CAT PAPER 1 LESSON 1 BASICS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY This module will discuss the basics of Information Technology .

. It covers different computer types and software applications. A brief overview of the Internet is also included. The student will identify the basic features of the Windows operating system and the elements of the Windows desktop. Additionally, the student will learn several vocabulary words that are important to the technician. The student will also examine the methods used in number conversions, including binary to decimal and decimal to binary. Explanations and introductions to analog, digital, and algorithms are included. Safety is the first priority when working with computers. This module will detail safety procedures that pertain to the labs used throughout this course and in the workplace.

1.1 Getting Started in IT 1.1.1 Computer systems and programs

A computer system consists of hardware and software components. Hardware is the physical equipment such as the case, floppy disk drives, keyboards, monitors, cables, speakers, and printers. The term software describes the programs that are used to operate the computer system. Computer software, also called programs, instructs the computer on how to operate. These operations may include identifying, accessing, and processing information. Essentially, a program is a sequence of instructions that describe how data will be processed. Programs vary widely depending on the type of information that will be accessed or generated. For example, instructions for balancing a checkbook are very different from instructions for simulating a virtual reality world on the Internet. The two types of software are operating systems and applications. Application software accepts input from the user and then manipulates it to achieve a result. This result is known as the output. Applications are programs designed to perform a specific function for the user or for another application program. Examples of applications include word processors, database programs, spreadsheets, Web browsers, Web development tools, and graphic design tools. Computer applications are detailed later in this module. An operating system (OS) is a program that manages all the other programs in a computer. It also provides the operating environment for applications that are used to access resources on the computer. Operating systems perform basic tasks like recognizing input from the keyboard or mouse, sending output to the video screen or printer, keeping track of files on the drives, and controlling peripherals such as printers and modems. The Disk Operating System (DOS), Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows NT, Linux, Mac OS X, DEC VMS, and IBM OS/400 are all examples of operating systems. Operating systems are platform-specific, meaning they are designed for specific types of computers. For example, the Windows operating system is designed for an IBM-compatible personal computer (PC). The Mac OS will only work with Macintosh computers. PC and Macintosh are called platforms. A platform is the computer system on which different programs can be used. 1.1 Getting Started in IT 1.1.2 Computer types

Two types of computers are detailed in this section. The first is the mainframe, which has provided computing power for major corporations for more than 40 years. The second is the personal computer, which has had more impact on people and business than any other device in history. Mainframes Mainframes are powerful machines that allow companies to automate manual tasks, shorten marketing time for new products, use financial models that enhance profitability, and so on. The mainframe model consists of centralized computers that are usually housed in secure, climate-controlled computer rooms. End users interface with the computers through dumb terminals. These terminals are low-cost devices that usually consist of a monitor, keyboard, and a communication port to communicate with the mainframe. NOTE: In terms of data transmission, asynchronous means that no clock or timing source is needed to keep both the sender and the receiver synchronized. At its peak in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the mainframe and minicomputer market was dominated by IBM and Digital Equipment Corporation. The minicomputer was a smaller and less expensive line of mainframes. However, these high-powered machines came with high price tags. The cost of entry into the mainframe market was typically several hundred thousand to several million U.S. dollars. The minicomputer began to bring similar capabilities at a lower price, but the minicomputer configurations often cost more than ten thousand U.S. dollars. The term "mainframe" used to refer to the cabinet that housed the CPU. Today it refers to a large computer system. There are several advantages of mainframes: Scalability, the ability to add more users as the need arises Centralized management Centralized backup Low cost desktop devices (dumb terminals) High level of security There are several disadvantages of mainframes: A personal computer (PC) is a standalone device. This means that it is independent of all other computers as shown in Figure . With the advent of the PC, the graphical user interface (GUI) gained wide introduction to users. A GUI, pronounced goo-ee, employs a graphics display to represent procedures and programs that can be executed by the computer. An example is the Windows desktop. These programs routinely use small pictures, called icons, to represent different programs. The advantage of using a GUI is that the user does not have to remember complicated commands to execute a program. The GUIs first appeared in Xerox and Apple computers. Along with GUI, thousands of Windows based applications were also introduced. As PC technology has improved, the power of the PC has risen to the point that it can perform enterpriselevel functions. There are several advantages of PC computing:

