1 BITUMINOUS MIXTURES

1.1 Dry Mix Design

The objective of dry mix design is to determine the amount of various sizes of mineral aggregates
to use to get a mix of maximum density. The dry mix design involves three important steps, viz.
selection of aggregates, aggregates gradation, and proportion of aggregates, which are discussed
below.

1.1.1 Selection of Aggregates

The desirable qualities of a bituminous paving mixture are dependent to a considerable degree on
the nature of the aggregates used. Aggregates are classified as coarse, fine, and filler. The function
of the coarse aggregates in contributing to the stability of a bituminous paving mixture is largely
due to interlocking and frictional resistance of adjacent particles. Similarly, fines or sand
contributes to stability failure function in filling the voids between coarse aggregates. Mineral filler
is largely visualized as a void filling agent. Crushed aggregates and sharp sands produce higher
stability of the mix when compared with gravel and rounded sands.

1.1.2 Aggregate Gradation

The properties of the bituminous mix including the density and stability are very much dependent
on the aggregates and their grain size distribution. Gradation has a profound effect on mix
performance. It might be reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that produces
maximum density. This would involve a particle arrangement where smaller particles are packed
between larger particles, thus reducing the void space between particles. This creates more
particle-to-particle contact, which in bituminous pavements would increase stability and reduce
water infiltration. However, some minimum amount of void space is necessary to: provide
adequate volume for the binder to occupy, promote rapid drainage, and provide resistance to frost
action for base and sub base courses. A dense mixture may be obtained when this particle size
distribution follows Fuller law which is expressed as:

=
Where, is the percent by weight of the total mixture passing any given sieve sized, is the size
of the largest particle in that mixture, and is the parameter depending on the shape of the
aggregate (0.5 for perfectly rounded particles) Based on this law, Fuller-Thompson gradation
charts were developed by adjusting the parameter for fineness or coarseness of aggregates.
Practical considerations like construction, layer thickness, workability, etc, are also considered.
For example Table 6.1.2 provides a typical gradation for bituminous concrete for a thickness of
40 mm.

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 Table 6.1.2: Specified gradation of aggregates for AC surface course of 40 mm
Sieve size Wt passing (%) Wt passing (%)
(mm) Grade 1 Grade 2
20 - 100
12.5 100 80-100
10.0 80-100 70-79
4.75 55-75 50-70
2.36 35-50 35-50
0.60 18-29 18-29
0.30 13-23 13-23
0.15 8-16 8-16
0.075 4-10 4-10
Binder* 5-7.5 5-7.5
* Bitumen content in percent by weight of the mix

1.1.3 Proportioning of aggregates

After selecting the aggregates and their gradation, proportioning of aggregates has to be done and
the following are the common methods of proportioning of aggregates:

1. Trial and error procedure: Vary the proportion of materials until the required
aggregate gradation is achieved.
2. Graphical Methods: Two graphical methods in common use for proportioning of
aggregates are Triangular chart method and Roch's method. The former is used when
only three materials are to be mixed.
3. Analytical Method: In this method a system of equations are developed based on the
gradation of each aggregates and the required gradation. The equations are solved by
numerical methods. With the advent of the computer, this method is becoming popular
and is the one discussed below. The resulting solution gives the proportion of each
type of material required for the given aggregate gradation.

Example 6.1.3
The gradation required for a typical mix is given in Table 6.13 in column 1 and 2. The gradation
of available for three types of aggregate A, B and C are given in column 3, 4, and 5. Determine
the proportions of A, B and C that need to be mixed for us to get the required gradation in column
2.

