CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Some McGRAW-HILL books of related interest

Crimson: Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Fluids

Crimson: Advanced Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer
Wallis: One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow
 CONVECTIVE BOILING
AND CONDENSATION

JOHN G COLUBR
{Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell)

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Published by McGRAW-HILL Book Company (UK) Limited
MAIDENHEAD . BERKSHIRE . ENGLAND

07 0S4402 X

Copyright © 1972 McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Limited. All rights reserved. No
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechatucal, photocopying, recording, or other-
wise, without the prior permission of McQraw-HiH Book Company (UK) Limited.

Printed by oiTsct in Great Britain by

Alden & Mowbray Ltd
Alden Press, Oxford
at the
 CONTENTS

Preface ix
Notation xi
Chapter 1. Introduction >
1

Objectives. Sources of Information. Units. Notation. Methods of

Analysis. Flow Patterns. References. Problems.

Chapter 2. The Basic Models 24

Introduction. Basic Equations of Two-phase Flow. The Homo-
geneous Model. The Separated Flow Model. Recent Correlations for
Use with the Homogeneous or Separated Flow Models. The Influence
of Imposed Heat Flux on the Void Fraction and Pressure Gradient.
References. Example. Problems.

Chapter 3. Empirical Treatments of Two-phase Flow 65

Introduction.The Drift Flux Model. Bubbly Flow. Slug Flow.

Annular Flow. Wispy-annular Flow. Chenoweth and Martin Correla-
tion for large-bore Pipes. Pressure Losses through Enlargements,
Contractions, Orifices, Bends, and Valves. Conclusions. References.
Examples. Problems.

Chapter 4, Introduction to Convective Boiling 106

Introduction. Elementary Thermodynamics of Vapour/Liquid
Systems. Basic Processes of Boiling. Pool Boiling. Convective Boiling.
References. Example. Problems.

.X^apter 5. Subcooled Boiling Heat Transfer 139

Introduction. Single-Phase Liquid Heat Transfer. Onset of Subcooled

Nucleate Boiling. Partial Subcooled Boiling. Fully Developed Sub-
cooled Boiling. References. Examples. Problems.

Chapter 6. Void Fraction and Pressure Drop in Subcooled Boiling 173

Introduction. Void Fraction in Subcooled Boiling. Pressure Drop in

Subcooled Boiling. References. Examples. Problems.

_^,G^pter 7. Saturated Boiling Heat Transfer 200

Introduction. Saturated Forced Convective Boiling in a Round Tube.

Suppression of Saturated Nucleate Boiling. Two-phase Forced
Convective Region. Heat Transfer in Areas where the Critical Heat
Flux has been Exceeded. References. Example. Problems.

V
 1

CONTENTS
Chapter 8. Critica] Heat Flax !q Forced Coarectire Flow— 1. Vertical UoiforDilT
Heated Thbes 236
Introduction. CriticalHeat Flux for Forced Convective Flow of
Water in Circular Conduits with Uniform Heat Flux. Important
Second Order Effects on the Critica! Heat Flux. References.

Chapter 9. Critical Heat Flax in Forced CoBTectise Flow — 2. More Complex

SItaations 263
Introduction. Critical Heat Flux in Round Tubes with Kon-unifonn
Heating. Critical Heat Flux in Non-circular Geometries. Critical
Heat Flux in Forced Flow of Fluids other than Water, Critical Heat
Fluxes for the Case of a Uquid-Vapour Mixture at the Channel Inlet.
Critical Heat Flux under Dynamic Conditions. Mechanism of the
Critical Heat Flux Condition. References. Examples. Problems.

Chapter 10. Condensation 301

Introduction. Basic of Condensation. Mechanism of

Processes
Evaporation and Condensation at a Plain Uquid-Vapour Interface.
Film Condensation on a Planar Surface. Influence of Interfacial
Shear. Condensation of Uquid Metals. Drop-wise Condensation.
Pressure Gradient in Condensing Systems. References. Examples.
Problems.

Chapter 11. Conditions loflueociog the Performance of Boiling and Condensing

Systems 348

Introduction. Methods of Improving Heat Transfer Coefficient in

Nucleate Boiling. Methods of Improving Heat Transfer Coefficient
in Condensation. Conditions Influeocmg the Critical Heat Flux in
Forced Convective Boilmg. Design of Boiling Systems where Heat
Flux is a Dependent Variable. Deposition and Corrosion on Boiling
Surfaces. References. Problems.

Chapter 12. Two-component Two-phase Heat Transfer 382

Introduction. Heat Transfer to the Liquid Phase in Two-component

Bubbly Flow. Heat Transfer in Two-component Slug Flow. Heat
Transfer in Two-component Annular Flow Onset of Liquid-deficient
Regime for Two-phase Two-component Flow. Two-phase Two-
component Heat Transfer In Cross Flow. References. Problem.

Appendix 407
Table AI, Conversion Factors. 407
Table A2. Viscosity of Steam. 409
Table A3. Steam Tables. 410
Table A4. Thermal Properties of Solids Metals.
: 41
Table A5. Physical Properties of some Common Low Melting Point
Metals. 412
Table A6. Thermal Properties of Saturated Liquids. 413
Table A7. Thermal Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure. 414
Table AS. Diffusion Coefficients. 416

vi
TO ELLEN
 PREFACE

The purpose in writing this book is to present the current state of understanding in the
fields of convective boiling and condensation. Convective boiling (or condensation)
is the term used to describe the process of boiling (or condensation) in the presence

of a forced fiow and the text is mainly devoted to the problems of estimating heat trans-
fer rates and pressure losses in conduits where boiling or condensation is occurring.
The aimed primarily at assisting the design engineer in the power plant and
text is
process industries. He is faced with the solution of difficult technical problems involv-
ing the boiling and condensation of various fiuids and mixtures and often has to design
equipment on the basis of very limited information. The literature on two-phase flow
is —
voluminous and much of it that in the form of laboratory reports and that pub-
lished in the USSR— ^is The writer has for some time felt the
relatively inaccessible.
need to set down in a logical manner the basic principles, so that future research work
may readily be put into The fields of boiling and condensation
the correct perspective.
are at present more of an and the subject remains, and will remain
art than a science
for some time to come, largely empirical. The writer is, therefore, under no delusions:
some of the information presented will be out-dated before long. It is to be hoped that
later editions may provide the opportunity to revise such material.
Much this book was first published in a series of course notes,
of the material in
produced for Summer School Courses on Two-Phase Flow and Boiling Heat Transfer
given at the Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, New Hampshire (1965,
1966, 1968) and at Stanford University, California (1967). These courses were given
jointly by Professor G. B. Wallis and the writer. Professor Wallis has already pub-
lished much of his material in his book on One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow. The
material in the original notes has been rearranged and considerably revised.
After the introduction, which includes a section on definition of terms and a descrip-
tion of the flow patterns encountered in convective boiling and condensation, the next
two chapters are devoted to a development of the basic models of the fluid flow and to
the empirical methods used to estimate pressure loss and void fraction in pipes and
other components such as bends, valves, orifices, etc. Chapter 4 introduces the subject
of boiling heat transfer using the novel concept of a ‘boiling map’ which enables the
various mechanisms of convective boiling to be clearly delineated. This concept is carried
through all the following chapters on boiling. The topic of pool boiling has deliberately
been restricted to a brief mention in chapter 4. Those readers familiar with the field
will appreciate the problems of adequately covering this topic which, despite intensive
research work, has defied a general understanding because of the inherent obstacle of
characterizing the nucleation properties of surfaces. Chapters 5 and 6 cover the heat
transfer and fluid dynamic aspects respectively of subcooled boiling and the complica-
tions introduced by the departure from thermodynamic equilibrium. The prediction of

ix
 PREFACE
heat transfer rates in saturated convective boiling is dealt with in chapter 7. The most
important boundary on the boiling map covering the sharp deterioration of heat
transfer coefficient in convective boiling—the so-called ‘critical heat flux’ condition is —
discussed in detail in chapters 8 and 9. The subject of condensation is covered in
chapter 10. Chapter II discusses various methods which have been proposed to im-
prove the performance of boiling and condensing heat transfer surfaces. The later
parts of this chapter are devoted to the fouling of heat transfer surfaces under boiling
conditions and the influence this has on the thermo-hydraulic performance of the
unit. The subject of two-component two-phase heat and mass transfer is reviewed in
chapter 12 although this subject is not strictly related to boiling and condensation.
liie units used throughout the book are SI (Systime International d’Unit^) with
the exception that the bar used as the unit of pressure (1 bar = 10* N/m*). British
is

Engineering Units are pven in brackets. A

number of examples have been included in
the text to demonstrate the application of the various recommended methods. Useful
tables of fluid thermodynamic and transport properties are included in an Appendix
at the back of the book.

J. G. COLLIER
 )

NOTATION

Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

A flow area ft^ I

A, flow area occupied by gaseous phase m" ft^ 1

A flow area occupied by liquid phase m" ft^ 1

A parameter in Stephan and Korner

correlation _ 7
A parameter in eq. (8.14) N/A* Btu/h.ft^ 8
parameter in eq. (8.21) N/A Btu/h.ft^ 8
(xlO-«)
Afu flow area occupied by liquid phase at
orifice m* ft* 3

Ago flow area occupied by gaseous phase at

orifice ft* 3

Ao flow area at vena contracta m* ft* 3

Ac bubble-liquid interfacial area for con-

densation ft* 6
Ao flow area at orifice ft* 3

Ao parameter in Stephan and Korner

— 7
correlation
.
.