Standardized hardware Standardized, highly interoperable operating systems GUI interface Low cost devices and low cost of entry, when compared to mainframes Distributed computing User flexibility High-productivity applications There are several disadvantages of PC computing: High cost for desktop computers, which average five times the cost of a dumb terminal according to some industry estimates No centralized backup No centralized management Physical, data access, and virus security risks can be greater High management and maintenance costs, which are generally cheaper than for mainframes

1.1 Getting Started in IT 1.1.3 Connecting computer systems

The PC as a standalone device may be adequate for use as a home computer. However, businesses, government offices, and schools need to exchange information and share equipment and resources. Networking was developed as a method to connect individual computers. The individual computers in a network are referred to as workstations as illustrated in Figure . A network is a group of computers that are connected to share resources as illustrated in Figure . Computers used by students, teachers, and administrators in a school are all connected through networks. This saves the expense of having to buy peripheral equipment for each computer. For example, the printer in the school computer lab is shared with all of the students. A network also allows users to share files. If work is being done on a group project, a file can be saved to a central computer called a server. This file can then be accessed from any other computer in the school. Networks are not limited to a building or school campus. Networks can encompass an entire school district or all of the offices in a company. A school, for example, is connected to a main district office, as are all the other schools in a district. The Internet is the ultimate network because it connects millions of smaller networks. Most connections are made by cable. However, wireless connections are becoming more prominent. These connections include digital subscriber line (DSL), cable, and T1, T3, or E1 lines. In some parts of the world, Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is used as well. Most of these technologies are used by businesses because of the cost. Some of the high-speed services are only available in a limited area. However, improvements in communication devices and an ever increasing demand for high-speed links will mean that many home users should have access to these Internet connections in the next few years.

1.1 Getting Started in IT 1.1.4 Birth of the Internet

The Net Becomes Big Business in the 1990s The phenomenal growth rate of the 1980s was nothing compared to what came in the 1990s. ARPANET evolved into the Internet, while the U.S. government became involved in pushing the development of the so-called information superhighway. The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) backbone was upgraded to T3 speed, 44.736 MBps. In 1991, it sent more than 1 trillion bytes per month. In 1992, the Internet Society (ISOC) was formed and more than 1 million hosts existed on the Internet. The 1990s saw the explosion of commerce on the Internet. As more and more college students, faculty, individual home users, and companies of all sizes became connected, the business world recognized the opportunity to reach a large and expanding affluent market. By 1995, online advertising became prominent, online banking had arrived, and even a pizza could be ordered over the Internet. The last five years of the century ushered in new major developments on an almost daily basis. Streaming audio and video, "push" technologies, and Java and ActiveX scripting took advantage of higher performance connectivity that was available at lower and lower prices. Domain names became big business and particularly desirable names have sold for upwards of one million U.S. dollars. Currently there are millions of sites that exist on the Word Wide Web, and millions of host computers participate in this great linking. Figure shows a time line of significant events in PC networking history. The graph in Figure shows the growth of the Internet. The tremendous growth in the computer industry means exciting job possibilities. According to projections from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, eight of the ten fastest-growing occupations will be computerrelated. This means that the number of jobs for IT technicians and computer support personnel will almost double by the year 2010.

1.1 Getting Started in IT 1.1.5 The cost of technology

As computer and networking technology have advanced over the past few decades, the cost of the increasingly sophisticated technology has fallen dramatically. Those falling prices are partially responsible for the rising prominence of connectivity solutions in the business world and in personal lives.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.1 Starting, shutting down, and restarting Microsoft Windows