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 Table 6.1.3a : Gradation

Sieve Required Fine Coarse

Filler
size Gradation Aggregates Aggregates
(A)
(mm) Range (B) (C)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
25.4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
12.7 90-100 100.0 100.0 94.0
4.76 60-75 100.0 100.0 54.0
1.18 40-55 100.0 66.4 31.3
0.3 20-35 100.0 26.0 22.8
0.15 12-22 73.6 17.6 9.0
0.075 5-10 40.1 5.0 3.1

Solution

The solution is obtained by constructing a set of equations considering the lower and upper limits
of the required gradation as well as the percentage passing of each type of aggregate. Now, let’s
get to the business of proportioning of aggregates A, B, C in a blend that will give the gradation
of column 2. Let , and represent the proportions of A, B and C respectively. An equation
of the form + + ≤ ≥ can be written for each sieve size, where a, b and c
are the proportions of aggregates A, B and C passing for that sieve size and . This will lead
to the following system of equations:

+ + = 1.0
+ + 0.94 ≥ 0.9
+ + 0.94 ≤ 1.0
+ + 0.54 ≥ 0.6
+ + 0.54 ≤ 0.75
+ 0.664 + 0.313 ≥ 0.40
+ 0.664 + 0.313 ≤ 0.55
+ 0.260 + 0.228 ≥ 0.20
+ 0.260 + 0.228 ≤ 0.35
0.736 + 0.176 + 0.009 ≥ 0.12
0.736 + 0.176 + 0.009 ≤ 0.22
0.401 + 0.050 + 0.031 ≥ 0.05
0.401 + 0.050 + 0.031 ≤ 0.10
Solving the above system of equations manually is extremely difficult. Good computer programs
are required to solve this. Softwares like “Solver” in Excel and “Matlab” can be used to solve this
set of equations. Suppose the solution to the equations is:

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 = 0.05 = 0.30 = 0.65

Table 6.1.3b shows how aggregates A, B and C are blended to produce the required gradation.
Table 6.1.3b: Result of Mix Design

Sieve Combined Required

Fine Aggregate Coarse
size Filler (A) Gradation Gradation
(B) Aggregate (C)
(mm) Obtained Range

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

25.4 100x0.05=5.0 100x0.3=30.0 100x.65=65 100 100

12.7 100x0.05=5.0 100x0.3=30.0 94x0.65=61 96 90-100

4.76 100x0.05=5.0 100x0.3=30.0 54x0.65=35.1 70.1 60-75

1.18 100x0.05=5.0 66.4x0.3=19.8 31.3x0.65=20.4 45.2 40-55

0.3 100x0.05=5.0 26.3x0.3=07.8 22.8x.65=14.8 27.6 20-35

0.15 73.6x0.05 =3.7 17.6x0.3=05.3 9x0.65=5.9 14.9 12-22

0.075 40.1x0.05=2.0 5x0.3=0.15 3.1x0.65=2.0 5.5 5-10

1.1.4 Wet- Mix Design

Wet-mix design determines the optimum bitumen content. This is preceded by the dry-mix design
discussed in the previous section. There are many methods available for wet-mix design and they
vary with the size of the test specimen, compaction, and other test specifications. Marshall Method
of mix design is the most popular one and is discussed below.

Marshall Mix design

The Marshall Stability and Flow Test provide the performance prediction measure for the
Marshall-mix design method. The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load
supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load is applied to the
specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as stability. During the loading, an
attached dial gauge measures the specimen's plastic flow (deformation) due to the loading. The
flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the same time when the maximum
load is recorded. The important steps involved in marshal mix design are summarized below.

i. Specimen preparation
Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to temperatures between 177℃ −
190℃ . Bitumen is heated to temperatures between 121℃-125℃ with the first trial percentage of
bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates). The heated aggregates and bitumen
are thoroughly mixed at a temperature between 154℃ − 160℃. The mix is placed in a preheated

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mould and compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on either side at temperature of 138℃ to149℃ .
The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered
to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm. Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by
+0.5% and repeat the above procedure. Number of trials is predetermined. The prepared mould
is loaded in the Marshall test setup as shown in the Figure 6.1.4a

Figure 6.1.4a Marshall Mould

 Properties of the mix

The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific gravity , the bulk specific
gravity of the mix , percent air voids , percent volume of bitumen , percent void in mixed
aggregate and percent voids filled with bitumen . To understand these calculations, a
phase diagram is given in Figure 6.1.4b