A[c flow area occupied by liquid phase at

vena contracta m^ ft* 3

Age flow area occupied by gaseous phase

at vena contracta ft* 3

Ai internal tube surface area m^ ft* 11

external tube surface area ft* 11

Ao
mean ra" ft* 11
Aw log tube area
A amplitude of vibration mm N/A 11

A dimensionless group — eq. (10.67)

— — 10

A^ parameter used in Macbeth CHF

correlation (eq. (8.29) N/A Btu/h.ft* 8
(xlO"®)

a parameter given by eq. (3.37) m-‘ fr* 3

Refers to ‘not applicable’.

xi
 NOTATION
Intro-
Brilish duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

void volume per unit area m ft 6

a' empirical factor in eq. (6.57) — — 6
a velocity ratio given by eq. (10.23) — — 10
a parameter given by eq. (10.47) — — 10
Oi-Oi coefGcients given by eq. (10.96) — — 10

B parameter in eq. (8.14) N/A Btu/h.ft* 8

B parameter defined by eq. (3.91) — — 3
B parameter used in eq (4.43) “K-* 4
B parameter defined by eq. (5.27) m'K ft.'R 5
So dimensionless constant eq. (6.3) — — 6
Bi parameter used in eq. (6.5) — — 6
B parameter used in Macbeth type CHF
correlations N/A lb/h.ft* 9
(xl0-«)
B dimensionless group — eq. (10.67) — “ 10

C constant of integration A'* 3

c parameter used in Chisholm correla*
lion — 2
Cj parameter used in Chisholm correla-
tion — 2
c parameter defined by eq. (2.75) — _ 2
Co flow distribution parameter — 3
c* contraction coeflicient {AJAz) — _ 3
Cd of discharge for orifice
coeflicient _ _ 3
Q contraction coefficient I correspond*
for liquid alone 1 ing to
c. contraction coefficient two-pbase
j
for gas phase J Ap
C,r constant in Rohsenow correlation — 4
Cb’ Cp, Cs coefficients in eq. (6.1^ _ _ 6
C coeflicient in eq. (6.16) 6
C„Cf concentrations of salt in steam and
water phases respectively kg/m^ Ib/ft® 11
c coefficient in eq. (6.16) 6
c dimensional constant in eq. (7.31) N/A N/A 7
c parameter used in eq. (8.1Q N/A in'‘ 8
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

Q parameter used in eq. (8.22) N/A in“^ 8

parameter used in Macbeth CHF
correlation eq. (8.30) N/A in. 8
C constant used in eq. (9.38) — — 9
Q molar concentration of non-conden-
sible gas kmol/m^ lb mol/ft^ 10
Q molar concentration of vapour kmol/m^
—
lb mol/ft^
—
10
Q constant in eq. (10.44) 10

specific heat J/kg “K Btu/lb “F 4

specific heat of gaseous phase J/kg°K Btu/lb °F 4
'^pf specific heat of liquid phase J/kg”K Btu/lb °F 4

D pipe diameter —surface diameter m ft 1

Dt hydraulic diameter of liquid flow m ft 2

D, hydraulic diameter of gas flow m ft 2
r>. bubble departure diameter m ft 4
-Dh heated equivalent diameter m ft 6
D, hydraulic equivalent diameter m ft 6
Di internal diameter of annulus or tube m ft 9
D. external diameter of annulus or tube m ft 9
Dk diameter of rod N/A in. 9
D molar difiusion coefficient m^s ft^s 10
D mass of magnetite deposited per unit
area of tube kg/m^ N/A 11

d orifice diameter m ft 3
d any diameter within annular liquid
film m ft 3
d wire diameter m ft 11

d coil diameter m ft 3
d droplet diameter m ft 7
^CR droplet diameter at dryout point m ft 7

E dissipation of mechanical energy into

heat J/kg Btu/lb 2
(Nm/kg) (ft.pdl/lb)

E mass fraction of liquid entrained 3

xiii
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

E factor appearing in Guenieri and

Tally correlation — — 7
E rate of liquid entrainment kg/m* s Ib/ft^ s 9

F force due to pressure variation over

upstream of orifice N pdl 3
P, force exerted by vapour phase in
overcoming friction N pdl 2
force exerted by liquid phase in over-
coming friction N pdl 2
F net force exerted by homogeneous
fluid in overcoming friction N pdl 2
F time averaged percentage area of sur-
face covered by bubbles — — 5
F factor appearing In Dengler and
Addoms correlation (Table 7.2) — — 7
F factor appearing in Chen correlation
eq.(7.19) - — 7
F factor defined by eq. (9.7) — — 9
F factor in eq. (10.68) — — 10
F factor in eq. (lO.lOI) — — 10
F'‘ factor in eq. (10. 102) — — 10
F frequency of vibration Hz Hz II

Ap two-phase friction factor — 2

ft. friction factor based on total flow
assumed liquid — 2
ft friction factor based on liquid alone
flow — — 2
ft fhction factor based on gas afone flow — — 2
fi interfacial friction factor — — 3
U apparent intcrfacial friction factor — — 10
f friction parameter eq. (3.69) — — 3
f friction factor — — 3
/. friction factor for straight pipe — — 3
/ frequency of bubble departure Hz Hz 4
Acb friction factor in subcooled boiling — — 6
/( )fn( ) function of ( ) N/A N/A
xiV
 NOTATION

Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

f(p) function of pressure in Biasi CHF

correlation N/A N/A 8

Gd vaporized mass diffusion fraction 11

G mass velocity kg/m^ s Ib/ft^ s 1

G* reference mass velocity in Chisholm

correlation kg/m^ s Ib/ft^ s 2
Gt mass velocity of liquid phase alone kg/m^ s Ib/ft^ s 1

mass velocity of gaseous phase alone kg/m^ s Ib/ft^ s 1

Gc mass velocity at vena contracta kg/m^ s Ib/ft^ s 3

AG(r) free energy of formation of nucleus,
radius r mVs^ ft^s^ 4

g acceleration due to gravity m/s^ ft/s^ 1

K, hi outside and inside film heat transfer

coefficients respectively W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ “F 11
h(p) function in Biasi CHF correlation N/A N/A 8
h heat transfer coefficient W/m^ ’C Btu/h.ft* °F 1

hi interfacial heat transfer coefficient W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ "F 10

h Planck’s constant kg m^s lb ft^/s 4
he convective heat transfer coefficient W/m^ ”C Btu/h.ft^ "F 4
K radiation heat transfer coefficient W/m^ X Btu/h.ft^ °F 4
h[o heat transfer coefficient for total flow
assumed liquid W/m^ "C Btu/h.ft^ °F 5
hscB heat transfer coefficient in subcooled
boiling W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ "F 6
hjB two-phase heat transfer coefficient W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ °F 7
ht heat transfer coefficient for liquid
alone flow W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ “F 7
hfp heat transfer coefficient for liquid film
alone flow W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ °F 7
hticB nucleate boiling heat transfer co-
efficient W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ “F 7
ht* dimensionless heat transfer coefficient
(eq. (10.86) ) 10

hfN heat transfer coefficient for the Mh

tube W/m^ °C Btu/h.ft^ °F 10

XV
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

h. sensible heat transfer coefScient at

interface W/m* *C Btu/h.ft* ’F 10
modified sensible heat transfer co-
efficient at interface (eq. ((0.46) W/m* "C Btu/h.ft* *F 10
(Af)Nu heat transfer coefficient from Nusselt
theory W/m^ 'C Btu/h.ft* ®F 10
ho dropwise condensation coefficient W/m’ *C Btu/h.ft* 'F 10

i enthalpy of fluid Btu/lb 1

if

i
enthalpy of saturated liquid
enthalpy of saturated vapour
latent, heat of vaporization
m
J/kg Btu/lb
Btu/lb
BUi/lb
I

1
V

in
modified latent heat of vaporization
eq. (4.47) or (10.66)
inlet enthalpy
m
ms
Btu/lb
Btu/lb
4 , 10
4
fluid enthalpy at point B ms Btu/lb 6
Ai change in enthalpy ms Btu/lb 2
(^IsvbX enthalpy inlet subcooting ms Btu/lb 8

J drift fluz of bulk fluid towards inter-

face m/s ft/s 10
J, molar flux of non condensible gas kmol/m*s lb mol/ft* s 10
J, molar flux of vapour kmol/m*s lb mol/ft* s 10
Jjf heat transfer factor defined by eq.
(12.10) - - 12

j volumetric flux (superficial velocity) m/s ft/s 1

\J\ molecular flux kg/m* s Ib/ft* hr 10

Jt superficial velocity of liquid phase m/s ft/s I

Jt superficial velocity of gas phase m/s ft/s 1

Js rate of condensation per unit length on

Mh tube kg/ms Ib/fts 10
J\* dimensionless vapour volumetric flux _ — 1

Ji* dimensionless liquid volumetric flux — — 1

Jtt drift flux m/s ft/s 3

JfMAX limiting volumetric vapour flux at

surface m/s ft/s 4
Jd dropwise condensation mass flux kg/m^ s Ib/ft* s 10
Jf filmwise condensation mass flux kg/m* s Ib/ft* s 10

XV/
 NOTATION

Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

mass transfer coefficient kmol s/ lb mol.s/

kgm Ib.ft 10
partition coefficient eq. (11.9) — — 11
K proportionality constant (eq. (11.10) )
— — 11
K constant in eq. (4.40) — 4
K Dean Number [Re(Z)/i/)‘’‘*] — — 3
self diffusion coefficient in vapour mVs ft^/s 7
K parameter defined by eq. (3.13) — — 3
Kt constant given by eq. (7.38) N/A N/A 7
K, constant in Blasius eq. (2.60) — — 2
K constant in eq. (9.12) see Table 9.3 — — 9
K equilibrium constant of more volatile
component in binary mixture — — 11

^ttC effective conductivity of deposit W/m°C Btu/h.ft “F 11

thermal conductivity of the wall W/m-C Btu/h.ft “F 11

K thermal conductivity of particulate

phase W/m'C Btu/h.ft °F 11

K thermal conductivity of gas phase W/m“C Btu/h.ft 'F 4

k, thermal conductivity of liquid phase W/m'C Btu/h.ft “F 4
k Boltzmann constant kgm^/s^ °K Ibft^/s^ °R 4
kjp effective two-phase thermal conducti-
vity W/m°C Btu/h.ft °F 7
k circumferential transport coefficient m ft 3

L length of channel (or equivalent length

of channel) m ft 2
A, length of vapour bubble m ft 3
L, length of liquid slug m ft 12

M rate of droplet deposition kg/m^ s Ib/ft^ s 9

M molecular weight kg/kmol Ib/lb mol 4
M parameter in eq. (6.38) — — 6

m index 3
m mass of one molecule kg Ib 4
m index in eq. (4.37) — — 4
m constant used in Schrock and Gross-
man correlation — — 7

xvH
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

N dimensionless inverse viscosity eq.

(1.17) - - 1

N{r) number of nuclei of radius r per unit

volume m“^ ft"’ 4
N number of molecules per unit volume m"’ ft"’ 4
N number of new bubbles appearing on
surface m"’ s"’ ft"’ s"’ 5
N number of droplets passing through
unit c.s.a. per unit time ft"’s"’ 7

index used in Blasius eq. (2.60) — — 2

number of wires — — 11
index — — 3
indexineq.po" « const — — 3
index used in eq. (4.33) — — 4
index used in eq. (4.38) — — 4
figure reflecting distortion of tempera-
ture profile in boundary layer by
bubble nucleus — — 4/5
n index in Schrock and Grossman
correlation — — 7

P wetted perimeter m ft 2
P^ heated perimeter m ft 6
P, reduced pressure PlP<xn — — 3

P Static pressure N/m’(bar) pdl/ft’(psia) 1

PcRtr critical pressure N/m*(bar) pdl/ft*(psia) 3

PSAT saturation pressure N/m’(bar) pdl/ft’(psia) I

Pt pressure in vapour space N/m’(bar) pdl/ft’(psia) 4

Pt pressure in liquid space N/m*(bar) pdl/ft’(psia) 4
p^ vapour pressure over planar surface N/m’^ar) pd]/ft’(psja) 4
A partial pressure of non-condeosible
gas N/m’(bar) pdl/ft’(psia) 4
p, pressure within droplet N/m*(bar) pdl/ft’(psia) 7
Pl~P5 constants in Kirby’s CHF correlation
eq. (9.35) - - 9
PtX partial pressure of vapour at interface N/m’ pdl/ft’ 10
Ptl partial pressure of non-condensible
gas at interface N/m’ pdl/ft’ 10
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