The basic functions of a computer include turning the computer on, restarting the computer, and shutting down the system. Because most computers have both the power button and reset button on the front of the machine, it is important to know how do differentiate between them. Turning on the PC To turn on a PC, there is an external switch, or pair of switches, that must be activated. The rear switch, if included, provides the physical connection between the house power from the wall outlet and the

computer power supply. This switch has to be on prior to turning on the front switch. Most PCs will have a single switch in the front that is activated to provide power. The monitor will also have a power switch in most cases. Usually this is in the front or lower right portion of the display case. Switches can be push or rocker switches. They are manufactured to withstand thousands of cycles and will typically outlast the PC itself. The startup process of a computer is also referred to as booting the system. A cold boot is performed when the PC is turned on using the power button. At the end of this process, the Windows operating system desktop will be displayed. Shutting Down a Computer To shutdown the computer, click on the Start button on the lower left corner of the Windows Taskbar as shown in Figure , and select Shut Down. Alternatively, press Ctrl-Alt-Delete and click Shut Down from the menu that displays. Do not switch the computer off until a message displays indicating that it is safe to do so. Important data that is stored in memory while the system is operating needs to be written to the hard disk before switching off the computer. Newer computers will automatically shut off power when the shutdown process is complete. NOTE: It is extremely important not to power off the computer with the power switch. Most operating systems like Macintosh and Windows have a specific method for turning the system off. In Windows, choose the Shut Down button from the Start menu. On a Macintosh, choose the Shut Down button from the Special menu. Restarting the PC Restarting a PC that has already been powered up is referred to as a warm boot. This can be achieved by pressing the reset button on the front panel. Alternatively, press Ctrl- Alt-Delete, and click Restart from the menu that displays. The concepts of warm boot and cold boot are discussed more thoroughly in Module 2, How Computers Work.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.2 Windows Explorer

The Windows Explorer file manager in Windows provides he ability to create, copy, move, and delete files and folders. As shown in Figure , Explorer displays the hierarchy of folders stored on the hard disk or other storage device in the left window. When a user clicks on a folder in the left Explorer window, its contents will display in the right window. Two or more instances of Explorer can be launched in order to drag and drop between them. Explorer can be accessed in Windows 95, 98, and Millennium (9x), by choosing Start > Programs > WindowsExplorer, from the Windows desktop as shown in Figure . In Windows 2000, choose Start > Programs > Accessories > Windows Explorer from the menu as it displays in Figure . Another way to open Windows Explorer in Windows 9x, 2000, and XP is to right-click on Start and then select Explore.

TIP: Test Tip: Know the different ways to open Windows Explorer.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.3 The desktop

The main display screen in Windows is known as the desktop. The Windows desktop has remained consistent for most versions of Windows including 95, 98, 98 SE, Millennium (ME), NT, 2000, and XP. Figure shows the desktop in Windows 98. However, some variations may be seen in older versions of Windows 95 or in a special type of installation, such as on a laptop or network, when certain features are disabled. An icon is an image that represents an application or a capability. Typically, an icon is selectable as a shortcut to a program or file on the computer desktop. An icon can also be nonselectable as in a company logo on a web page. Some of the icons on the desktop, such as My Computer, Network Neighborhood, My Network Places, Recycle Bin, or My Documents, are shortcuts to those directories. Directories will be discussed in Module 4. Other icons that may be on the desktop, such as Microsoft Word, Excel, or Adobe Photoshop, are shortcuts to those applications. The My Computer icon gives access to all the installed drives, which are computer storage components. TIP: Test Tip: Practice navigating the desktop with both the mouse and keyboard.

My Documents is a shortcut to personal or frequently accessed files. Network Neighborhood allows the users to see neighboring computers in a networked environment. The Recycle Bin is discussed later in this module under the section Basic Features of Windows. The taskbar is located at the bottom of the desktop. The taskbar contains the Start button, quick launch buttons, and the system tray. The Start button displays the Start Menu. This menu allows access to almost every program and function on the PC. The Start Menus for Windows 98 and Windows 2000 are shown in Figure . The quick launch buttons are located on the taskbar next to the Start button. These buttons allow immediate access to the desktop from any application, as well as access to Internet Explorer and Outlook Express. Quick launch buttons are similar to desktop icons because they are shortcuts to applications. These buttons are particularly useful when several applications or documents are already opened and a quick way to open another application is needed. TIP: Test Tip: Know the different ways to open Windows Explorer.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.4 Working with icons

