Chapter 4

Loading and Hauling

Part 1
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4-1 ESTIMATING EQUIPMENT TRAVEL
TIME
• Cycle time = Fixed time + Variable time (4-1)
• Fixed time represents those components of
cycle time other than travel time. It includes:
– spot time (moving the unit into position to begin loading),
– load time,
– maneuver time, and
– dump time.
• Fixed time can usually be closely estimated for
a particular type of operation.
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• Variable time represents the travel time
required for a unit to haul material to the
unloading site and return.
• It depends on:
– 1. the vehicle's weight and power,
– 2. the condition of the haul road,
– 3. the grades encountered, and
– 4. the altitude above sea level.

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-2.condition of the haul road ,
Rolling Resistance
• It is used to determine the maximum speed of
a vehicle in a specific situation.
• The resistance that a vehicle encounters in
traveling over a surface is made up of two
components:
– rolling resistance and
– grade resistance.
• Total resistance =
Grade resistance + Rolling resistance (4-2)

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 Rolling Resistance
• Resistance may be expressed in either:
– kilograms per metric ton or in
– kilograms.
• To avoid confusion, the term resistance factor
will be used in this chapter to denote
resistance in kg/t.
• Rolling resistance is primarily due to:
– tire flexing and
– penetration of the travel surface.

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 Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance factor:
– for a rubber-tired vehicle equipped with
conventional tires moving over a hard, smooth,
level surface = 20 kg/t of vehicle weight.
– For vehicles equipped with radial tires, the rolling
resistance factor = 15 kg/t.
– It increases about 6 kg/t for each 1 cm of tire
penetration.

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 Rolling Resistance
• This leads to the following equation for
estimating rolling resistance factors:
– Rolling resistance factor (kg/t) =
20 + (6 × cm penetration) (4-3B)

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 Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance in kilograms
= Rolling resistance factor × the vehicle's
weight in metric tons.
• Table 4-1 provides typical values for the rolling
resistance factor in construction situations.

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TABLE 4-1 Typical values of rolling resistance factor

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 Rolling Resistance
• Crawler tractors may be thought of as
traveling over a road created by their own
tracks.
– As a result, crawler tractors are usually considered
to have no rolling resistance when calculating
vehicle resistance and performance.
• The rolling resistance of crawler tractors does
vary somewhat between different surfaces.

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 Rolling Resistance
• The standard method for rating crawler tractor
power (drawbar horsepower) measures the
power actually produced at the hitch when
operating on a standard surface.
– Thus, the rolling resistance of the tractor over the
standard surface has already been subtracted from
the tractor's performance.
• The rolling resistance of the towed vehicle must
be considered in calculating the total resistance
of the combination.

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3. The grades encountered

Grade Resistance

• Grade resistance represents that component

of vehicle weight which acts parallel to an
inclined surface.
– When the vehicle is traveling up a grade, grade
resistance is positive.
– When traveling downhill, grade resistance is
negative.

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 Grade Resistance

5 ft 5 ft
100  5%
100 ft
100 ft
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 Grade Resistance
• The exact value of grade resistance may be
found by multiplying the vehicle's weight by
the sine of the angle that the road surface
makes with the horizontal.

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• That is, a 1% grade (representing a rise of 1 unit
in 100 units of horizontal distance) is considered
to have a grade resistance equal to 1% of the
vehicle's weight.

• For the grades usually encountered in

construction, it is sufficiently accurate to use the
approximation of Equation 4-4.
– Grade resistance factor (kg/t) =10 × grade (%) (4-4B)

– This corresponds to a grade resistance factor of 10kg/t

for each 1% of grade,

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 Grade Resistance
• Grade resistance (kg) may be calculated using
Equation 4-5 or 4-6.
– Grade resistance (kg) =
Vehicle weight (t) × Grade resistance factor (kg/t) (4-5B)

– Grade resistance (kg) =Vehicle weight (kg) x Grade (4-6B)

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 Effective Grade
• The total resistance to movement of a vehicle
– (the sum of its rolling resistance and grade
resistance)
– might be expressed in kilograms.
• OR expressing total resistance is to state it as a
grade (%), A grade resistance equivalent to total
resistance actually encountered.