Pao partial pressure of non-condensible

gas in bulk stream N/m" pdl/ft^ 10
Pam log mean partial pressure of non-
condensible gas N/m^ pdl/ft" 10

Q volumetric rate of flow m^/s ft^/s 1

Qt volumetric rate of flow of liquid phase m^/s ft^/s 1

Q. volumetric rate of flow of gas phase m^/s ft"/s 1

g heat absorbed from surroundings J/kg Btu/lb 2

ft; radius of curvature of bend m ft 1

universal gas constant N m/kmol pdl.ft/lbmol

“K “R 4
ft; radius of bubble cavity m ft 4
ft; initial radius of bubble cavity m ft 4
-ft; velocity of bubble cavity wall m/s fl/s 4
»s-
acceleration of bubble cavity wall m/s^ ft/s^ 4

’’b
bubble radius at detachment m ft 6
r bubble or droplet radius m ft 6

'•c
cavity mouth radius m ft 4
r velocity of spherical liquid element m/s ft/s 4
r dimension of a cluster of molecules m ft 4
r ratio of upstream to downstream
pressure — 3

r radial distance from axis of pipe m ft 1

r pipe radius m ft 3

ri acceleration multiplier for homogene-

ous flow w— 2

ri acceleration multiplier for separated

flow 2
radiiof curvature of interface m ft 4
r* radius of spherical vapour or liquid
nucleus m ft 4

5" force exerted by vapour on liquid at

interface N pdl 2

xix
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

S spacing between bubbles m ft 6

sheaf force ratio eq. (3.74) — — 3
s suppression factor used tn Chen cor*
relation 7
s spacing between heated sides of
rectangular duct N/A in 9
s parameter used in Barnett cluster CHF
correlation N/A - 9

T parameter used in Chisholm correla*

tion eq. (2.71) 2
T temperature *C(“K) “F(“R) 1

primary tcmpcratufc T CK) T (“R) n

To
Tsat
Ti
local

triple
fluid
saturation temperature
point temperature
’C l“K)
'CCK)
‘F
•FCR)
m 1

4
T. critical temperature XCK) ’F(’R) 4
T, vapour temperature ’C(’K) *FCR) 4
Tw wall temperature ’C(*K) *F(“R) 4
r,«. liquid temperature well away from
wall 'C (*K) •F CR) 4
(^w)oNB wall temperature at onset of boiling •C CK) T(‘R) 4
Ti(z) bullc f/quid temperature at au'af posi-
tion (z) 'C CK) “F("R) 4
op 4
Tn bulk liquid temperature
inlet ’C(“K) CR)
(T<//)scb wall temperature under subcoolcd
boiling 'C("K) ‘F('-R) 5
iTf/)spL wall temperature under single-phase
liquid conditions ^C(=K) *F C"R) 5

TroB wall temperature corresponding to

fully developed boiling “C CK) "F CR) 5
7+ dimensionless temperature given by
eq. (6.18) or (7.12) _ 6,7
r* dimensionless temperature defined by
eq. (6.41) __ _ 6
Ti interfacial temperature X “F 7
temperature
interfacial X “F 10
bulk temperature of condensing fluid ”C *F 10

superheat at axial positron (z) OR 1

^nAtC^)
XX
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

subcooling at axial position (z) °C °F 1

AT temperature difference “C °F 1

AT, temperature difference between wall

and bulk liquid °C °F 5
(^^s/>.t)onb wall superheat necessary to cause
nucleation °C °F 5
(^^SUB)i inlet subcooling “C °F 5
(A7’sub)fdb subcooling at onset of fully developed
subcooled boiling °C °F 6
(A7sub)ij subcooling at point of bubble detach-
ment °C °F 6
at; effective superheat into which bubble
grows °C °F 7
AT, ‘ideal’ value of temperature difference
for binary system ‘‘C “F 7
ATe additional temperature difference due
to non ideal behaviour of binary
system 'C -F 7
AT^, Tb values of wall superheat for pure
components A and B °c °F 7
ATmax surface temperature after dryout minus
the saturation temperature °c ”F 7
AT temperature difference between dew
temperature of vapour in bubble
and bpt of liquid in binary mixture ‘’C “F 11

t plate or tube thickness m ft 3

t time s s 4

U overall heat transfer coefficient W/m^ 'C Btu/h.ft^ “F 11

u velocity m/s ft/s 1

Wf actual velocity of liquid phase m/s ft/s 1

actual velocity of gaseous phase m/s ft/s 1

“g
rise velocity of gas or vapour bubble m/s ft/s 1
«=o
U average velocity of homogeneous fluid m/s ft/s 2

% relative velocity between phases

weighted mean drift velocity
m/s
m/s
ft/s

ft/s
3
3
“gj
maximum velocity m/s ft/s 3
Wm
xxi
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Descriplioo Units Units chapter

Velocity in channel if total flow

assumed liquid m/s ft/s 3
Wj interfacial liquid velocity m/s ft/s 3
Uc Velocity at vena contracta m/s ft/s 3
»tc Velocity of liquid phase at vena con-
tracta m/s ft/s 3
Velocity of gaseous phase at vena con-
tracUi m/s ft/s 3
U* friction velocity (s= m/s ft/s 5
Wf« free stream liquid velocity m/s ft/s 6
«d velodty of droplet m/s ft/s 7
«T Velocity at a distance y from surface m/s ft/s 10
*^»n free stream vapour velocity ro/s ft/s 10

Cf specific volume m‘/te 1

D average specific volume of homo*

geneous fluid ft»/Ib 2
Pf specificvolume of liquid m’/kg ft*/lb 2
specificvolume of vapour or gas m’/kg ft’/Jb 2
''/f
difference in specific volumes of
saturated liquid and vapour m’fkg ft>/Ib 2

mass rate of flow ke/s Ib/s 1

mass rate of flow of liquid phase kels Ib/s 1

mass rate of flow of vapour phase kg/s Ib/s 1

JVtr film flow*rate allowing for grarita-

tional forces kg/s Ib/s 3
film flow-rate assuming constant shear
stress kg/s Ib/s 3
IK total power supplied to heated channel
up to critical beat flux condition W Btu/h 9

W work done on surroundings J/kg Btu/lb 2

X Martinelli parameter defined by eq.

(2.67) 2
*R
X parameter defined by eq. (53S)
[Btu/i-nT' 5

xxU
 NOTATION

Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Sjmbol Description Units Units chapter

Xq mass fraction of more volatile com-

ponent in binary mixture 11
^cRiT critical mass quality 8
X mol. fraction of component B in
liquid phase 7
x mass vapour quality 1

x^ modified mass vapour quality eq.

(3.65) 3
x^ pseudo-mass vapour quality in sub-
cooled region 6
Xi negative mass quality at bubble
detachment 6
x„ maximum critical quality for any
heat flux profile 9

Y parameter in Baker void fraction

correlation eq. (2.70) — — 2
parameter defined by eq. (3.80) — — 3
distance from wall to bubble tip m ft 6
dimensionless distance from wall to
bubble tip — — 6
Y parameter used in Miropolskii post
dryout correlation — ^ 7
Fo-Eii constants in Macbeth CHF correla-
tion — ^ 8
Y ratio of thermal capacity of liquid
film to total thermal capacity of
two-phase flow — — 12

y distance measured from boundary m ft 1

y parameter defined by eq. (3.89) — — 3

y* dimensionless distance from wall
eq. (7.14)
— - 7

y mol. fraction of component B in

vapour phase — ^ 7

constants in Macbeth CHF correla-

yo~ys
tion
— 8

y twist ratio of helical insert

— — 11

xxiii
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Descriplioo Units Units chapter

Z,>Zt factors used in eq. (12.14) __ 12

z dimensionless length given by eq.
(6.61) 6
z parameter defined by eq. (3.76) — — 3
z parameter given by eq. (3.15) — — 3
z* dimensionless length defined by eq.
(6.44) - 6

z axial co-ordinate m ft 1

Tjc length of tube under subcooled con-

ditions m ft 4
length of tube under non boiling con-
ditions m ft 5
length of tube to start of fully devel-
oped boiling m ft 6
length of tube to bubble detachment
point m ft 6
z* length of tube to thermal equilibrium
reached m ft 6
length used in eq. (6.41) el seg. m ft 6
^C* length of tube to point of critical
heat flux m ft 7
^SAT boiling length (measured from x » 0) m n 8
z* dimensionless distance eq. (10.83) — — 10

GREEK
void fraction J

*m maximum value of void fraction — _ 3

thermal dilTusivity of liquid m*/s ft^s 4
®W void fraction at wall — — 6

®B void fraction in free stream — — 6

a* void fraction at axial distance z* — — 6
a angle between any radius and vertical deg deg 10

volumetric quality — — 1

included angle of surface cavity deg deg 4

§
coefficient of expansion 4

xxir
 s

NOTATION

Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

P ratio of mean liquid film to intcrfacial

velocity --
10
Pu term in cq. (12.8) — — 12

6* dimensionless film thickness cq.

(10.82) 10
S thickness of diffusion layer m ft 10
6 film thickness m ft 1
5 parameter defined by cq. (2.59) — — 2
5 thermal boundarj' layer thickness m ft 4
6 dimensionless a.Tial heat flux gradient
taken at point of average heat flux — — 9

c pipe roughness m ft 2
c cmissivity of heating surface — — 4
c ratio of cq. (6.25) — — 6
c eddy diffusivity of momentum m^/s ft’/s 7
eddy diffusivity of heat mVs ft’/s 7
c factor appearing in cq. (9.38) — — 9
^|0 mass flux to interface kg/m*s Ib/ft’ 10

p density kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 1

Pt gas density kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 1

Pt fictitious vapour density cq. (10.77) kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 10

Pi liquid density kg/m’ ib/ft’ 1

Pa density of air at 1 atm. and 20'’C kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 1

Pw density of water at 1 atm. and 20”C kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 1

P average density of homogeneous fluid kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 2

Pc average density of vapour core cq.
(3.45) kg/m’ Ib/ft’ 3

P viscosity Ns/m’ lb/ft.s 1

Pi liquid viscosity Ns/m’ Ib/ft.s 1

Pb viscosity of bulk liquid Ns/m’ lb/ft.s 11

Pw viscosity of water at 1 atm. and 20°C Ns/m’ lb/ft.s 1

P mean viscosity of homogeneous fluid Ns/m’ lb/ft.s 2

Pit diflcrencc in viscosity between h'quid
and gas phases Ns/m’ lb/ft.s 2

‘PcRTT critical heat flux W/m’ Btu/h.ft’ 4

‘Pond surface heat flux to cause boiling W/m’ Btu/h.ft’ 5

XXV
 NOTATION
Intro*
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

surface heat flux transferred by single

phase convection W/m= Btu/h.ft* 5
^SCB surface heat flux transferred by
bubble nucleation W/m^ Btu/h.ft* 5
4> factor given by eq. (4.16) or (10.8) — — 4,10
4> surface heat flux W/m* Btu/h.ft* 1

two*phase frictional multiplier based

on pressure gradient for total flow
assumed liquid 2
two-phase frictional multiplier based
on pressure gradient for liquid alone
flow 2
IwQ-phase frictional multiplier based
on pressure gradient for gas alone
flow 2
V two-phase frictional multiplier based
on pressure gradient for total flow
assumed gas 3
4>. condensing heat flux W/m* Btu/h.ft* 6
^ft)B fully developed boiling heat flux W/m» Biu/h.fi* 6
heat flux removed as latent heat W/m* Btu/h.ft* 6
heat flux removed by bubble agitation W/m* Btu/h.ft* 6
*P's?L maximum heat flux which can be sus-
tained without subcooled boiling eq.
(6.59) W/m* Btu/h.ft* 6
^SAT heat flux required to produce just
saturated liquid at tube exit W/m* Btu/h.ft* 6
•Po basic burnout heat flux N/A Btu/h.ft* 8
interfacial heat flux W/m* Blu/h.fl* 12