This section explains how to select and move desktop icons. The student will also learn how to recognize basic desktop icons such as the hard disk, directory tree, directories or folders and files, and the recycle bin or wastebasket. This section also explains how to create a desktop shortcut icon or a desktop menu alias. Creating Shortcuts (Icons) To create a shortcut (icon), navigate to the program or file in Windows Explorer. Right-click the program or file and select Create Shortcut. The shortcut icon will appear as the last item. This icon can be moved using cut and paste or drag and drop. An icon can also be created directly onto the desktop. Right-click on the desktop and select New > New Shortcut or Create Shortcut. Enter the path for the program or file, and the shortcut will display on the desktop. Moving Icons To move the created icon or another desktop icon to another position on the desktop, click on it as shown in Figure and then drag it to the desired location. The icon becomes semi-transparent while being dragged. To restore the icon to full intensity, click outside of it. If the icon does not move, disable the Auto Arrange function on the desktop. To do this, right-click on an empty space of the desktop and uncheck the Auto Arrange selection as shown in Figure . Shortcut icons can be created for frequently used programs such as web browsers, word processors, spreadsheets, and instant messengers. Selecting Multiple Icons To simultaneously select and move several icons, hold down the Ctrl key and click on all the icons that are to be moved. Then drag the group of icons to the new location and let go of the mouse button as shown in Figure . De-select the icons by clicking on an empty part of the desktop. Renaming Icons There are two ways to rename an icon. The first way is to simply click once on the name under the icon as shown in Figure . Then type in a new name as shown in Figure . Click on an empty part of the desktop to complete the action. The second way is to right-click on the icon and select the Rename option. Navigating and working with the desktop is easier with the use of icons. Since icons are simply shortcuts that point to programs and files, they can be copied, moved, and even deleted without affecting the program or file.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.5 Recognizing an application window Application windows typically have a title bar, tool bar, menu bar, status bar, and scroll bar. WordPad will be used to demonstrate the features common to most Windows applications as shown in Figure .

WordPad, or Notepad on some Windows computers, is a simple word processing program located in the Start > Programs > Accessories directory of a Windows environment. The functions of the toolbar are easy to understand and are each described below: Title Bar Displays the name of the document and application. In this example, it is Document WordPad. Also located in the title bar are the Minimize, Maximize, and Exit buttons that will be discussed in this module. Menu Bar Contains menus for manipulating the document, such as creating new documents, copying text, inserting images, and so on. To see the menu for each item, click on a button. A drop-down menu will display as shown in Figure . Status Bar Shows useful information such as the page number, whether the file is being saved, how to access the Help feature, and so on. The Status bar is located at the bottom of the window. Scroll Bar Moves the images or text through the window. Clicking and dragging the scroll bar moves the images or text even more quickly through a window. Windows may have scroll bars that appear on the right side or the bottom of the window, or both. These scroll bars appear when the document is too large to be viewed entirely on one screen. A user may want to move a window to another location on the screen, particularly if there is more than one window open on the screen. Click on the title bar and then drag the window to the desired position as shown in Figure . The window will dynamically follow the cursor around similar to moving a piece of paper on a real desktop. Most Windows applications have similar-looking menus and functions. Differences depend on the type of application.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.6 Resizing a desktop window

Windows that display applications, such as WordPad, can have sizes ranging from full screen to very small as shown in Figure . To resize a window, move the cursor to any corner or side of the application window. A double-headed arrow will appear as shown in Figure . Click and drag on the window edge to change the window size. There are types of arrows, pointers, cursors, and other items that can be used to navigate around in Windows as shown in Figure . To modify the mouse pointers, go to My Computer > Control Panel > Mouse > Pointer.