Figure 6.1.4b: Phase diagram of a bituminous mix

 Theoretical Specific Gravity

Theoretical specific gravity is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is given
by:

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 + + +
=
+ + +
Where, is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, is the weight of fine aggregate in
the total mix, is the weight of filler in the total mix, is the weight of bitumen in the total
mix, is the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate, is the apparent specific gravity of
fine aggregate, is the apparent specific gravity of filler and is the apparent specific gravity
of bitumen,

 Bulk specific gravity of mix

The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix is the specific gravity
considering air voids and is found out by:

=
−

Where, is the weight of mix in air, is the weight of mix in water, Note that ( −
) gives the volume of the mix. Sometimes, to get accurate bulk specific gravity, the specimen
is coated with thin film of paraffin wax, when weight is taken in the water. This, however, requires
us to consider the weight and volume of wax in the calculations.

 Air voids percent

Air voids is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:
100 ( − )
=

Where, is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix and is the bulk or actual specific gravity
of the mix.

 Percent volume of bitumen

The volume of bitumen is the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume and is given
by:

=
( + + + )

Where, is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, is the weight of fine aggregate in
the total mix, is the weight of filler in the total mix, is the weight of bitumen in the total
mix, is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen, and is the bulk specific gravity of mix.

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  Voids in mineral aggregate VMA
A void in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is the sum of air
voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from:
= +
Where, is the percent air voids in the mix, and is percent bitumen content in the mix.

 Voids filled with bitumen VFB

Voids filled with bitumen VFB are the voids in the mineral aggregate frame-work filled with the
bitumen, and are calculated as:
× 100
=
Where, is percent bitumen content in the mix and is the percent voids in the mineral
aggregate

ii. Determine Marshall stability and flow

“Marshall Stability” of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure when the
specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head and the load is
applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute). While the stability test is in progress, a dial gauge
is used to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen. The deformation at the failure point
expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the “Marshall Flow” value of the specimen.

 Apply stability correction

It is possible while making the specimen that the thickness slightly varies from the standard
specification of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be corrected to those which
would have been obtained if the specimens had been exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by multiplying
each measured stability value by an appropriated correlation factors as given in Table below.

Table 6.1.4 a : Correction factors for

Marshall stability values

Volume of
Thickness of Correction
specimen
specimen (mm) Factor
(cm3)

457 - 470 57.1 1.19

471 - 482 68.7 1.14

483 - 495 60.3 1.09

496 - 508 61.9 1.04

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 509 - 522 63.5 1.00

523 - 535 65.1 0.96

536 - 546 66.7 0.93

547 - 559 68.3 0.89

560 - 573 69.9 0.86

 Prepare graphical plots

The average values of the above properties are determined for each mix with different bitumen
content and the following graphical plots are prepared:
- Binder content versus corrected Marshall stability
- Binder content versus Marshall flow
- Binder content versus percentage of void in the total mix
- Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
- Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity
 Determine optimum bitumen content
Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the following
three bitumen contents found from the graphs obtained in the previous step.
- Binder content corresponding to maximum stability
- Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity ( )
- Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids ( ) in
the total mix (i.e. 4%)

The stability value, flow value, and are checked with Marshall Mix design specification
chart given in Table below. Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not
desirable as the pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy
moving loads.

Table 6.1.4 b : Marshall mix design specification

Test Property Specified Value

Marshall stability, Kg 340 (minimum)

Flow value, 0.25 mm units 8 - 17

Percent air voids in the mix % 3-5

Voids filled with bitumen % 75 - 85

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1.2 Types of Bituminous Mixtures

A bituminous mixture is a combination of bituminous materials (as binders), properly graded

aggregates and additives. Since tar is rarely used in bituminous mixtures in recent years and asphalt
is the predominant binder material used, the term “asphalt mixture” is now more commonly used
to denote a combination of asphalt materials, aggregates and additives. Asphalt mixtures used in
pavement applications are usually classified by

1) Their methods of production, or

2) Their composition and characteristics.