0 ratio ATJATi - - 7

X factor used in Baker flow pattern

chart (eq. (1.26)) 1

X parameter used in Chisholm cor-

relation 2
X collision frequency s~* 4, 10
most critical wavelength m ft 4

factor defined by eq. (12.12) — — 12

XXVI
 XOTATIOX

Bnti&h cnccci
SI Eng. in
Sj-ncol Dscdpfoa Usits Enits K, kWk.

eq. (07) — — I

pan=:re:£r used is Chisso^— corrds-

tios eq. (LT-I) — — 2
¥ porsisster used is eq. (435) N.A N^\ *

surface tessros for pTasar isterface iS 'IS pci/ft c

cir) surface tessios cf crop radius r N'is pdl.ft 9
c surface tessios N'si pdl it 1

surface tessios cf vrct^r at 1 atsu asd

20^C N/is pdl'f: I

G ratio — —
G Sfpr?r—R-itTr— -rs m-s'rr’t WZ-m* "K* Btu.IiJV'R* $

C-e evaporatios coeSciest 10

<«^c) condessatiQs cceSdest — — 10

shear stress N/m* Fdl.;(t= 3

•wall shear stress N/m‘ pdl./ft^

(-i)c shear stress in absesce of mass transfer N/m* pdl.Tr 10

”i inierfacial shear stress N/m- pdl./fr
"f wall shear stress for liquid phase
fiowing alone N/m* pdl./il* 3

‘I
wall shear stress forgas phase fiowing
alone N/m- pdl./ft= 3
efiective temperature rise of liquid
pulled in and pushed out by bubble 'C cp 6
dimensionless interfadal shear stress
eq. (I0.S4) — — 10

Qi
lifetime of average bubble s s 5
^
angle to horizontal plane deg. deg. I

ct>
contact angle measured through liquid deg. deg. 4
Qi
efiective contact angle (eq. (4.17) ) deg. deg. 4
angle for a\'erage ^’alue of heat trans-
fer coefii deg. deg. 10

V parameter defined by eq. (2.5S) — — 2

V parameter used inSchrcckand Gross-
mnnn correlation (Table 73) _ 7

7 parameter defined by eq. (9.31) m^/N ftVpdl 9

xm7
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

CO angular rotation rad/s rad/s 11

n mass velocity correction factor in

Baroczy correlation 2
Cl parameter appearing in eq. (9.8) N/A in-i 9

A parameter defined by eq. (4.28) kg/m>s>/^ Ib/ft^s^/^ 4

i parameter in eq. (5.20) 5

f ratio ofbeat flux on a rod to maximum
heat flux in cluster 9
i parameter defined by eq. (10.125) — — 10

n empirical factor used in eq. (6.13) m> ”C/J A* ‘F/Btu 6

v beat flux efScieocy — — 11

angle from tube centre to chord form*

lag liquid level deg. deg. 10

r, peripheral flow-rale in horizontal

annular film kg/ms Ib/A.s 3
r. axial flow-rate in horizontal annular
film kg/ms lb/A.s 3
r( ) correction factor allomng for net
motion of vapour in vicinity of inter-
face (eq. (10.22)) 10
r film mass flow-rate per unit width kg/ms Jb/A.s 10
r'. local mass flow-rate per unit length of
tube at radius angle a to vertical kg/ms lb/ft.s 10
Tw local mass flow-rate of condensate per
unit length from Mb tube kg/ms lb/A.s 10

{dp/dz) pressure gradient N/m* m pdl/A* ft 1

{dp(dzgF) pressure gradient due to friction in gas

phase N/m* m pdl/A* ft 2
(ApldzfF) pressure gradient due to friction in
liquid phase N/m* m pdl/A^ A 2
(dp/dz F) pressure gradient due to friction Him? m pdl/A*A 2

jcrriii
 NOTATION

Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

(dp/dz a) pressure gradient due to acceleration N/m^ m pdl/ft" ft 2

(dp/dzz) pressure gradient due to static head N/m^ m pdl/ft^ ft 2
(dp/dziOf„ frictional pressure gradient assuming
total flow to be liquid N/m^ m pdl/ft^ ft 2
(dp/dz F), frictional pressure gradient assuming
liquid alone flow N/m^ m pdl/ft^ ft 2
(dp/dzF), frictional pressure gradient assuming
gas alone flow N/m^ m pdl/ft" ft 2
(dpIdzF),, frictional pressure gradient assuming
total flow to be gas N/m^ m pdl/ft" ft 3
(dp/dz)scB pressure gradient in subcoolcd boiling N/m^m pdl/ft^ ft 6
(dp/dz)*,. pressure gradient for total flow
assumed liquid at same heat flux,

velocity and temperature N/m^ m pdl/ft^ ft 6

Ap pressure loss or difference N/m* pdl/ft^ 1

App frictional pressuredrop N/m^ pdl/ft* 3

Ap, accelerational pressure drop N/m^ pdl/ft^ 3
APi static head pressure drop N/m^ pdl/ft* 3
Apr pressure drop for liquid alone flow N/m^ pdl/ft^ 3
Ap, pressure drop for gas alone flow N/m^ pdl/n^ 3
^Ptt pressure drop for two phase flow N/m^ pdl/ft^ 3
Apscn pressure drop in subcoolcd boiling N/m" pdl/ft" 6
^/’SPL pressure drop in unheated tube at
same temp and velocity N/m^ pdl/ft* 6
Ape change in vapour pressure cor-
responding to temperature change
AT, N/m* pdl/ft* 7
APsat change in vapour pressure correspond-
ing to temperature change N/m^ pdl/ft^ 7

xxix
 NOTATION
Intro-
British duced
SI Eng. in
Symbol Description Units Units chapter

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Froude number eq. (L28) 1

Fr Froude number D] — — 3

Ga Galileo number 10
L ft' J

Gr Grashof number - - 4, 10

Gz Graetz number Rc Pr, - - 12

^
Nu Nussell number [hDfk] 4
Nu, Nusselc number [h,,S/k,\ 7
Pr Prandil number (Op/i/Arj 4
Pff Prandti number at bulk liquid tern*
perature — 5
P^w Prandti number at wall temperature — — 5
P^TP twO'phase Prandti number
effective — — 7
Re Reynolds number [GD/ft] — 2
Re,„o, Reynolds number for transition from
laminar to turbulent flow 3
Rctp eifective two-phase Reynolds number — — 7
Rc film Reynolds number [ATJft,] — — 10
Rc'tp Reynolds number defined by eq.
(12.4) — — 12
ReV Reynolds number defined by eq.
(12.9) — — 12
R**tp Reynolds number defined by eq.
(12.22) — _ 12
Re', Reynolds number based on rod dia-
meter and gas velocity — — 12
Sc Schmidt number [pfpl>] — — 10

We Weber number
rpu^S'l
—^ - - 12
|

XXX
 NOTATION
SUBSCRIPTS

1,2 1
A,B ^ referring to stations I, 2 or A, B, or (i), (ii) etc.

(i)(ii)J
w wall
f liquid or film

g gas or vapour
tt liquid turbulent/gas turbulent
vt liquid viscous/gas turbulent
tv liquid turbulent/gas viscous
w liquid viscous/gas viscous

MIN minimum
MAX maximum
CRIT critical

ONB onset of nucleate boiling

REF reference
EXP experimental
FOB fully developed boiling
T total

F+S friction 4- static head

NOM nominal
u uniform
nu non-uniform
0 away from interface
i interface
HLM evaluated at some mean temperature between wall and bulk
vib vibration present

SUPERSCRIPT
denotes average property

xxxi
 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objectives

The subject of boiling and condensation in horizontal or vertical conduits

under con-
ditions of natural or forced convection an extremely important one. The design of
is

water-tube boilers, pipe stills, refrigeration equipment, water-cooled nuclear reactors,

evaporators, and many other major items of chemical and power plant is dependent
upon a knowledge of the fluid dynamic and heat transfer processes occurring during
convective boiling and condensation.
Convective boiling be defined as being the addition of heat to a flowing liquid
will
in such a way vapour occurs. This definition therefore excludes the
that generation of
process of flashing where vapour generation occurs solely as a result of a reduction in
system pressure. In many applications, however, the two processes do occur simul-
taneously and therefore cannot be clearly separated. Condensation is conversely
defined as the removal of heat from the system in such a way that vapour is converted
into liquid.
This text will primarily be concerned with single-component systems, i.e., a pure
liquidand its vapour. Much of the information presented will be devoted to one such,
namely the water/steam system. Many other fluid systems are, however, of industrial
importance and these include organic liquids, cryogenic liquids (such as oxygen,
nitrogen, etc.), and liquid metals. Important applications, particularly in the process
chemical industries, involve the use of multi-component systems. Little in the way
of useful published information is available on the processes of boiling and condensa-
tion with multi-component systems and this book does not attempt to cover this latter
problem in any depth.
It is the prime purpose of this text to present in a logical and coherent manner the
current state of the art in estimating the important engineering parameters in con-
vective boiling and condensation. The usual design variables of interest are the rates
of heat (or mass) transfer and the pressure losses in a particular context. It is often
important to know those phenomena which might impose some limitation upon the
performance of a specific item of equipment such as a change in hydrodynamic or
heat transfer process or regime. In boiling and condensation the hydrodynamic and
the heat transfer processes are very closely linked. This coupling is much closer than
exists in single-phase flows. The addition or removal of heat from a two-phase flow

1
 INTRODUCTION
causes variations in the amount and distribution of each phase and the flow pattern or
topology of the flow. These changes in turn induce variations in the local heat transfer
processes. Because of the continuous change of all the thermal and hydraulic properties
of the flow, the situation at any axial point in the channel can never be fully developed
either thermally or hydrodynamically. This facet of the problem will be reiterated on
many occasions. In addition, because the local situation is not an equilibrium situa*

tion, it is necessary to know the variation of the flow properties upstream of the point
being considered. This information is required to define the magnitude and direction
of the departure from equilibrium. Add to these difficulties the fact that certain situa-
tions involve time varying properties and others involve departures from thermo-
dynamic equilibrium and one begins to realize the magnitude of the
problem being
tackled.
Because of these difficulties the subject to dale is largely empirical and the design
engineeris confronted with a vast amount of published literature which must be

digestedand placed into context. It is hoped that this book will provide a basis for
any such exercise. In addition, considerable skill and knowledge of the subject is
required to choose the particular published treatment best suited to the design prob-
lem in hand. Many such treatments have only a limited range of application and must
not be applied outside this range. Here again guidance will be given on the basis of the
author’s direct experience
Certain aspects of boiling will not be treated in this book. The prime omissions are
the subjects of pool or natural convection boiling, flashing and critical flow, and the
stabilityand transient response of boiling and condensing systems. These areas have
been omitted, either because they are not directly relevant to the development of the
subject as treated in this book, or because the present state of knowledge does not
allow a coherent statement which might have widespread acceptance.