1.2 Windows Desktop Environment 1.2.7 Switching between windows

When more than one window is open, the user can switch between windows by pressing Alt-Tab. As shown in Figure , a window appears that indicates which applications are open. While holding down the Alt button, keep pressing Tab to find the desired window. Document windows can also be selected by clicking the desired document on the desktop taskbar, which

displays at the bottom of the screen. 1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.1 Viewing the basic system information of a computer

This section will discuss how to find system information in Windows 2000. It will also show how to view information such as the type of operating system, the processor type, and the type and amount of random-access memory (RAM) that is installed. This information is valuable to the PC technician for troubleshooting and for updating the system or applications. To view information about the system in Windows 2000, go to the Start menu and choose Programs > Accessories > System Tools > System Information as shown in Figure . A window will open that gives the operating system (OS) name and version, the system manufacturer and model, the processor type and manufacturer, the BIOS version, and the memory. Figure shows this window. This information can be saved as a text file by selecting Action from the toolbar and Save As Text File as shown in Figure . The location where the file is to be saved can be specified as shown in Figure . Figure shows the System Info.txt file in the directory. The user can open the System Info.txt file in Notepad text editor by double-clicking on it. If the System Info.txt file is too large, Windows will prompt the user to open it in WordPad instead. The contents will be similar to what is shown in Figure . The text can then be copied and pasted into a word processing program such as Microsoft Word, or a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel, so that the information is easier to read as shown in Figure . NOTE: The preceding steps are specific to Windows 2000. These steps are slightly different when using Windows 98 or ME. To achieve the same result, click Start > Programs > Accessories > System Tools > System information. Then select File > Export from the window that displays and specify a file name and directory where to save the file. The system information is saved as a text file.

1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.2 Setting the clock rate

The next few sections will show how to use the Microsoft Windows graphical user interface (GUI) to make changes to the desktop. These changes include the date and time, the volume settings for the speaker, and other desktop display options such as background options, screen settings, screen saver options, and so on. To adjust the date and time, double-click on the clock on the taskbar. A popup window similar to Figure will display. Click on the down arrow next to month to select the current month as shown in Figure . Change the year in the same manner if needed. To adjust the date, click on the desired numerical day of the month. Set the clock by entering the new time in the field and selecting AM or PM. Click on the tab labeled Time Zone as shown in Figure . Click the down arrow and choose the appropriate time zone as shown in Figure . The clock will automatically adjust itself for daylight savings changes annually.

In Windows 98, the display window to adjust the date and time properties will be different from Windows 2000. The Time Zone drop-down menu is located in the main Date & Time tab. To select the time zone, click on the Time Zone down arrow, which will open a drop-down menu, and select a time zone.

1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.3 Minimizing, maximizing, and exiting Most applications in Windows have three small icons in the upper right corner of the screen that are used to minimize the screen, maximize the screen, or exit the application. Figure shows these icons. By clicking on the Minimize button, which is the left button, the application is placed on the taskbar. It is still open and can be accessed by clicking on it in the taskbar. The middle button, which is the Maximize or Restore button, changes depending on whether the window being viewed is opened partially or fully as shown in Figure . Click on this button to make the application screen smaller or larger. The far right button, which is marked with an X, closes the application. Hint: The fastest way to minimize all windows quickly is to click the Show Desktop icon next to the Start button. Clicking this button again restores all windows. 1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.4 Adjusting the screen display

The screen resolution setting is dependent upon the requirements of the user, the application being used, and the version of Windows that is installed. Young children, older adults, and those with vision difficulties may prefer larger text and images. In addition, older video cards may not support more detailed colors or speed of display as demanded by the most advanced computer games, computer graphics, design software, or video editing tools. To adjust the screen display, first minimize all windows that are open. Right-click on empty space on the desktop and choose Properties to open the Display Properties window as shown in Figure . Alternatively, choose Settings > Control Panel > Display from the Start menu. The following list details the tabs found on the Display Properties window: The Background tab, as shown in Figure , allows users to choose what is displayed as background for the desktop. Windows default background is a blue screen. The Screen Saver tab, as shown in Figure , permits the selection of a screen saver and when it should activate on the desktop. The screen saver can also be set up to require a password. Energy savings features of the monitor are also applied in this tab. The Appearance tab, as shown in Figure , has settings that allow users to choose the size and color of text and backgrounds for applications. The Effects tab, as shown in Figure , allows users to choose visual effects such as fade effects, large icons, and the ability to show contents while dragging windows. The Web tab, as shown in Figure , has a feature that allows users to decide whether or not to show web content on the active desktop. This tab is not available in Windows 95. The Settings tab, as shown in Figure , allows users to adjust the screen area display and colors. Setting the screen display properties is a matter of preference. Individual users can set the features of the windows for a better visual appearance to work with.