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 Effective Grade
• Effective grade may be easily calculated by use
of Equation 4-7.
– Effective grade (%) =
Grade (%) + Rolling resistance factor (kg/t) / 10

(4-7B)

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 EXAMPLE 4-1
• A wheel tractor-scraper weighing 91 t is being
operated on a haul road with a tire
penetration of 5 cm.
• What is the total resistance ( kg) and effective
grade when
– (a) the scraper is ascending a slope of 5%;
– (b) the scraper is descending a slope of 5%?

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 EXAMPLE 4-1
• Solution
Rolling resistance factor = 20 + (6 × 5) =50 kg/t
Rolling resistance = 50 (kg/t) × 91 (t) = 4550 kg
Grade resistance (kg) =Vehicle weight (kg) x Grade (4-6B)
a) Grade resistance = 91 (t) x 1000 (kg/t) × 0.05 =4550 kg
Total resistance = 4550 kg + 4550 kg = 9100 kg
Effective grade = 5 + 50/10 = 10%

(b) Grade resistance =

= 91 (t) × 1000 (kg/t) x (-0.05) = - 4550 kg
Total resistance = -4550 kg + 4550 kg = 0 kg
Effective grade = -5 + 50/10 = 0%
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 EXAMPLE 4-2
• A crawler tractor weighing (36 t) is towing a
rubber-tired scraper weighing (45.5 t) up a
grade of 4%. What is the total resistance (kg)
of the combination if the rolling resistance
factor is (50 kg/t)?

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 EXAMPLE 4-2
• Solution
Rolling resistance (neglect crawler) =
=45.5 (t) × 50 (kg/t) =2275 kg
– Grade resistance (kg) =
Vehicle weight (t) × Grade resistance factor (kg/t) (4-5B)
– Grade resistance (kg) =Vehicle weight (kg) x Grade (4-6B)
Total vehicle weight = 36 + 45.5 = 81.5 t
Grade resistance = 81.5 × 1000 kg/t × 0.04 = 3260 kg (4-6B)

Total resistance = 2275 + 3260 = 5535 kg (4-2)

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 Effect of Altitude
• All internal combustion engines lose power as
their elevation above sea level increases
because of the decreased density of air at
higher elevations.
• Engine power decreases approximately 3% for
each 305 m.

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• Turbocharged engines are more efficient at
higher altitude than are naturally aspirated
engines and may deliver full rated power up to
an altitude of 3050 m or more.

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• When derating tables are not available,
– the derating factor obtained by the use of Equation 4-8 is
sufficiently accurate for estimating the performance of
naturally aspirated engines.
– Derating factor (%) = (Altitude (m) - 915*)/102 (4-8B)
*Substitute maximum altitude for rated performance, if known.

• The percentage of rated power available

= 100 - the derating factor.

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 Effect of Traction
• The power available to move a vehicle and its
load is expressed as :
– rimpull for wheel vehicles and
– drawbar pull for crawler tractors.

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 Effect of Traction
• Rimpull is :
– the pull available at the rim of the driving wheels
under rated conditions.
– Also, the power available at the surface of the
tires.
• Drawbar pull is :
– the power available at the hitch of a crawler
tractor operating under standard conditions.

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 Maximum Usable Pull

• Factors affect maximum pull of Vehicle are:

a) Operation at increased altitude may reduce the
maximum pull of a vehicle,
b) the maximum traction that can be developed
between the driving wheels or tracks and the road
surface.