1.2 Sources of Information

Examination of the problems of convective boiling and condensation has been in pro-
gress since the mnctcenth century but research in this field has been greatly stimulated
since the Second World War by the advent of the nuclear and rocket technologies. An
often reproduced graph, first prepared by Gouse,‘ shows the cumulative number of
papers and reports available in the published literature on boiling and two-phase flow
against the year. The graph indicates an exponential rise in the number of publications
available with time. The rate of increase in the number of publications appears to
double around the year 1940 and the total number of published papers in the litera-
ture by 1970 was expected to be 10,000. Yet despite the efforts of the many investigators
in most of the highly developed countries of the world, the mechanics of boiling in
channel flow remain a very poorly understood phenomenon.
The engineer requires some assistance in gaining access to this vast amount of
information. Happily, useful indices to the literature have been prepared by Gouse^* ^
and by Keppleand Tung.* These indices classify the papers into detailed subheadings.
In some instances abstracts of the papers are piKentcd but no indication of the use-
fulness or authority of the work is given.

2
 :

CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Of greater value to the engineer entering this field of endeavour are critical reviews
of the entire field or part of it. One of the objects of this book is to present such a
review.
Much of the information on boiling and two-phase flow is contained in the reports
of government and private research laboratories rather than as published papers in
the journals of learned societies. The distribution and availability of these reports may
be limited but this does not invalidate their usefulness and the author has drawn
freely on such sources of information.

1.3 Units

It has been decided to use the International (SI) System of units in this book. In this
system the basic units are:

Length 1 metre L
Mass 1 kilogramme M
Time 1 second T
The unit of force is the Newton and is that force required to give a mass of 1 kilo-
gramme an acceleration of 1 metre per second per second.
The equations in the book are written so that any consistent set of units based on
length, mass, and time may be used. Thus the reader may wish to work in the Foot-
pound-second (FPS) System. In this system the basic units are

Length I foot L
Mass 1 pound M
Time 1 second T
The unit of force is the poundal and is that force required to give a mass of 1 pound
an acceleration of 1 foot per second per second.
In the field of engineering in the United States an additional unit is introduced,
namely the pound force. This force is that required to give an acceleration of g (32-2 ft/

s^) to a mass of 1 pound. Thus the pound force is related to the poundal; viz.

r (pound mass)(foot)’|
I pound force = 32-2 poundals = 32-2
(second)^

The constant (32-2) in this relationship is often referred to as or go- In the present
book only the units of mass, length, and time will be employed and the acceleration
due to gravity will only be involved when work is done in the earth’s gravitational
field. Throughout the book quantities in the FPS system will be shown in brackets.

The unit of temperature in the SI system is the degree centigrade, known in that
system as the kelvin, and in the FPS system is the degree Fahrenheit. The unit of heat
in the SI system is the watt-second (or joule). Normally it is necessary to relate thermal
and mechanical energy via the mechanical equivalent of heat (7). Thus,

/X thermal energy = mechanical energy

Happily, in the SI system the units of heat and work are identical and J is unity. The

3
 1

INTRODUCTION
unit of heat in the FPS system is the British thermal unit (Btu) and the value of / is

2-4 X 10* fool poundals/pound ”F.

Table 1.1 Units

p— Dimension
j

tk,
SI Conversion

lb - 0 4S3S9 kft

SB
1

Im 1 ft -0 304Sin
Time 1 If

Force 1 N 1 pdi 1 pdl > 0-13S2N

Temperjiure fC ||B|B
Heat Mff 1 J
1 j

In some cases the hour is used as the unit of time in the British System of Units in
place of the second (FPH system). In this case,

I pound force .. 4-173 x

The unit of pressure in the SI system of units is N/m*. This is a rather small quantity
and throughout this test the bar will be used as an aliemaiive,

I bar »» 10* N/m*

Natation

A full notation is given at the beginning of the book. This section introduces the

primary variables used throughout the work and derives some simple relationships
between them for the case of onc-dimcnsional flow.
To and liquid phases the subscripts ‘g’ for gas and ‘f’ for
distinguish between gas
be used. The subscript *g’ is conventionally used to denote conditions in the
liquid will
saturated vapour phase. The choice of *f* rather than ‘1’ was made to keep the con-
vention in line with the steam and other thermodynamic tables. The subscript ‘fg’

refers to the difference

between gas (or vapour) and liquid properties at some specified
condition (usually the saturation temperature).
Consider a channel in which two phases are flowing concurrently. The flow is one-
dimensional, i.e., there are no changes in system properties in directions normal to the
direction of flow. The flow area of the channel is denoted by the symbol A and the
flow areas of the gas and liquid phases by Ag and A{ respectively. The ratio of gas
phase flow area to total flow area is known as the void fraction and is denoted by a

a df (l-«) ( 1 . 1)
A'
 convective boiling and CONT3ENSATION
Tns mass rate of Sow be represented by the s>Tnbol H'’and will be the sum of the
rvill

icdhidcal phase flow rates and R The velodtj- of an indfvidnal phase is denoted
by the symbol u. The volumetric rate of fiow is represented by the sjanbol O and will
be the sum of the indhidual phase volumetric fiow' rates Qc and O^. In boiling and
condensation it is often convem'ent to use the fraction of the total mass fiow which is
composed of s-apour or liquid. Thus, the mass qualitj-, x, is defined as

X = (1-.X) (1-2)

The rate of mass fiow dridded by the fiow area is given the name ‘mass velocitj-’ and
the sjmbol G. Thus.

G = - = pu = - (1.3)
n r

R-,= G.4.r, R'f = G/.(l-.r) (1-4)

II
(1-5)

Q. gf
(1-6)
At

Gx Gil-x)
(1.7)
P.2

Somerimes it is necessary- to use the fraction of the total volumetric fiow which is

composed of vapour or liquid. Thus the volumetric qualit)'. p, is defined as

gf
^= (1-^ (l.S)
Q,-bQf- g*hgf

The rate of volumetric fiow dirided by the fiow area is gi\en the name ‘volumetric
fiux’ (or sometimes ‘superficial velocitj'’) and the sjmboly.
Thus,

Or using eqs. (l.I) and (1.6).

f = n , =0 = - . _2) = yCl -^ = (1.10)

Pt P^

Gf=J^o^ = Gx, G[=J[P( = G{l-x). G = G^-rGf (1.11)

One relationship which will be useful in later sections expresses the ratio of the gas
slip ratio’) in terms of the
phase velocits* to the liouid phase velocity' (fcnowa as the
mass qualitv" and the void fraction.

5
 INTRODUCTION
Thus,

u, WiPgA^
» / JL
V-*ApA
Y^Y—
® /
( 1 . 12 )

The choice of symbols for c<w)rdinates is limited by the use of x for mass quality.
z will be used as the co*ordinaie in the direction of flow along the axis of a conduit and
the radial distance from the axis of a pipe will be denoted by r. The use of y will be
restricted to the distance measured from a boundary such as a surface or interface.
The rate of change of static pressure in the direction of flow w ill be represented by
(dp/dr). Posiihc \alues for this quantity denote a rise of pressure with respect to axial
distance. Engineers are mainly concerned with the hss of pressure from one position
to another and this will be denoted by the symbol Ap. Thus,

ip = (dp/dz)d: (l.!3)

In the case of heat transfer the sjTabol be used to denote 'heat flux’ or the
^ will
amount of heat flowing through unit surface area in unit time. The symbol T will be
used for temperature with appropriate subscripts, w for wall, f for liquid, g for sapour,
etc. The normal comention in most thermodymamic tables is to use ‘A’ for enthalpy. In
the present text be used for enthalpy to a\oid confusion with heat transfer
will

coefficient be denoted by the symbol *h\

which will
The thentiodynatmc equilibrium temperature at which vapour and Uquid exist
together at a particular pressure will be called the saturation leinpenture The
corresponding pressure be the saturation pressure (ps^r)* ITie enthalpy of liquid
will
at the saturation temperature will be denoted by if and of vapour Tbe difTereoce
between these two quandties is the latent heat of vaporuation and using the normal
comention this will be denoted by the symbol Provided both liquid and vapour
phases are in thermodynamic equilibnum, ie.. exist at the saturation temperature,
then an alternative definition of mass quality x can be given on the basis of thermo-
dynamic properties. Thus,

Only when the thennodynanuc equilibrium exists are the values of x obtained from
cqs. (1.2)and (1.14) identical.
In boiling and condensing systems it is often convenient to use the saturation tem-
perature as a datum and refer other system temperatures to this datum. Material at a
temperature higher than the saturation temperature is said to be ‘superheated’ with
respect to the saturation temperature and the difference in temperature from the datum
is denoted by the symbol AT^^. Material at a temperature below tbe saturation tem-

perature is said to be ‘subcooled’ wtth respect to the saturation temperature and the
difference in temperature from the datum is denoted by the symbol ATjub- Thus,
= (1.15)

TMT-r=Ar5t,. (1.16)

Inevitably it is not possible to avoid duplication of some symbols and where this

6
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
occurs hoped that the meaning will be clear. Each new symbol used will be defined
it is

as it is introduced and a reference to this definition is given in the Notation.

1.5 Methods of Analysis

The methods used to analyse a two-phase flow are extensions of those already well
tried for single-phase flows.The procedure invariably is to write down the basic
equations governing the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, often in a one-
dimensional form and to seek to solve these equations by the use of various simplifying
assumptions. Three main types of assumption have been made, viz.,

(a) the ‘homogeneous’ flow model

In the simplest approach to the problem, the two-phase flow is assumed to be a
this,

single-phase flow having pseudo properties arrived at by suitably weighting the

properties of the individual phases.
(b) the ‘separated’ flow model
In this approach the two phases of the flow are considered to be artificially segre-

gated. Two sets of basic equations can now

be written, one for each phase. Alter-
natively, the equations can be combined. In either case information must be
forthcoming about the area of the channel occupied by each phase (or alternatively,
about the velocities of each phase) and about the frictional interactions with the
channel wall. In the former case additional information concerning the frictional
interaction between the phases is also required. This information is inserted into
the basic equations, either from separate empirical relationships in which the void
fraction and the wall shear stress are related to the primary variables, or on the
basis of simplified models of the flow.
(c) the ‘flow pattern’ models:
In this more sophisticated approach the two phases are considered to be arranged
in one of three or four definite prescribed geometries. These geometries are based
on the various configurations or flow patterns found when a gas and a liquid flow
together in a channel. The basic equations are solved within the framework of each
of these idealized representations. In order to apply these models it is necessary to
know when each should be used and to be able to predict the transition from one
pattern to another.

