Review Paper: Ethics and Moral Philosophy

Ethics

Ethics derives from the Greek word ethos (character) and Latin mores (customs). It is the study
of moral principles that define what is good for individuals and society. Ethics also establishes
the nature of duties people owe to themselves and others, guiding what is "good" and "right."

Human Acts versus Acts of Man

 Human Acts: Performed consciously and freely, involving knowledge, freedom, and
voluntariness.
 Acts of Man: Actions beyond one’s consciousness, such as reflexive or involuntary
actions. They can become human acts when the intellect and will are engaged.

Concept of Ethics and Morals

 Ethics: The intellectual discipline of understanding human behavior and ideal ways of
thinking.
 Morals: Specific beliefs or acts describing what individuals consider good or bad.

Descriptive and Normative Study of Ethics

 Descriptive Ethics: Analyzes how moral valuations are made without judgment (e.g.,
through anthropology or sociology).
 Normative Ethics: Prescribes moral standards or values.

Morals

 Moral Issue: A situation prompting debate over right and wrong (e.g., euthanasia).
 Moral Decision: Choosing an act based on ethical principles.
 Moral Judgment: Assessing actions as right or wrong.
 Moral Dilemma: Conflicts between competing goods or evils.

Kinds of Valuation

1. Aesthetic Valuation: Based on sensory judgment.

2. Etiquette: Cultural or societal codes of behavior.
3. Technique: Judgments on the correct way of performing tasks.

Reasons for Moral Judgments

Moral actions are often driven by the fear of punishment, desire for rewards, or adherence to
moral theories.
Sources of Authority

1. Law: Governing rules set by an authority.

2. Religion: Following divine commands.
3. Culture: Practices influenced by societal norms (e.g., cultural relativism).

Problem/Difficulties of Cultural Relativism (James Rachels)

1. Existence of cultural differences.

2. Lack of an objective stance for judgment.
3. Inability to critique one's own culture.
4. Perception of culture as unchangeable.

Three Theories About Ethics on Self

1. Subjectivism: Individual determines moral standards.

2. Psychological Egoism: Actions are motivated by self-interest.
3. Ethical Egoism: Acting for others is acceptable if it benefits oneself.

Principles

 Principle of Double Effect: Allows actions with unintended bad effects if:
1. The act itself is good.
2. Good and bad effects occur simultaneously.
3. The bad effect is not intended.
4. There is sufficient reason to permit the bad effect.

Man's Threefold Natural Inclinations

1. Self-preservation.
2. Fair dealings with others.
3. Propagation of the species.

Three Determinants of Moral Actions

1. Object: Nature of the action.

2. Circumstances: Context of the action.
3. End/Purpose: Agent’s goal.

Laws

 Eternal Law: Universal and divine order.

 Natural Law: Derivable through reason, aligning with human nature.
 Divine Law: Moral guidance revealed by God.
 Human Law: Rules created for societal order.
Utilitarianism and Felicific Calculus

Utilitarianism, founded by Bentham and Mill, evaluates actions based on their ability to produce
happiness or pleasure. The Felicific Calculus quantifies this through parameters like intensity,
duration, and extent.

Deontology and the Categorical Imperative

Deontology emphasizes duty and moral rules. Kant’s Categorical Imperative includes:

 Act: The specific action or behavior the agent is considering.

 Maxim: The principle or rule that the agent is following when performing the action (e.g., “I
will tell the truth”).
 Will: The capacity of the agent to make a decision in accordance with their rationality and
moral principles. It is the intention behind the action.

 Universal Law: The idea that the agent’s action and maxim should be something that can be
universalized — that is, it should be applicable to everyone, everywhere, without contradiction.
If the action cannot be universalized (i.e., if it would not be morally acceptable for everyone to
act the same way), then the action is morally wrong.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development progresses through three levels,
each with two stages. These stages represent different ways of thinking about morality and
justice.

1. Pre-conventional Morality (Typically seen in children)

At this level, morality is based primarily on external consequences, like rewards and
punishments. Individuals make decisions based on what they can gain or avoid.

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation - The focus is on avoiding punishment.

Moral behavior is what avoids consequences. Children obey authority figures to avoid getting in
trouble.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation - The individual’s focus shifts to satisfying their own needs.
Moral decisions are based on self-interest and what benefits them.

2. Conventional Morality (Typically seen in adolescents and adults)

At this level, individuals align their moral reasoning with social rules, laws, and expectations.
The focus is on maintaining social order and gaining approval from others.

Stage 3: Good Boy or Nice Girl Orientation - The individual makes decisions based on what
others will think of them. There is a desire to be seen as "good" and to meet the expectations of
family, friends, and society.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation - The individual respects authority and laws,
understanding the importance of social order and maintaining the functioning of society.
Morality is seen as adherence to rules and authority.

3. Post-conventional Morality (Typically seen in adults, but not universally

achieved)

At this level, individuals understand that laws and rules may need to be questioned or changed.
They make decisions based on universal ethical principles and the greater good.

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights - The individual begins to recognize that laws
should be based on mutual agreement and the greater good. They understand that sometimes
laws conflict with individual rights and may need to be changed.

Stage 6: Universal Principles - At this highest stage, moral reasoning is based on abstract
ethical principles, such as justice, equality, and respect for human dignity. The individual follows
these universal principles, even if they conflict with laws or social expectations.

Natural Law

Derived from human nature, it governs actions towards self-preservation, truth, and community
building.

Virtue Ethics

This approach emphasizes character development and cultivating virtues like courage, honesty,
and justice.