Electrical Engineering Department Dr.

Ali Younis
Second Term 2021
 • Location: Class 2
• Lecture Time: Wednesday (11:00 AM- 2:00 PM)
• Section Time: Sunday ()
• Office Hours : Wednesday (8:00 AM- 11:00 AM)
• Office location: first floor Electrical Engineering Department
• Office Tel. 0882411032

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 Grades
• Year work : 60
1. Midterm Exam1 : 20
2. Homework: 20
3. Attendance: 20
• Final Exam: 40

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Electronics Devices Ninth Edition
By: Thomas L. Floyd
• Microelectronics Circuits Fifth Edition
By: Adel S. Sedra
• Electronics Devices and Circuits Second Edition
By Jimmie J. Cathey

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Introduction to Electronics (Ch. 1)
• Diodes and Applications (Ch. 2)
• Special Purpose Diodes (Ch. 3)
• Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) (Ch. 4)
• Transistors Bias Circuits (Ch. 5)
• BJT Amplifiers (Ch. 6)
• Power Amplifiers (Ch. 7)
• Field Effect Transistors (FETs) (Ch.8)
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • FET Amplifier and Switching Circuits (Ch. 9)
• Amplifier Frequency Response (Ch. 10)
• Thyristors (Ch. 11)
• The Operational Amplifier (OP. Amp) (Ch. 12)
• Basic OP-Amp Circuits (Ch. 13)
• Special Purpose OP-Amp Circuits (Ch. 14)
• Active Filters (Ch. 15)
• Oscillators (Ch.16)
• Voltage Regulators (Ch. 17)
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 1. Introduction to Electronics 2. Diodes and Applications 3. Special-Purpose Diodes
•The Atom •Diode Operation 31 •The Zener Diode
•Materials Used in Electronics • Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristics • Zener Diode Applications
• Current in Semiconductors • Diode Models •The Varactor Diode
•N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors • Half-Wave Rectifiers •Optical Diodes
• The PN Junction • Full-Wave Rectifiers •Other Types of Diodes
•Power Supply Filters and Regulators
6. BJT Amplifiers
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors •Diode Limiters and Clampers
•Amplifier Operation
•Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure •Voltage Multipliers
• Transistor AC Models
•Basic BJT Operation 175 • The Diode Datasheet
• The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• BJT Characteristics and Parameters
5. Transistor Bias Circuits • The Common-Collector Amplifier
• The BJT as an Amplifier
•The DC Operating Point • The Common-Base Amplifier
• The BJT as a Switch
• Voltage-Divider Bias • Multistage Amplifiers
• The Phototransistor
• Other Bias Methods •The Differential Amplifier
•Transistor Categories and Packaging
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 8. Field-Effect Transistors (FETs) 9. FET Amplifiers and Switching Circuits
7. Power Amplifiers
•The JFET 385 •The Common-Source Amplifier
•The Class A Power Amplifier
• JFET Characteristics and Parameters • The Common-Drain Amplifier
• The Class B and Class AB Push-Pull
•JFET Biasing •The Common-Gate Amplifier
Amplifiers
•The Ohmic Region • The Class D Amplifier
•The Class C Amplifier
•The MOSFET •MOSFET Analog Switching
10. Amplifier Frequency Response •MOSFET Characteristics and • MOSFET Digital Switching
• Basic Concepts Parameters
• The Decibel • MOSFET Biasing 11. Thyristors
•Low-Frequency Amplifier Response •The IGBT • The Four-Layer Diode
• High-Frequency Amplifier Response • The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
•Total Amplifier Frequency Response • SCR Applications
•Frequency Response of Multistage •The Diac and Triac
•Amplifiers •The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)
• Frequency Response Measurements •The Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 13. Basic Op-Amp Circuits
12. The Operational Amplifier 16. Oscillators
• Comparators
• Introduction to Operational Amplifiers • The Oscillator
• Summing Amplifiers
•Op-Amp Input Modes and Parameters • Feedback Oscillators
•Integrators and Differentiators
•Negative Feedback • Oscillators with RC Feedback Circuits
•1Op-Amps with Negative Feedback Effects of •Oscillators with LC Feedback Circuits
Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances •Relaxation Oscillators
• Bias Current and Offset Voltage •The 555 Timer as an Oscillator
•Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Responses
•Closed-Loop Frequency Response 15. Active Filters 17. Voltage Regulators
14. Special-Purpose Op-Amp Circuits •Basic Filter Responses • Voltage Regulation
•Instrumentation Amplifiers • Filter Response Characteristics •Basic Linear Series Regulators
•Isolation Amplifiers •1Active Low-Pass Filters • Basic Linear Shunt Regulators
•Operational Transconductance Amplifiers • Active High-Pass Filters • Basic Switching Regulators
• Log and Antilog Amplifiers •Active Band-Pass Filters • Integrated Circuit Voltage Regulators
• Converters and Other Op-Amp Circuits •Active Band-Stop Filters •Integrated Circuit Voltage Regulator
•Filter Response Measurements
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • All electronic devices such as diode, transistor and integrated circuits are
made from semi conductor so we must known that:
1. Atom structure
2. Difference between conductors, semiconductors and isolators
3. The current in semiconductors.
4. N-type and P-type semiconductors
5. PN junction