This latter approach* is still in its infancy and much of the information presented
in the following chapters is based on the first two approaches only. However, it can
be expected that considerable strides will be made in the development of flow pattern
models in the next few years and the use of the digital computer will be needed to ease
the considerable complication of design calculations this will inevitably bring to the
engineer.

1.6 Flow Patterns

The analysis of single-phase flow is made easier if it can be established that the flow is

either laminar or turbulent and whether any separation or secondary flow effect

7
 INTRODUCTION
occurs. This informallon is equally useful in (he study of gas-liquid flow. However,
perhaps of greater importance in the latter case is the lopolog>’ or geometry of the flow.
When a liquid is vaporized in a heated channel (he liquid and the vapour generated
take up 3 variety of configurations known as flow patterns. The particular flow
pattern depends on the conditions of pressure, flow, heat flus, and channel geomclr>’.
Each has a descriptive name and in the design of a heat exchanger it is desirable to
know what the flow pattern or successive flow patterns are so that a hydrodynamic or
heat transfer theory appropriate to that pattern can be chosen.
Various techniques*’ ^ are available for (he study of two-phase flow patterns in
heated and unhealed channels. In transparent channels at low velocities it is possible
to distinguish the flow pattern by direct visual observation. At higher velocities, where
the pattern becomes indistinct, flash and cine photography* can be used to slow the
flow down and extend the range. However, reflection and refraction at multiple
interfaces often means that the interpretation of visual obsenations and photographs
is open to considerable uncertainty.’ This is particularly so at high flow rates. The

development of X-radiography’- “* has helped to reduce this uncertainty and has

also allowed investigation in opaque channels with healed walls. Another technique
for examining heated channels involves the coating of a transparent tube with a very
thin meullic conducting layer in which heat Is generated but which does not greatly
reduce the transparency Various other ingenious techniques have been used, for
example, to took down the axis of a tube containing a two-phase flow*' and to examine
flow patterns m boiling systems at high pressures.* Various types of probe; electrical,’
hot wire,’ pressure,** and optical’ have been developed to study the structure of the
flow and the signals from these probes can be used to provide indirect information
from which it is possible to deduce the flow pattern.
Because the name given to a flow pattern is to a large extent subjective, there exists
in the literature a multitudeof terms purporting to describe the various possible phase
distributions. In the present text only (hose patterns which arc clearly distinguishable
and generally recogniied arc listed. Sub-divisions do exist but the transitions between
one pattern and another arc seldom well defined. The indeterminate region between
patterns is sometimes referred to by hyphenating the names of the patterns bounding
the region, c.g., the region betw een the bubbly and slug regions might be referred to as
the bubbly-slug region.

1 . 6. 1 . Flow Patterns in Vertical Co-current Flow

The flow patterns encountered in vertical upwards oxurrent flow are shown schemat-
ically m Fsg. l.I together with actual photographs of each pattern

(a) Bubbly flow. In bubbly flow the gas or vapour phase is distributed as discrete
bubbles in a continuous liquid phase. At one extreme the bubbles may be small
and spherical and at the other extreme the bubbles may be large with a spherical
cap and a flat tail. In this latter state although the size of bubbles does not ap-
proach the diameter of the pipe, there may be some confusion with slug flow.
(b) Slug flow. In slug flow the gas or vapour bubbles arc approximately the diameter
of the pipe. The nose of the bubble has a characteristic spherical cap and the gas
 Fig. 1.1. Flow Patterns in Vertical Co-current Flow

in the bubble is separated from the pipe wall by a slowly descending film of liquid.
The is contained in liquid slugs which separate successive gas bubbles.
liquid flow
These slugs may or may not contain smaller entrained gas bubbles carried in the
wake of the large bubble. The length of the main gas bubble can vary considerably,
(c) Chum flow. Chum flow is formed by the breakdown of the large vapour bubbles in
slug flow. The gas or vapour flows in a more or less chaotic manner through the

9
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
up. At some position up the tube the wall temperature will exceed the saturation
is set

temperature and the conditions for the formation of vapour (nucleation) at the wall
are satisfied. These conditions are discussed in chapters 4 and 5. Vapour is formed at
preferred positions or sites on the surface of the tube. Vapour bubbles grow from
these sites finally detaching to form a bubbly flow. With the production of more
vapour the bubble population increases with length and coalescence takes place to

Fig. 1.2. Flow Patterns in a Vertical Evaporator Tube

form slug flow which in turn gives way to annular flow further along the channel.
Close to point the formation of vapour at sites on the wall may cease and further
this

vapour formation will be as a result of evaporation at the liquid film-vapour core

interface. Increasing velocities in the vapour core will cause entrainment of liquid in
the form of droplets. The depletion of the liquid from the film by this entrainment and
by evaporation finally causes the film to dry out completely. Droplets continue to
exist and are slowly evaporated until only single-phase vapour is present.

11
 INTRODUCTION
There are a number of features concerning the above description which require
further comment. Representative locations where the liquid reaches the saturation
temperature {at *= 0) and where the liquid is totally evaporated (x =» I) (found on the

basis of simple heat balance calculations) are shown on the diagram. In this example
vapour is seen to form before the liquid mixed mean (mixing cup) temperature reaches
the saturation temperature. This effect occurs as a result of the radial temperature
profile in the liquid which allows the conditions for vapour formation at the wall to be
satisfied before the mean liquid temperature reaches the saturation temperature. Under
certain circumstances, however, the conditions for vapour formation at the wall may
not be satisfied until after the mean liquid temperature has exceeded the saturation
temperature. In this instance the growth rate of the initial vapour bubble formed at the
wallmay be so great that slug flow Is entered directly without any bubbly flow region.
A second feature shown in Fig. 1.2 is the presence of a flow pattern not previously
mentioned; that of drop flow. In unhealed channels, liquid invariably exists on the
channel surface either as a film or. in extreme cases, as rivulets. Only in the case of a
heated wall where any liquid at the wall is evaporated does true drop flow occur. The
presence of radial temperature profiles and lack of thermodynamic equilibrium mean
that close to the point of theoretical complete evaporation (x ~ 1) liquid droplets
often exist in the presence of superheated vapour.
Physical processes which result in flow pattern changes such as bubble coalescence,
droplet formation and break<up, require finite distances and times to occur. If the rate
of change of the local flow conditions (expressed as the vapour quality, x), i.e., dx/dr,
is large then these processes are not completed and the departure from hydrodynamic
equilibrium conditions is such that the regions over which certain flow patterns occur
are expanded or compressed or, in some cases, a particular flow pattern may disappear.
One example is that of slug flow in a healed channel which normally occurs over only a
short interval in a long channel but which may be completely absent in a short channel.

1.6.3 Flow Pauerns In Horizontal Co-current Flow

The flow patterns observed in co-current iwo-phase flow in horirontal and inclined
tubular channels are complicated by asymmetry of the phases resulting from the in-
fluence of gravity. The generally accepted flow patterns as given by Alves'® are shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 1.3.

(a) Bubbly flow. This flow pattern is similar to that in vertical flow except that the
vapour bubbles tend to travel in the upper half of the pipe. At moderate velocities
of both vapour and liquid phases the entire pipe cross-section contains bubbles
whilst at still higher velocities a flow pattern equivalent to the wispy-annular
pattern is entered. This pattern is sometimes referred to as froth flow.
(b) Plugflow. This is similar to slug flow in the vertical direction. Again the gas bubbles
tend to travel in the upper half of the pipe.
(c) Stratified flow. This pattern only occurs at very low liquid and vapour velocities.

The two phases flow separately with a relatively smooth interface.

(d) Wavy flow. As the vapour velocity is increased the interface becomes disturbed by
waves travelling in the direction of flow.

12
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(e) Slug flow. A further increase in
vapour velocity causes the waves at the interface
to be picked up to form a frothy slug which is propagated along the channel at a
high velocity. The upper surface of the tube behind the wave is wetted by a residual
film which drains into the bulk of the liquid.
(f) Annular flow. A still higher vapour velocity will result in the formation of a gas core

Bubbly

Plug

Y iL 1

Slralilied

Wavy

Slug

f
Annular
Flow

Fig. 1.3. Flow Patterns in Horizontal Flow

with a liquid film around the periphery of the pipe. The film may or may not be
continuous around the entire circumference but it will, of course, be thicker at the
base of the pipe. Alves also delineated a spray or drop flow region where the
majority of the flow was entrained in the gas core and dispersed as droplets.

Flow patterns formed during the generation of vapour in horizontal tubular

channels are influenced by departures from thermodynamic and hydrodynamic
equilibrium in the same way as for vertical flow. Asymmetric phase distributions and

13
 INTRODUCTION
Stratification introduce additional complications. Figure 1.4 shows a schematic repre-
sentation of a horizontal tubular channel heated by a uniform low heat flux and fed
with liquid just below the saturation temperature. The sequence of flow patterns shown
corresponds to a relatively low inlet velocity (< 1 m/s). Important points to note from
a heat transfer viewpoint are the possibility of intermittent drying and rewetting of the
upper surfaces of the tube in wavy flow and the progressive drying out over long tube
lengths of the upper circumference of the tube wall in annular flow. At higher inlet
liquid velocities the influence of gravity is less obvious, the phase distribution becomes
more symmetrical and the flow patterns become closer to those seen in vertical flow.
The design of many heat exchangers using horizontal tubular elements necessitates
that these elements be interconnected using 180* return bends to form a serpentine

arrangement. In this case the influence of the return bend on the flow pattern is
is discussed in section 1 .6 5. The effect of a return bend on the
considerable. This topic
flow pattern may be seen up to 50 pipe diameters downstream of the bend.

1.6.4 Flow pattern maps and transitions

Despite the present deficiencies in the understanding of the various flow patterns and
the transitions from one pattern to another, there is a widely felt need for simple
methods to give some idea of the particular pattern likely to occur for a given set of
local flow parameters. One method of representing the various transitions is in the
form of a flow pattern map. The respective patterns may be represented as areas on a
graph, the co-ordinates of which arc the actual superficial phase velocities (Jf or y,)
or generalized parameters containing these velocities. The flow pattern is also influenced
by a number of secondary variables but it is impossible to represent their influence
using only a two-dimensional plot. The use of the actual superficial phase velocities
for the axes of the map restricts its application to one particular situation but, whereas
the choice of a more generalized parameter may be adequate to represent one par-
ticular transition, it is unlikely that this same parameter will also be suitable for a
different transition governed by a different balance of forces. An alternative and more

J4
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
flexible method which overcomes this difficulty is to examine each transition individu-
ally and derive a criterion valid for that particular transition. This latter approach is,
however, still being developed.
Figure 1.5 shows a flow pattern map obtained*'^ from observa-
1.6.4.1 Vertical flov:.
tionson low-pressure air-water and high-pressure steam-water flow in small diameter
(1-3 cm) vertical tubes. The axes represent the superficial momentum fluxes of the

1 Ib/s^fi 10 10’ io’ 10* io’ 10*

Fig. 1.5. Flow Pattern Map for Vertical Flow (Hewitt and Roberts)

15
 INTRODUCTION
liquid (p[ Ji^) and vapour (p, y,*) phases respectively. These superficial momentum
fluxes can also be expressed in terms of the mass velocity (G) and the vapour quality
(x), viz.