1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.5 Desktop settings To adjust the desktop settings, access the Display Properties window as explained in the previous section. In the Settings tab, adjust the number of colors and the number of pixels that will be displayed as shown in Figure . Pixels are the tiny dots that make up the light on the screen and determine the intensity of a screen image. For example, lower values tend to display cartoon-like color images, which are grainy with few details. Higher values display more realistic color images, which approach a "true color" of 16.7 million colors and have superb detail. Once the color or number of pixels has been selected, click Apply. The message in Figure will appear. Click on OK. The message in Figure will appear. Choose Yes to reconfigure the desktop. The screen display may become blank, or the desktop screen may jump around. Do not worry. Windows is adjusting the desktop to match the new settings. NOTE: When first installing a video card, Windows will default to the lowest settings of 640x480 resolution and possibly even eight colors. When a video card driver is installed with driver software that is supplied by the manufacturer, more colors and resolutions can be displayed. This topic will be discussed in more detail under "Display Components" in Module 2.

1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.6 Adjusting audio volume

To access the volume control, click on the speaker icon on the taskbar. Audio properties can also be accessed from the Sounds and Multimedia icon in the Control Panel. Slide the bars up and down until the volume level and other audio settings are adjusted. The volume control screen includes a mute option that can be used to turn off the sound completely as shown in Figure .

1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.7 Start menu options

The Start button is located on the Windows taskbar in the lower left hand corner of the Windows desktop. Imbedded in it are several useful Windows features. Click on the Start button as shown in Figure to access these options. Run The Run feature is another method of starting a program. This feature can be used instead of clicking the program shortcut icon on the desktop or in the list of programs within the Programs directory. The directory is discussed more thoroughly in Module 4. Access the Run feature by clicking on Start and choosing Run. A command line entry space will appear as shown in Figure . The user may now enter the

program name and any necessary parameters as in a DOS prompt window. NOTE: This feature is used often by the IT Technician to access the command editor and to execute diagnostic routines such as ping. Help The Help feature provides tips and instructions on how to use Windows. The Help feature includes an index and search function as shown in Figure . The Help feature for Windows is easy to use, and learning to navigate it will allow a user to find useful information quickly. This example shows how to search for help, and how to format a floppy disk: Select Help from the Start menu on the taskbar. Click on the Index tab and type the keyword phrase "formatting disks". Click Display, as shown in Figure . As shown in Figure , the right side of the screen will display instructions on how to format a disk. Find or Search In Windows 95, 98, and Windows NT, the Find feature is used to locate files, folders, and network connections to other computers and peripherals. In Windows 2000, Find has been renamed Search. Documents The Documents menu shows a list of the most recent documents that have been accessed or created. This menu can also be used as a shortcut method for returning to these documents. These documents are linked to the applications that created them. The application will launch when the document is opened. Programs The Programs menu lists all of the programs that are installed on the computer. To start a program, click Start > Programs, locate the program to be started, and click on it. Shortcut icons can be made on the desktop for programs that are used regularly.

1.3 Basic Features of Windows 1.3.8 Recycle bin

The Recycle Bin stores files, folders, graphics, and web pages from the hard disk that have been deleted. These items can be undeleted or restored back to their original location. Items remain in the Recycle Bin until they are permanently deleted from the computer. When the Recycle Bin fills up, Windows 2000 automatically cleans out enough space to accommodate the most recently deleted files and folders. Figure shows the recycle bin in Windows 98 and Windows 2000 with deleted files and folders.

1.4 Overview of Software Applications 1.4.1 Word processors

As discussed earlier in this module, software applications are the programs that allow the completion of tasks. These tasks include writing a report, keeping track of clients, drawing a company logo, displaying web pages, and writing e-mail. A word processor is an application that creates, edits, stores, and prints documents. Figure shows Microsoft Word 2000 as an example of a word processor. All word processors can insert or delete text, define margins, copy, cut, and paste. These features, called text editors, are only supported by word processors. Most word processors support additional features that enable the manipulation and formation of documents in very sophisticated ways. Examples include file management, macros, spell checkers, headers and footers, merge capabilities, advanced layout features, multiple windows, and preview modes. The most prominent word processors are Corel WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, and Lotus.