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 Atoms
• All matters consist of atoms, all atoms consist of electrons, protons and
neutrons except normal hydrogen atoms which doe not have a neutrons.
• Each element in the periodic table has a unique atomic structure and all
atoms in the same element have the same number of protons.
• Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons any atom circle the nucleus in
different orbits similar to the way planets orbit the sun in solar systems.
• Quantum model considered another and accurate representation but it is
difficult to visualized.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • All the 118 elements in the periodic table each one has a unique atomic
structure
• Bohr model considered the shown atomic structure.
1. Negative charge particle : electrons
2. Positive charge particles: protons
3. Neutral charge particles: neutrons
• Each atom has a unique number of electrons and
protons as shown for Hydrogen and Helium

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Atomic number is number of proton in the atom
• Elements are arranged in the periodic table according to the atomic number
• In electrically balanced atom (neutral), the number of electrons equal to the
number of protons

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Orbits is the discreet distance from the nucleus at which the electrons rotate.
• Shell is the energy level of each orbits
• Each shell has a fixed and maximum number of
electrons
• The shells have numbers 1,2 ,3,…. With 1 is the
closed one to the nucleus as shown for silicon atom
• The maximum number of electrons in each
• the shell n is:
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • As the shell number increase the energy of the electron increases due to the
force of attraction between +ve and –ve charge
• Electrons of the outer shell of the atom are called valence electron and the
shell known as the valence shell
• The valence electrons contribute to the chemical reaction , bonding with the
structure and the electrical properties of the strcture

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Is the process of losing a valence electron due to an external energy as heat
or light and the resulting +ve charge atom called +ve ion (as H+ )
• Free electron is the escaped valence electrons
• Also when a free electron collide with the atom resulting –ve charge atom
called –ve ion as (H- )
• Example: for silicon atom with atomic number 14
Shell 1: 2 electrons
Shell 2: 8 electrons valence electrons : 4
Shell 3: 4 electrons

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Atoms in each material are held together by the covalent bond to form a
crystalline structure
• each atom can be considered as core consist of all shells except the valence
shell and the nucleus and the valence shell as shown for carbon atom which
has a core with net +4 charge
• So there is an attractive force between the core and
the valence electron
• When the valence electron asquire an enough
amount of energy they leave the valence band to the conduction band
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • Band hap is the difference of energy between the valence band and
conduction band
• All material can be classified according
to their electrical properties to conductors,
semiconductors and isolators
• The figure shown the band gap for all
material

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 Conductor s Semi conductors Isolators
Conduct electrical current Not good conductor nor good isolator Not conduct electrical current
Less than four valence electrons four valence electron More than four valence electron
Found as single element as all Single element such as silicon or Compound elements such as
metal such as copper germanium or compound elements as plastic, glass and Mica
Gallium Arsenide
The conduction band and Small band gab Large energy gap
valence band are overlap