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 Maximum Usable Pull
Maximum usable pull = Coefficient of traction × Weight on drivers
(4-9)
• This represents the maximum pull that a vehicle can
develop, regardless of vehicle horsepower
• Weight on drivers: for crawler tractors and all-wheel-
drive rubber-tired equipment, the weight on the
drivers is the total vehicle weight.

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TABLE 4-2: Typical values of coefficient of Traction

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 EXAMPLE 4-3
• A four-wheel drive tractor weighs (20000 kg) and
produces a maximum rimpull of (18160 kg) at sea
level.
• The tractor is being operated at an altitude of (3050
m) on wet earth.
• A pull of (10000 kg (total resistance) ) is required to
move the tractor and its load.
• Can the tractor perform under these conditions?
– Use Equation 4-8 to estimate altitude deration.

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• Solution
Derating factor = (3050- 915)/102 =21% (4-8B)
Percent rated power available=100 - 21 = 79%
Maximum available power = 18160 × 0.79 = 14346 kg
Coefficient of traction = 0.45 (Table 4-2)
Maximum usable pull = 0.45 × 20000 = 9000 kg
– Because the maximum pull as limited by traction is
less than the required pull, the tractor cannot perform
under these conditions.
– For the tractor to operate, it would be necessary to:
• reduce the required pull (total resistance),
• increase the coefficient of traction, or
• increase the tractor's weight on the drivers.
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 Use of Performance and Retarder Curves
• Crawler tractors may be equipped with direct-drive (manual
gearshift) transmissions.
• The drawbar pull and travel speed of this type of transmission
are determined by the gear selected.

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FIGURE 4-1: Typical crawler tractor performance curve.

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 Use of Performance and Retarder Curves
For other types of transmissions and equipment, speed versus
pull is represented using performance and retarder charts.
• A performance chart:
– indicates the maximum speed that a vehicle can maintain
under rated conditions while overcoming a specified total
resistance.
• A retarder chart:
– indicates the maximum speed at which a vehicle can
descend a slope when the total resistance is negative
without using brakes.
– Retarder charts derive their name from the vehicle
retarder, which is a hydraulic device used for controlling
vehicle speed on a downgrade.
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FIGURE 4-2: Wheel scraper performance curve. (Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.)

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FIGURE 4-3: Wheel scraper retarder curve.
(Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.)

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• Figure 4-1 illustrates a relatively simple performance
curve of the type often used for crawler tractors.
– Rimpull or drawbar pull is shown on the vertical scale
and maximum vehicle speed on the horizontal scale.
– The procedure for using this type of curve is to first
calculate the required pull or total resistance of the
vehicle and its load (lb or kg).
– Then enter the chart on the vertical scale with the
required pull and move horizontally until you intersect
one or more gear performance curves.

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FIGURE 4-1: Typical crawler tractor performance curve.

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– Drop vertically from the point of intersection to
the horizontal scale.
– The value found represents the maximum speed
that the vehicle can maintain while developing the
specified pull.
– When the horizontal line of required pull
intersects two or more curves for different gears,
use the point of intersection farthest to the right,
because this represents the maximum speed of
the vehicle under the given conditions.

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 EXAMPLE 4-4
• Use the performance curve of Figure 4-1 to
determine the maximum speed of the tractor
when the required pull (total resistance) is 60,000
lb (27240 kg).
• Solution
– Enter Figure 4-1 at a drawbar pull of 60,000 lb (27240
kg) and move horizontally until you intersect the
curves for first and second gears.
– Read the corresponding speeds of 1.0 mi/h (1.6 km/h)
for second gear and 1.5 mi/h (2.4km/h) for first gear.
– The maximum possible speed is therefore 1.5 mi/h
(2.4 km/h) in first gear.
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 Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
• Figure 4-2 :
– represents a more complex performance curve of
the type frequently used by manufacturers of
tractor-scrapers, trucks, and wagons.
– This curve could be use for the followings:
1. Speed versus pull,
2. Provides a graphical method for calculating the
required pull (total resistance).