1.4 Overview of Software Applications 1.4.2 Spreadsheets

In a spreadsheet, numerical data is stored in cells that are arranged on a grid. A cell is identified by its position in the grid according to the column and row that it occupies, such as A3. The data in a cell could be a number, text, or calculation. Consider that A3 contains the value 10, and the adjacent cell, B3, contains the calculation =A3*2.54, or the value in A3 multiplied by 2.54. The cell, B3, would display the value 25.4. In other words, a value in inches in A3 is converted to centimeters in B3, since 2.54 is the conversion factor. Spreadsheets can be used to calculate a range of numerical values and to carry out large and complex calculations. Many spreadsheets have the ability to plot data in the form of graphs, bar charts, and pie charts. Microsoft Excel, as shown in Figure , and Lotus 1-2-3 are both examples of spreadsheet applications.

1.4 Overview of Software Applications 1.4.3 Databases

A database is an organized collection of data that can be easily accessed, managed, and updated. Microsoft Access, Oracle Database, and FileMaker are all examples of database applications. Microsoft Access is shown in Figure . PC databases are divided into two distinct categories, flat-file and relational. Flat-File Database

A flat-file database stores information in a single table. Each column, called a field, contains a particular piece of information such as first name, last name, address, or telephone number. Each row, called a record, contains information for a particular database item. An ordinary telephone directory might be stored in this format. Relational Database Relational databases are a collection of flat-file databases, or tables, linked through some particular relationship. For example, a bank would use a relational database to store information about its clients. Individual tables would be used to contain the names and addresses of clients, detailed information about each bank account, the amount in each account, passwords, and so on. A unique identifier, called a key, forms the relationship between records in different tables and links the information in these tables. For example, when money is withdrawn from a cash machine, the details of the bankcard and the password number are verified in a security table. Next, the account balance table is accessed to ensure that sufficient funds are available. Finally, the transaction is stored in an account transaction table. Relational databases are the best way to store large amounts of interrelated data. These databases can manage multiple relationships with a minimum duplication of data, which is advantageous over flat-file databases. For example, each bank account will have many transactions stored in conjunction with it, known as a one-to-many relationship. A single flat-file database would be too overwhelmingly large and inefficient for the task. Flat-file databases are two dimensional, while relational databases have three or more dimensions.

1.4 Overview of Software Applications 1.4.4 Graphics applications

Graphics applications are used to create or modify graphical images. The two types of graphical images include object- or vector-based images, and bitmaps or raster images. To understand the difference, imagine creating a letter T as shown in Figure . A bitmap would represent the T as if it was drawn on graph paper with the corresponding squares shaded in. A vector-based graphic would describe the T with geometrical elements such as two rectangular shapes of the same size, one standing up, the other resting on top at its middle. The vector-based graphic can be enlarged or shrunk to any size. However, the bitmap will show the individual squares if the image is enlarged. Bitmaps often require much more file space than vector graphics. There are several types of graphic programs, which can be broken down into four main categories: Image editing The process of creating bitmaps or raster images. The industry standard image editing software is Adobe Photoshop as shown in Figure . Its vast tool set makes it possible to manipulate and create raster or bitmap images. Illustration The process of creating object- or vector-based images. The most prominent illustration software is Adobe Illustrator. It has a tool set similar to Photoshop that creates vector-based images as opposed to raster images. Figure shows an example of this program. Animation The process of creating sequential images that give the impression of continuous movement when played in a series. There are many ways to accomplish this process. The most prominent types of animation are frame-by-frame animation and keyframe animation. Frame-by-frame animation involves the creation of each frame. Keyframe animation allows the animator to define two key points, and uses the computer to calculate the "in between" frames. This process is commonly known as tweening. 3D graphics editing The process of using a simulated, three-dimensional environment to create

geometric objects, which can be textured, painted, and animated. The geometry of 3D graphics can have real world scale and depth to assist in the creation of floor plans, model cars, or even movie special effects. Other graphics applications are used in multimedia, audio, and games. 1.4 Overview of Software Applications 1.4.5 Presentation applications

Presentation applications, also known as business graphics, permit the organization, design, and delivery of presentations in the form of slide shows and reports. Bar charts, pie charts, graphics, and other types of images can be created based on data that is imported from spreadsheet applications. Figure shows Microsoft PowerPoint, which is a prominent presentation application.