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • The figure below show the Bohr model for Si and Ge atoms
• The valence electron of the Ge are in the fourth shell but they are in the
third shell in the Si atom so the Ge valence electrons have higher energy than
the Si valence electron
• So the valence electron in Ge need less
energy to escape from the valence band
to the conduction band and become free
electrons

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Is the bond resulting due to the share of the valence electron with the
surrounding atom in the material to form a crystalline strcture

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • At zero Kelvin temperature (no external heat) there is no electron in the
conduction band as shown for silicon
• At room temperature, there are some heat all the
valence electron to move from the valence band
to the conduction band and become free electrons
or conduction electron

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • Each electron leaves the valence band the conduction band leaving a vacancy
at the valence band called Hole and forming an electron-hole pairs
• Also when the conduction band electron
loose some energy fall back to the hole in
the valence band and this is called
Recombination

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • when an external voltage applied to an intrinsic piece of silicon, happed that:
1. The free electron in the conduction band are move freely to the positive
side of the source forming a current called electron current as shown
2. Also the electron in the valence
shell are moved toward the
nearby hole leaving a another
hole and so on and this
forming a hole current in opposite direction

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • So the conduction in the semi conductor material is due to movement of the
free electron in the conduction band or movement of hole in the valence
band as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • The current in the intrinsic semiconductors is limited due to the limited number of
free electron in the conduction band or the hole in the valence band
• An impurities will be added to the intrinsic semiconductors to increase the number
of free electrons and conductivity and the semiconductors called extrinsic
semiconductors.
• There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors
1. P-type semiconductors
2. N-type semiconductors
• Doping: is the process of adding an impurities to increase the free electron and
conductively and produces extrinsic semiconductors.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • To increase the number of conduction band electron in the intrinsic
semiconductors, a pentavalent impurity atoms are added
• These atoms have five valence electrons as
Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb).
• Four of theses valence electrons are combined
with the four valance electron of the intrinsic
silicon with the covalent bond leaving one free
electron. As shown, so the conductivity increases
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • The atom which lose the electron is the donation atom.
• The number of free electrons can be controlled by the number of impurity
atoms.
• The electron are called the majority carriers in the N-type semiconductors
• Also there are some current due to the electron recombination in the
intrinsic semi conductors and the hole called the minority carrier.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• To increase the number of hole in the intrinsic semiconductors
, trivalent impurity atoms are added.
• Theses atoms have three valence electrons such as
boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga) as shown
• All the three valence electron are combined with three
valence electron of silicon, so one electron is needed
and then a hole will be created with each impurity
atom
• The number of hole can be controlled with the number of impurity atoms
• In the P-type semiconductors, the holes are the majority carriers and the electron are the minority one
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • A P-type material consists of silicon atom and trivalent impurity such as boron , the
boron atoms added holes when bonds with the silicon atoms
• The number of electrons and protons are equal in the material so there is no net
charge and the material is neutral
• A N-type material consists of silicon atom and pentavalent impurity such as
antimony , the antimony atoms added electrons when bonds with the silicon atoms
• The number of electrons and protons are equal in the material so there is no net
charge and the material is neutral

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

 • If a pieces of intrinsic semiconductors is doped so that a part is a P-type and
the other part is an N-type, so a PN junction is formed at the boundary
between the two region as shown
• The P region has many hole (majority carries)
from the impurity atoms and a few thermally
generated free electrons (minority carriers)
• The N region has many electrons (majority carries)
from the impurity atoms and a few thermally
generated holes(minority carriers)

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• Before the PN junction formed, there are many electrons and protons in both P and N regions
as shown before
• When the PN junction formed the n region lose some electrons as they diffuse into the
junction to combine with the hole in the P region and this created a +ve charge near the
junction
• Also as the electron move across the junction
the p region lose some holes to combine with
theses electrons and this create a –ve charge
near the junction
These two type of charges create the depletion region
shown
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • Depletion refer to the fact that the regions near the PN junction is depleted
of charge carries (electrons or holes) due to the diffusion across the junction
• The depletion region is formed very quickly and it si very thin compared to
the P or N regions
• The depletion region act as a barrier to the further movement of free
electrons across the junction