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 Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
• To use this type of curve,
– Enter the top scale at the actual weight of the
vehicle (empty or loaded as applicable).
– Drop vertically until you intersect the diagonal line
corresponding to the percent total resistance (or
effective grade), interpolating as necessary.
– From this point move horizontally until you
intersect one or more performance curves.
– From the point of intersection, drop vertically to
find the maximum vehicle speed.

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 Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
• When altitude adjustment is required, the
procedure is modified slightly. In this case,
– start with the gross weight on the top scale and
drop vertically until you intersect the total
resistance curve.
– Now, however, move horizontally all the way to
the left scale to read the required pull
corresponding to vehicle weight and effective
grade.

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Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
– Next, divide the required pull by the quantity
“1_derating factor (expressed as a decimal)” to
obtain an adjusted required pull.
– Now, from the adjusted value of required pull on
the left scale move horizontally to intersect one or
more gear curves and drop vertically to find the
maximum vehicle speed.

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 Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
• This procedure is equivalent to saying that
when a vehicle produces only one-half of its
rated power due to altitude effects, its
maximum speed can be found from its
standard performance curve by doubling the
actual required pull.
• The procedure is illustrated in Example 4-5.

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 EXAMPLE 4-5
• Using the performance curve of Figure 4-2,
determine the maximum speed of the vehicle
if :
– its gross weight is 150,000 lb (68000 kg),
– the total resistance is 10%, and
– the altitude derating factor is 25%.

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 EXAMPLE 4-5
• Solution
– Start on the top scale with a weight of 150,000 lb
(68000 kg), drop vertically to intersect the 10%
total grade line, and move horizontally to find a
required pull of 15,000 lb (6800 kg) on the left
scale.

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 EXAMPLE 4-5
– Divide 15,000 lb (6800 kg) by 0.75 (1 - derating
factor) to obtain an adjusted required pull of
20,000 lb (9080 kg).
– Enter the left scale at 20,000 lb (9080 kg) and
move horizontally to intersect the first, second,
and third gear curves.
– Drop vertically from the point of intersection with
the third gear curve to find a maximum speed of 6
mi/h (10 km/h).

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 Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
• Figure 4-3 illustrates a typical retarder curve.
– In this case, it is the retarder curve for the tractor-
scraper whose performance curve is shown in
Figure 4-2.
– The retarder curve is read in a manner similar to
the performance curve.
• Remember, however, that in this case the vertical scale
represents negative total resistance.

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 Use of Performance and Retarder
Curves
• After finding the intersection of the vehicle
weight with effective grade,
– move horizontally until you intersect the retarder
curve.
– Drop vertically from this point to find the
maximum speed at which the vehicle should be
operated.

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FIGURE 4-3: Wheel scraper retarder curve.
(Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.)

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 Estimating Travel Time
• The maximum speed that a vehicle can
maintain over a section of the haul route
cannot be used for calculating travel time over
the section,
– because it does not include vehicle acceleration
and deceleration.

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 Estimating Travel Time
• One Method for accounting for acceleration and
deceleration is:
– to multiply the maximum vehicle speed by an average
speed factor from Table 4-3 to obtain an average
vehicle speed for the section.
– Travel time for the section is then found by dividing
the section length by the average vehicle speed.
– When a section of the haul route involves both
starting from rest and coming to a stop, the average
speed factor from the first column of Table 4-3 should
be applied twice (i.e., use the square of the table
value) for that section.

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 Estimating Travel Time
• Second Method for estimating travel time over a
section of haul route is :
– to use the travel-time curves provided by some
manufacturers.
– Separate travel-time curves are prepared for loaded
(rated payload) and empty conditions, as shown in
Figures 4-4 and 4-5.
– To adjust for altitude deration when using travel-time
curves, multiply the time obtained from the curve by
the quantity "1+ derating factor" to obtain the
adjusted travel time.

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Table 4-3: Average speed factors

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