1.4 Overview of Software Applications 1.4.6 Web browser and e-mail

A web browser is an application that is used to locate and display pages from the World Wide Web (WWW). The two most common browsers are Netscape Navigator shown in Figure , and Microsoft Internet Explorer shown in Figure . These are graphical browsers, which means that they can display graphics as well as text. In addition, most modern browsers can present multimedia information, including sound and video, though they require plug-ins for some formats. NOTE: A plug-in is an auxiliary program that works with a major software package to enhance its capability. An example of a plug-in is a filter that adds special effects in an imaging program such as Photoshop. Plugins are added to web browsers to enable them to support new types of content including audio, video, and so on. Although the term is widely used for software, it can also be used to refer to a plug-in module for hardware. E-Mail Electronic mail (e-mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by network communication. Both Netscape and Microsoft include an e-mail utility with their web browsers. Figure shows the Netscape e-mail utility.

1.5 Math for a Digital Age There is a rather large dictionary of terms that should be known. The technician needs to know the following terminology: bit The smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit can take the value of either one or zero. A bit is the binary format in which data is processed by computers. byte A unit of measure that is used to describe the size of a data file, the amount of space on a disk or other storage medium, or the amount of data being sent over a network. One byte consists of eight bits of data.

nibble Half a byte or four bits. kilobyte (KB) 1024, or approximately 1000, bytes. kilobytes per second (kBps) A measurement of the amount of data that is transferred over a connection such as a network connection. kBps is a data transfer rate of approximately 1,000 bytes per second. kilobit (Kb) 1024, or approximately 1000, bits. kilobits per second (kbps) A measurement of the amount of data transferred over a connection such as a network connection. kbps is a data transfer rate of approximately 1,000 bits per second. megabyte (MB) 1,048,576 bytes, or approximately 1,000,000 bytes. megabytes per second (MBps) A common measurement of the amount of data transferred over a connection such as a network connection. MBps is a data transfer rate of approximately 1,000,000 bytes or 106 kilobytes per second. megabits per second (Mbps) A common measurement of the amount of data transferred over a connection such as a network connection. Mbps is a data transfer rate of approximately 1,000,000 bits or 106 kilobits per second. NOTE: A common error is confusing KB with Kb and MB with Mb. A capital B indicates bytes while a lower case b indicates bits. Similarly, multipliers greater than one are capitalized and multipliers less than one are lower case. For example, M=1,000,000 and m=0.001. Remember to do the proper calculations when comparing transmission speeds that are measured in KB with those measured in Kb. For example, modem software usually shows the connection speed in kilobits per second, such as 45 kbps. However, prominent browsers display file-download speeds in kilobytes per second. Therefore, the download speed with a 45-kbps connection would be a maximum of 5.76-kBps. In actual practice, the download speed of a dialup connection cannot reach 45 kbps because of other factors that consume bandwidth at the same time as the download. The technician needs to know the following terminology: hertz (Hz) A unit of frequency measurement. It is the rate of change in the state, or cycle, in a sound wave, alternating current, or other cyclical waveform. Hertz is synonymous with cycles per second, and it is used to describe the speed of a computer microprocessor. megahertz (MHz) One million cycles per second. This is a common measurement of the speed of a processing chip. gigahertz (GHz) One billion cycles per second. This is a common measurement of the speed of a processing chip. NOTE: PC processors are becoming faster all the time. The microprocessors used on PCs in the 1980s typically ran under 10 MHz, and the original IBM PC was 4.77 MHz. In the start of the year 2000, PC processors approached the speed of 1 GHz, and approached 3.0 GHz as of the year 2002.