CG(l-x)3» .
iGxV
Pt

This map must be regarded as no more than a rough guide. It is clear that the momen-
tum fluxes alone are not adequate to represent the influence of fluid physical proper-
ties or channel diameter.
In addition to the flow pattern maps, a number of rules-of-thumb are available based
on examination of the mechanics of Individual transitions.

(a) Bubbly flow-slug flow transition. In a bubbly flow there is a finite probability
that, because of their random motion, individual vapour bubbles will collide and
coalesce to form larger bubbles. ^Vhetber or not this coalescence is significant depends
upon the bubble population (and, therefore, on the void fraction, a), on the transit
time (or alternatively the length) of the channel, and on such problematical factors as
the level of trace contaminants. It can be argued that all bubbly flows are to some

extent unstable over long distances and that this pattern is basically an entrance con-
dition. Radovcich and Moissis** examined the behaviour of an idealized model of
bubbly flow and came to the conclusion that for void fractions (a) below about 0-1 the
collision frequency would be relathely low. Above this value the frequency rose steeply
until at a • 0-3 the number of collisions was such that a rapid transition to slug flow
was to be expected.
(b) Slug fiow-<hurn flew transition. The upper limit of ibe slug flow region occurs as
a result of interaction between the rising gas bubble and the falling liquid film separat-
ing the bubble from the channel wall, lliis interaction, knowm as 'flooding', causes the
break-up of the long vapour bubble resulting in chum flow. A scmi-theoretical method
of predicting this limit has been given by Portcous** which can be simplified to the
following equations for the case of tubes of moderate diameter and liquids with low
viscosity — specifically when the value of the dimensionless inverse viscosity N is

greater than 10* where A' is defined as

In this case the rise velocity of a vapour bubble for slug flow in a stagnant liquid is

given by

= 0-35p,-® ^lgD(p,~p,)fl * (I.I8)

The relationship found by Porteous for the ratio of the total volumetric flux 0) and the
bubble rise velocity («*) at the transition can be expressed empirically as

J- = 0<s(£lY’ (1.19)

Combining eqs. (1.18) and (1.19) gives an equation for the upper limit of slug flow as

16
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

j = 0-105 (1-20)

This equation delineates a region in the lower left-hand corner of Fig. 1.5 where fully
developed slug flow with long vapour bubbles will occur. Less well developed slug
flow with short vapour bubbles and smaller bubbles entrained in the wake (bubbly-
slug flow) occurs over a wider range of parameters. If it is assumed that eq. (1.20)
vapour volumetric flux rather than the
gives the limiting total volumetric flux then the
upper limit becomes

;g* = 0-105 (1.21)

where,

Golan and Stenning*’ give the alternative criterion,

= 0-139+0-011 jt* (1.22)

where

j* =JfPf"‘^[gD(Pf-P6)]"“’*

Slug flow is usually associated with values of void fraction (a) less than 0-8.

Chunt flow-annularflow transition. The transition between churn flow and annular
(c)

flow is most easily understood by considering a vertical tube having a section of porous
wall at its mid point and fed at its base with an upwards gas flow. Liquid fed through
the porous wall section will form a film which will travel downwards if the gas flow
is low or upwards if the gas flow is high. Clearly, the transition between these two

regions, the 'flow reversal’ point can be associated with the lower limit of annular
flow. Wallis* has found that the critical gas velocity at the ‘flow reversal’ point can be
characterized by the criterion

jg* = 0-9 (1.23)

This criterion may be used to give an approximate prediction of the churn flow-
annular flow transition.
An alternative method of defining the onset of annular flow comes from the use of
an electrical probe^- which can be used to detect the presence of liquid filaments
(‘bridges’) which extend from the wall to the centre line of the pipe. The gas velocity
at which these filaments cease to bridge the tube is given by*®

)/=0-9+0-6A* (1.24)

for the case where y) * <1 - 5.

(d) Annularflow-wispy-annuiarflow tratisition. This transition is difficult to distinguish

visually and the information upon which to base a transition criterion is sparse.
Bennett observed that for high-pressure steam-water flow at pressures of 34-5
et ai.^
bar (500 psia) and 69 bar (1000 psia) respectively this transition could be represented
by approximately constant superficial liquid velocities OV) of about 1-05 m/s (3-5 ft/s)
and 1-35 m/s (4-5 ft/s). Filaments of agglomerated entrainment are detected by the

17
 INTRODUCTION
electricalprobe’*'*® mentioned earlier and on the basis of these measurements
Wallis* has suggested that at high liquid flow rates this transition is given by

(1.25)

for the case where y,* > 1 '5.

The wispy annular region usually corresponds to the region where j* is greater than
unity and j* is greater than 2-5 to 3.
1.6.4.2 Horizontal flow. A comparison between the observations of Alves’* and
Fig. 1.5 suggests that this map may also be used as a rough guide to the flow patterns
in horizontal channels. The positions of the bubbly, wispy annular (froth), and an-
nular flow patterns arc similar in both cases. The slug flow pattern for vertical flow
covers both the plug and slug flow patterns in horizontal flow. The plug flow pattern
occurs only at relatively low superficial gas velocities (/,< 1 m/s). The churn flow pattern
for vertical flow covers approximately the region of wavy flow in horizontal channels.
One flow pattern map, that of Baker*' has become generally accepted and widely
used for horizontal channels. Baker plotted the observations of various workers in
terms of the co-ordinates {GJX) and ((7fA tJ'/C?,) where C, and (7f are the superficial
mass velocities of the vapour and liquid phases respectively given by eq. (1.11). The
factors X and *!> are given by the relationships

(1.26)

The subscripts
(?M3T
A and W refer to the values of the physical properties for air and water
(1.27)

respectively at atmospheric pressure and temperature. The original diagram given by

Baker has been transposed in Fig. 1.6 so that the superficial mass velocities of each
phase only appear in one co-ordinate. This transposition also allows a ready compari-
son with the flow map for vertical channels (Fig. 1.5). Both diagrams indicate that for
an air/water flow at atmospheric pressure (A = ^^' =* 1) bubbly flow is entered for
superficial liquid velocities (J,) above 2-5 m/s and that annular flow occurs for super-
ficial gas velocities above 10 m/s. For convenience, the factors X and have been
evaluated for the steam-water system and are shown plotted against the saturation
pressure in Fig. 1.7 (p. 20).

1.6.5 Flow patterns in other applications

A limited amount of information is avmlable in the published literature on the flow

patterns likely to be encountered in a variety of specific applications The source of
this information is listed below under the particular application.

(a) Verticaldownward flow. Golan and Stenning'^ have given a tentative map for
co-current downwards flow. Annular flow occupies the major area since at low liquid

18
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
flow rates a falling liquid film can occur with no gas flow. Slug flow and bubbly flow
also occur but only at liquid velocities greater than the bubble rise velocity given by
eq. ( 1 18 ).
.

(b) Inclined channels. Flow patterns in inclined pipes arc discussed by Kosterin^°
and by Brigham ei al.^^ Serious stratification of the phases is observed only for very
low superficial velocities and inclinations close to the horizontal.

) ^ !- ^
h T* —
h \
\
‘l H

Fig. 1.6. Flow Pattern Map for Horizontal Flow (Baker)

(c) Rectangular channels. A comprehensive study and review of high-pressure steam-

water flow patterns in rectangular channels has been reported by Hosler.^^ The flow
patterns and transitions encountered were similar to those observed in circular
channels.
(d) Internal grooves, helical inserts, obstructions, expansions and contractions. Papers by
Nishikawa et al.^^ and by Zarnett and Charles^* have discussed the flow patterns which
occur when the inside surface of the tube is grooved or a helical ribbon is inserted
into a smooth tube. Gardner and Neller^* have commented on the flow past ring-type
obstructions and Richardson^* has considered the changes in flow pattern at con-
tractions and expansions.

19
 INTRODUCTION
(e) Bends and co'ils. The profound infloence of bends on two-phase flow patterns has
already been mentioned. In general a bend or system of bends acts to separate the
phases. For example, a bend will induce the coalescence of bubbles to form slug flow
and will separate entrained droplets in annular flow. The presence of a curvature in
the pipe induces a secondary flow in the fluid in the form of a double spiral; outwards
across a diameter of the tube and towards the centre of curvature along the pipe walls.
At low superficial velocities the action of gravitational forces and the fact that the
vapour phase tends to flow faster than the liquid phase greatly complicates the picture.

Pressure(Bar)

Fig. I."!. Values of Jl and ^ for Steam-Water Systems

Gardner and Ncller** have considered the case of a vertical pipe joined to a hori-
zontal pipe via a 90" bend In this case the momentum of the upflowmg liquid is
attempting to carry it to the outside of the bend whilst gravitational forces are tending
to make it fall to the inside of the bend. This balance between countcracling forces
was expressed by a Froude number

(1.28)
gRsinO
where j is the total volumetric flux, R is the radius of curvature, and 0 the angle of the
radius to the horizontal. Gardner and Neller confirmed that values of (Fr)g less than
unity resulted in the vapour phase moving to the outside of the bend while values
greater than unity caused it to hug the inside radius. This simple approach is probably

only valid for the bubbly and slug flow patterns. These ideas can, however, be extended
to the case of vertical tubes connected by 180® return bends considered by Golan and
Stenning.*"'
Zahn^’ has visually examined the important case of evaporation in horizontal tubes
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
connected by 180° vertical return bends. Liquid initially thrown to the outside of the
bend rapidly drained to the base of the horizontal tube immediately after the bend
causing a dry patch to form on the upper part of the tube. A considerable distance may
be needed before this dry area is rewetted intermittently by developing liquid slugs or
permanently by re-entrainment of liquid from an annular film. The efiect on heat
transfer rates will be discussed in a later chapter.
The flow patterns observed for two-phase flow in horizontal helical coils^® are
similar to those seen in horizontal tubes with the notable absence of bubbly flow. The
most of coiling are seen in annular flow. At the high velocities
significant effects
necessary for annular flow it might be expected that the liquid phase would be forced
to the outside of the coil. In fact, however, it has been observed that the liquid travels
as a film on the inside surfaces of the coil at low flows. Baneq'ee et alP have explained
this phenomenon on the basis that the momentum of the gas phase is higher than that
of the liquid phase due to the considerably higher velocity outweighing the much lower
density. High-speed cine photography looking down the axis of a coiled tube has been
employed by Hewitt.^® In the annular flow pattern, secondary flow in the gas core
induces a corresponding circulation in the liquid film. Liquid is entrained over an arc
of channel wall close to the centre of curvature and is carried with the gas flow across
the tube diameter to be deposited on the further wall some distance downstream. The
liquid is then returned to the inside surface of the coil still further downstream via the
circulation in the film. This intense peripheral circulation of the liquid film and the
efiicient separation of the entrained droplets ensures that the likelihood of dry patches
is considerably reduced in coiled tubes. Similar mechanisms occur in bends when
annular flow is present at the entry to the bend.