1.2.1 Classification by Method of Production

i. Hot-mix asphalt (HMA)

Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is produced in a hot asphalt mixing plant (or hot-mix plant) by mixing a
properly controlled amount of aggregate with a properly controlled amount of asphalt at an
elevated temperature. The mixing temperature has to be sufficiently high such that the asphalt is
fluidic enough for proper mixing with and coating the aggregate, but not too high as to avoid
excessive aging of the asphalt. A HMA mixture must be laid and compacted when the mixture is
still sufficiently hot so as to have proper workability. HMA mixtures are the most commonly used
paving material in surface and binder courses in asphalt pavements.

ii. Cold-laid plant mix

Cold-laid plant mix is produced in an asphalt mixing plant by mixing a controlled amount of
aggregate with a controlled amount of liquid asphalt without the application of heat. It is laid and
compacted at ambient temperature.

iii. Mixed-in-place or road mix

Mixed-in-place or road mix is produced by mixing the aggregates with the asphalt binders in
proper proportions on the road surface by means of special road mixing equipment. A medium
setting (MS) asphalt emulsion is usually used for open-graded mixtures while a slow setting (SS)
asphalt emulsion is usually used for dense-graded mixtures.

iv. Penetration macadam

Penetration macadam is produced by a construction procedure in which layers of coarse and
uniform size aggregate are spread on the road and rolled, and sprayed with appropriate amounts of
asphalt to penetrate the aggregate. The asphalt material used may be hot asphalt cement or a rapid
setting (RS) asphalt emulsion

1.2.2 Classification by Composition and Characteristics

i. Dense-graded

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Dense-graded HMA mixtures, which use a dense-graded aggregate and have a relatively low air
voids after placement and compaction, are commonly used as surface and binder courses in asphalt
pavements. The term Asphalt Concrete (Coated Macadam) is commonly used to refer to a high-
quality, dense-graded HMA mixture. AC was developed in the 19th century by John Macadam. It
is relatively permeable, durable when correctly compacted, resistant to deformation, good load
spreading properties and require high compactive effort.

A dense graded HMA mixture with maximum aggregate size of greater than 25 mm (1 in.) is
called a large stone dense-grade HMA mix. A dense-grade HMA mix with 100% of the aggregate
particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve is called a sand mix.

Dense Bitumen Macadam has broad aggregate grading with a dense interlocking aggregate
skeleton. It is characterized by low binder content, medium to soft binders (typically 100-200 Pens)
and relatively high air-void content.

ii. Open-graded

Open-graded asphalt mixtures, which use an open-graded aggregate and have a relatively high air
void after placement and compaction, are used where high water permeability is desirable. Two
primary types of open-graded mixes are

1) Open-graded base mix and

2) Open-graded friction course (OGFC).

- Open-graded base mixes

Open-graded base mixes are used to provide a strong base for an asphalt pavement as well as rapid
drainage for subsurface water. Open-graded base mixes usually use a relatively larger size
aggregate that contains very little or no fines. Due to the lower aggregate surface area, these mixes
have relatively lower asphalt content than that of a dense-graded HMA mix. Open-graded base
mixes can be produced either hot or cold in an asphalt plant.

- Open-graded friction courses (OGFC)

Open-graded friction courses (OGFC) are placed on top of surface courses to improve skid
resistance and to reduce hydroplaning of the pavement surface. OGFC mixtures use aggregates
with a small proportion of fines to produce high air voids and good drainage characteristics. Even
though the voids content is higher, the asphalt film thickness is usually greater than that for a
dense-graded HMA, and thus a typical OGFC mixture has about the same or higher asphalt content
than that of a dense-graded HMA. A typical OGFC uses an aggregate of ½ in. (12.5mm) maximum
size, and is placed at a thickness of ¾in. (19 mm). An OGFC mixture is produced in a hot-mix
plant in the same way as a dense-graded HMA mixture. Crumb rubber modified asphalt has been
used in OGFC mixtures in recent years to improve their performance and durability. Due to the
higher viscosity of the crumb rubber modified binder, thicker film thickness can be used. This

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results in a higher binder content and thus better durability for the crumb rubber modified OGFC
mixtures.

Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA) is Dense, gap graded bituminous mixture in which the mortar of fine
aggregate, filler and high viscosity binder are major contributors to the performance of the laid
material (missing intermediate aggregate sizes). Coated chippings (nominally single size aggregate
particles with a high resistance to polishing, which are lightly coated with high viscosity binder)
are always rolled into and form part of a Hot Rolled Asphalt surface course. HRA is impermeable,
durable, fatigue resistant, workable but prone to deformation. This mix was developed after World
War I by Richardson

iii. Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA)

Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA), which was originally developed in Europe, was a special asphalt
mixture of improved rutting resistance and increased durability. SMA mixtures are designed to
have a high coarse aggregate content (typically 70–80%), a high binder content (typically over
6%) and high filler content (typically about 10%). Asphalts modified with polymers and/or fibers
are typically used. The improved rutting resistance of the SMA mixture is attributed to the fact
that it carries the load through the coarse aggregate matrix (or the stone matrix), as compared with
a dense-graded HMA, which carries the load through the fine aggregate. The use of polymer and/or
fiber modified asphalts, which have increased viscosity, and the use of high filler content, which
increases the stiffness of the binder, allow the SMA mixtures to have a higher binder film thickness
and higher binder content without the problem of drain-down of asphalt during construction. The
increased durability of the SMA mixtures can be attributed to the higher binder film thickness and
the higher binder content. SMA mixtures require the use of strong and durable aggregates with a
relatively lower L.A. Abrasion Loss. SMA mixtures can be produced in a hot-mix plant in a similar
way as a dense-grade HMA mixture. The main disadvantage of using a SMA as compared with a
dense-grade HMA is its relatively higher cost due to the requirement for the use of higher quality
aggregates, polymer, fibers and fillers.

1.3 Recycling of Bituminous Materials

Asphalt recycling is the re-use, usually after some processing, of a material that has already served
its first-intended purpose. Asphalt cement can be re-melted and re-used several times, regardless
of the original method of construction.
Although asphalt materials lose some engineering properties over the years due to oxidation,
volatization and weathering, these losses tend to be minimal in pavements having less than 5% air
voids. In such cases, asphalt cement more than 6mm below the surface retains virtually the same
composition as the day it was placed. Asphalt materials seldom wear out, but if it happens
techniques are available to restore them.
In recycling, traffic disruptions can be minimized, since only lanes with distressed pavement can
be closed. Modern recycling techniques allow for the correction of problems in the sub-grade and
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base layers, as well as the surface course. Roadways can be upgraded to carry heavier traffic, while
curb and drainage tolerances and overpass clearances can be maintained.
The decision as to whether or not to recycle, and if so, by what method, depends on such factors
as the cause of the pavement distress, the history of the road’s maintenance requirements, costs
and performance, horizontal and vertical geometric controls, environmental factors and traffic.
There are three basic methods of recycling-: hot-mix, cold-mix and surface.

1.3.1 Hot Mix Recycling

A process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement materials, reclaimed aggregate materials, or both,
are combined with new asphalt, and/or recycling agents, and/or new aggregates, as necessary, in a
central plant to produce hot-of mixture mix paving mixtures. The finished product meets all
standard material specifications and construction requirements for the type being produced.

1.3.2 Cold Mix Recycling

A process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement materials, reclaimed aggregates materials, or both,
are combined with new asphalt, and/or recycling agents in place, or at a central plant, to produce
cold mix base mixtures. An asphalt surface course is required.

1.3.3 Surfacing Recycling

A process in which an asphalt pavement surface is heated in place, scarified, remixed, relaid and
rolled. Asphalts, recycling agents, new asphalt hot-mix, aggregates, or combinations of these may
be added to obtain desirable mixture characteristics. When new asphalt hot-mix is added, the
finished product may be used as the final surface. Otherwise, an asphalt surface course should be
used.

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