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• In the depletion region there are many +ve and –ve charge on the PN junction
• The attractive force between these two opposite charge forming an electric field(Colomb’s
law )
• Barrier potential is the amount of voltage required to move the electron the electric field in
the junction.
• A certain voltage must be applied equal to the barrier potential to move the electron through
the junction and make the current flow
• The barrier potential depends on: type of semiconductor material, amount of doping and
temperature
• Typical barrier potential equal to 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25 degree
celies
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021
 • The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at slightly lower energy levels
than the valence and conduction bands in a p-type material. Recall that p-type material has
trivalent impurities and n-type material has pentavalent impurities.
• The trivalent impurities exert lower forces on the outer-shell electrons than the pentavalent
impurities.
• The lower forces in p-type materials mean that the electron orbits are slightly larger and
hence have greater energy than the electron orbits in the n-type materials.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• According to the classical Bohr model, the atom is viewed as having a planetary-type structure with
electrons orbiting at various distances around the central nucleus.
• According to the quantum model, electrons do not exist in precise circular orbits as particles as in the
Bohr model. The electrons can be waves or particles and precise location at any time is uncertain.
• The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. The protons have a positive charge and the
neutrons are uncharged. The number of protons is the atomic number of the atom.
• Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the nucleus at distances that depend on their energy
level. An atom has discrete bands of energy called shells in which the electrons orbit. Atomic structure
allows a certain maximum number of electrons in each shell. In their natural state, all atoms are neutral
because they have an equal number of protons and electrons.
• The outermost shell or band of an atom is called the valence band, and electrons that orbit in this
band are called valence electrons. These electrons have the highest energy of all those in the atom. If a
valence electron acquires enough energy from an outside source such as heat, it can jump out of the
valence band and break away from its atom.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• Insulating materials have very few free electrons and do not conduct current at all under
normal circumstances.
• Materials that are conductors have a large number of free electrons and conduct current very
well.
• Semiconductive materials fall in between conductors and insulators in their ability to conduct
current.
• Semiconductor atoms have four valence electrons. Silicon is the most widely used
semiconductive material
• Semiconductor atoms bond together in a symmetrical pattern to form a solid material called
a crystal. The bonds that hold a crystal together are called covalent bonds.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• The valence electrons that manage to escape from their parent atom are called conduction electrons or
free electrons. They have more energy than the electrons in the valence band and are free to drift
throughout the material.
• When an electron breaks away to become free, it leaves a hole in the valence band creating what is
called an electron-hole pair. These electron-hole pairs are thermally produced because the electron has
acquired enough energy from external heat to break away from its atom.
• A free electron will eventually lose energy and fall back into a hole. This is called recombination.
Electron-hole pairs are continuously being thermally generated so there are always free electrons in the
material.
• When a voltage is applied across the semiconductor, the thermally produced free electrons move
toward the positive end and form the current. This is one type of current and is called electron
current.
• Another type of current is the hole current. This occurs as valence electrons move from hole to hole
creating, in effect, a movement of holes in the opposite direction.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021

• An n-type semiconductive material is created by adding impurity atoms that have five valence
electrons. These impurities are pentavalent atoms. A p-type semiconductor is created by
adding impurity atoms with only three valence electrons. These impurities are trivalent atoms.
• The process of adding pentavalent or trivalent impurities to a semiconductor is called doping.
• The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are free electrons acquired by the doping
process, and the minority carriers are holes produced by thermally generated electron-hole
pairs. The majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are holes acquired by the doping
process, and the minority carriers are free electrons produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.
• A pn junction is formed when part of a material is doped n-type and part of it is doped p-
type. A depletion region forms starting at the junction that is devoid of any majority carriers.
The depletion region is formed by ionization.
• The barrier potential is typically 0.7 V for a silicon diode and 0.3 V for germanium.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis Second Term 2021