free + qgasSC dissolved

GOR =
qo ST
q gas SC free R S q o ST
GOR = +
q o ST q o ST
qg free B o
GOR =R S +
qo Bg
kg µ o Bo
GOR =R S +
k o µ g Bg
krg µo Bo
GOR = RS +
kro µg Bg
 GOR

krg µo Bo
GOR =RS +
kro µg Bg

Bg
pi
pb

PRESSURE
GOR

pabn
GOR = Rs,i
Sgc

Np/N
 Wettability

Wettability is the tendency of one fluid to spread on, or to adhere to, a

solid surface in the presence of a second fluid

Wetting phase
When two immiscible fluids are placed in contact with a solid surface
one phase usually is attracted to the solid more strongly than the
other.

Water Wet System Oil Wet System

 Wettability

Water Wet System

Oil σow Water Contact angle, θ:

θ 0° < θ < 70° Water Wet

rock
70° < θ < 110° Neutral

Oil Wet System 110° < θ < 180° Oil Wet

σow Water
Oil Interfacial tension, σ :

θ σow ≈ 0.03 N/m

rock
 Capillary pressure

Fluid distribution

Oil
Pipe
Water

Capillary
tube
Oil Water
 Imbibition and Drainage

Imbibition The wetting fluid displaces the non wetting fluid

Water wet system

Oil Water

Drainage The non wetting fluid displaces the wetting fluid

Water wet system

Oil Water
 Capillary pressure

Capillary pressure (pc) is Pressure difference existing at the

separation surface between two immiscible fluids.

pc = pnw − p w

pnw = pressure of the non – wetting phase

pw = pressure of the wetting phase

Typically, in an oil-water system pc,ow = po − p w

Capillary Pressure and Capillary Fringe

2σ cosθ
h=
ρgr
 Capillary Pressure

SMALL GRAIN
POROUS MEDIUM
WATER
Capillary Pressure
Capillary Pressure

CAPILLARY RISE
 Capillary Pressure

LARGE GRAIN
POROUS MEDIUM

WATER
AIR
 Capillary Pressure

NEGLIGIBLE CAPILLARY RISE

in large grain porous medium
 CAPILLARY RISE
in small grain porous medium
Effect of Grain Size on the Capillary Rise
pc for Different Sedimentary Units
 Capillary Pressure and Capillary Fringe

pc
pc
h=
∆ρ g

0 Swi 1
Sw
Effect of Density on the Capillary Rise

HEAVY OIL

LIGHT OIL

GAS
 Leverett’s Function

J (Sw)

pc k
J(Sw) =
σL cosθL φ

k = Average permeability

φ = Average porosity

σL = Interfacial tension (lab)

θL = Contact angle (lab)

Sw (%)
 Impact of capillary pressure

Perforations should be
above mobile water
So = 1-Swi

OOIP must account

for capillary fringe So + Sw = 1
Both oil and water are mobile
Sw = 1
Swi Sw = 100%
PRODUCTION DRIVE
MECHANISMS
 OIL RECOVERY

Traditionally, oil recovery was subdivided into three stages which described
the production from a reservoir in a chronological sense:

Primary recovery – production due to energy naturally existing in a

reservoir

Secondary recovery – water flooding (and gas injection) for pressure

maintenance

Tertiary recovery – processes that use miscible gas, chemicals,

and/or thermal energy to displace additional oil after secondary
recovery processes become uneconomical

However, many reservoir production operations are not conducted in the

specified order. Thus, the designation of Enhanced Oil Recovery became
more accepted instead of the term “tertiary recovery” in the petroleum
engineering literature.
 DRIVE MECHANISMS

DEPLETION DRIVE (GAS):

• reservoir with constant porous volume

• gas recovery: 80-90% GOIP

DEPLETION DRIVE (OIL):

• undersaturated oil reservoir with constant porous volume

• source of energy: expansion of solution gas

• oil recovery: 2-5% OOIP

DISSOLVED GAS DRIVE:

• saturated oil reservoir

• oil recovery: 15-20% OOIP

Decreasing of
pressure: Gas liberation and Sg<Scg : Sg>Scg :
p< pb expansion. gas is unmovable gas is movable

Decreasing of oil production:

Gas expansion
• decreasing So
force oil out of
the pore space  ko ↓ µo↑ (qo∝ko/µo ↓ ↓)
• increasing GOR
 DISSOLVED GAS DRIVE

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
µO
T = constant

pb p

GAS SATURATION

ko dp
Oil qo =
µoBo
A ( dr )
kg dp
Gas qg =
µgBg
A ( dr )
 DRIVE MECHANISMS

GAS CAP DRIVE:

• oil reservoir with initial gas cap

• pressure must fall slowly in order to favor gas cap drive

• source of energy: expansion of the gas cap, and expansion of solution gas
as it is liberated
• oil recovery: 25-30% OOIP

WATER DRIVE:
• oil reservoir with active aquifer

• water drive supports totally or partially the reservoir pressure that tends
to decrease due to production
• water moves into the pore spaces originally occupied by oil, replacing the
oil and displacing it to the producing wells.
• source of energy: expansion of the aquifer

• oil recovery: 40% OOIP