References

1. S. W. Jr. ‘An introduction to two-phase gas-liquid flow’. Report 8734-3 Engineer-

Gouse,
ing Projects Lab. Mass. Inst. Tech. (1964).
2. Gouse, S. W. Jr, ‘An index to the two-phase gas-liquid flow literature’ —
^Pt. I. Report No.

DSR 8734-1 Mass Inst. Tech. (1963).

3. Gouse, S. W. Jr. ‘An index to the two-phase gas-liquid flow literature’ —
Pt. 11. Report
10. No. DSR 8743^ Mass. Inst. Tech. (1964).
4. Kepple, R. R. and Tung, T. V. ‘Two-phase (gas-liquid) system heat transferand hydraulics
— an annotated bibliography’. ANL 6734 (TID 4500, 26th ed.), (1963.)
5. Wallis, G. B. One dimensional two-phase flow. McGraw-Hill (1969).
6. Collier, J. G. and Hewitt, G. F. ‘Experimental Techniques in Two-Phase Flow’. British
Chemical Engineering, II, No. 12, pp. 1526-1531 (1966).
7. Symposium on Two-Phase Flow Instrumentation presented at 11th National ASME/
A.l.Ch.E. Heat Transfer Conf. Minneapolis, Minnesota, Aug. 1969.
8. Cooper, K. D., Hewitt, G. F., and Pinchin, B. ‘Photography of two-phase gas-liquid
flow’. J. Photo. Sci., 12, 269 (1964).
9. Bennett, A, W., Hewitt, G. F., Kearsey, H. A., Keeys, R. K. F., and Lacey, P. M. C.
‘Flow visualization studies of boiling at high pressure’. Paper presented at Symposium
on Boiling Heat Transfer in Steam Generating Units and Heat Exchangers, Manchester,
15-16 Sept. 1965.
Derbyshire, R. T. P., Hewitt, G. F., and Nicholls, B. ‘X-radiography of two-phase gas-
liquid flow’. AERE-M 1321 (1964).

21
 INTRODUCTION
11. Arnold, C. R. and Hewitt, G. F. 'Further dewloi»neats In the photography of two-phase
gas-liquid flow*, J. Photo. Sel., IS,
97 (1967).
12. Chaudry, A. B., Emerton, A. C., and Jackson, R, ‘Flow regimes in the co-current up-
wards flow of water and air’. Symp. on Two-phase Flow, Exeter, June 1965 (Paper B2).
13. Alves, G. E. ‘Co-current liquid-gas flow in a pipeline contactor*. Chem. Process. Engng.,
50 (9). 449-456, Sept. (1954).
14. Hewitt, G. F. and Roberts, D. N. ‘Studies of two-phase flow patterns by simultaneous
X-ray and flash photography’. AERE-M 2159. H.M.S.O. (1969).
15. Radovach, N. A. and Moissis, R. *1116 transition from two-ph^ bubble flow to slug
flow’. Report No. 7-7673-22 Dept, of Mech. Engng. M.I.T. (1962).
16. Porteous, A. ‘Prediction of the upper limit of the slug flow regime*. Brit. Chem. Ettgng.,
14 (9). 117-119, Sept. (1969).
17. Golan, L. P. and Stenning, A. H. ‘Two-phase vertical flow maps*. Paper No. 14 presented
at Symposium on Fluid Mechanics and Measurements in Two-Phase flow systems, Leeds
University, 24-25 Sept. (1969).
18. Haberstroh, R. E. and Gnffith, P. The slug-annular two phase flow regime transition*.
ASME Paper No. 65-HT-52 (1965).
19. Griffith, P. *The slug-annular flow re^me transition at elevated pressures*. ANL-6796
(1963).
20. Koslerin, S. ‘An investigation of the influence of the diameter and inclination of a
I.

tube on the hydraulic resistance and flow structure of gas-liquid mixtures*. Iztest. Akad.
Nauk. S.S.S.R. Otdel Tekh. Nauk, 12, 1824 (1949).
21. Brigham. W. E., Holstein. E D and Huntington. R. L. Two-phase concurrent flow of
,

liquids and air through inclined pipe*. Oil and Cos Journal, p. 145, 11 Nov., (1957).
22. Hosier, E. R. ‘Flow patterns in high pressure two-phase (steam-water) flow with heat
addition*. Paper presented at 9th Nat. U.S. Heat Transfer Conf. Seattle, A.I.Ch.E. pre-
print No. 22. Aug (1967).
23. Nishikawa, K. ‘Two-phase annular flow in a smooth tube and grooved tubes*.
et at.
Paper presented at Int. Symp. on Research in Co-current Gas-Liquid Flow. University
of Waterloo, Sept. (1968).
24. Zamett, G. D. and Charles, M. E. ‘Co-current gas-Iiquid flow in horizontal tubes with
internal spiral ribs'. Paper presented at Int. Symp. on Research m
Co-current Gas-liquid
flow. University of Waterloo, Sept. (1968).
25. Gardner, G. C. and Ncller, P. H. ‘Phase distributions in flow of an air-water mixture
round bmds and past obstructions at the wall of a 76 mm
bore tube*. Paper No. 12
presented at Symposium on Fluid Mechanics and Measurements in Two-phase flow
systems, Leeds University, 24-25 Sept. (1969).
26. Richar^on, B. L. ‘Some problems in horirontal two-phase two-component flow*.
ANL-5949 (1958).
27. Zahn, W. R. 'A visual study of two-phase flow while evaporating in horizontal tubes’.
of Heat Transfer, pp. 417-429, Aug. (1964).
J.
28. Boyce, B. E., Collier, J. G., and Levy, J. ’Hold up and pressure drop measurements in
the two-phase flow of air-water mixtures in helicai coils'. Paper presented at Int. Symp.
on Research in Co-current Gas-liquid flow. University of Waterloo, Sept. (1968).
29. Banerjee, S., Rhodes, E , and Scott, D. S. ’Film inversion of co-eurrent two-phase flow
in helical coils’ A.l.CKE. J., 13 (1), 189-191, Jan. (1967).
30. Hewitt, G. F. Private communication (1968).
31. Baker, O. ‘Design of pipe lines for simultaneous flow of oil and gas*. Oil and Gas Journal.
26 July (1954).

PROBLEMS
1. In a vertical annular flow pattern the thickness of the liquid film on the tube wall is

^.The tube diameter is D. If 3 <i> what is the value of the void fraction, a?

22
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Answer (1 —a) =—
D
2. Derive an expression for P, the volumetric quality, in terms of the mass quality, a-,

and the specific volumes of the phases.

.
Answer p
o
=; —=- — 1

3. Derive an expression for the ratio ujuf (the slip ratio) in terms of a and p only.

4. Derive an expression for j in terms of the inlet velocity to an evaporating tube,

i/f„, the mass quality, x, and the phase specific volumes, and V[.

Answer j = 1

5. Using Fig. 1.5 evaluate the most likely flow pattern occurring in a 2-54 cm I.D.
vertical boiler tube when the system pressure is 30 bar, 70 bar, and 170 bar, the
mass quality, x, is percent, 10 percent, and 50 percent, and the mass velocity, G, is
1

500 kg/m^ s and 2000 kg/m^ s respectively.

6. Compare the location of the churn flow-annular flow pattern boundary as pre-
dicted by Fig. 1.5 and eq. (1.23) respectively.
7. Repeat the exercise given in problem 5 but in this case assume the tube is hori-
zontal and use Fig. 1.6.

23
 2

THE BASIC MODELS

2.1 latroductlon

In this chapter the present status of the two most important models of two-phase
gas-liquid flow — the ‘homogeneous’ model and the ‘separated flow’ model — will be
discussed. These treatments have been used in engineering design calculations in a
number of diverse applications. Such applications often involve high pressures and
temperatures and specialized treatments as applied to particular flow patterns may not
be possible since the flow pattern or, mote likely, the seseral successive flow patterns,
may be unknown. The treatments discussed have therefore been applied to the calcula-
tion of pressure drops and density without particular reference to the flow pattern.

2.2 Basic Equations ofTno-phase Flow

A simplifled one-dimensional analysis of two-phase gas-Iiquid flow can be made by

considering the system shown in Fig. 2.1. This shows a stratified single component
flowitj an inclined pipe undcrconditlonswhercthcre is mass transferbetween the phases,
i.e., evaporation or condensation A stratified flow is chosen to allow the equations
to be derived for the general case where each phase is in contact with the channel
wall as well as having a common interface. The flow is assumed to be steady and
mean values of the velocity and density of each phase are assumed to exist across
a given plane normal to the flow. It is further assumed that the pressure across any
plane normal to the channel axis is uniform and that the sum of the areas occupied
by the vapour and the liquid in any plane normal to the channel axis equals the chan-
nel cross-sectional area.

2.2.1 Conservation of Mass

The equations expressing conservation of mass in the channel in the absence of any
removal or addition of mass through the channel walls are as follows:

w,+ Wt = w (2.1)

dw;= -dip. (2.2)

= i4, p, u, « Wx (2.3)

24
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
W, = AtPfUt^W[].-x) (2.4)

d
(2.5)

_d d,x dIFf
dz
(^f Pf Hf)= -W dz "dz ( 2 . 6)

These equations may be transposed to a variety of forms using the interrelationships

derived in section 1.4.

Fig. 2.1. Simplified Model for Two-Phase Flow over Element of Channel

2.2.2 Conservation of Momentum

The forces acting on each phase can be equated to the rate of change of momentum of
that phase. Thus, for the vapour phase,

pAg-(p + dp) A^-dF^-S-Ag dzp^gsin 0-

[(lF,+dlF,) {//,-f-d.i,)- IF, H,-dli; t/f] (2.7)

where dF, is the force exerted by the vapour phase in overcoming frictional resistance
at that part of the channel wall where the gas is in direct contact with the solid surface
and S is a similar force exerted with respect to the gas-liquid interface. Equation (2.7)
can be simplified to

-/I, dp-dFj.-S-/l, dzp,gsind= IF, d(/, + dlF, i;,-dIF,(/f (2.S)

A similar relationship may be derived when the liquid phase is considered, S now
being a force an the liquid

2S
 THE BASIC MODELS
‘-Atdp-dFt + S—Afdz ptgUnd = WfdUf (2.9)

Adding eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) and using eq. (22) yields

-A dp-dF^-dFf-g sinOdz lA,pi+Ag pj « d(»',Uf+ IF, u,) (2.10)

This equation represents the basic differential momentum equation for this simplified
one-dimensional approach. The net frictional force acting on each phase may be
expressed in terms of the areas occupied by each phase thus,

{dF, + S)=-.4.^^sF^dz; (<iF,-S)= (2.11)

(dF,+ ilF,)=-d(^F^dz (2.12)

The term (dp/dz F) represents that part of the overall static pressure gradient required
to overcome friction. Substitution of eq (2.12) into eq. (2.10) and rearrangement
yields

(2.13)

where, making use of the relationships derived in section 1.4,

- = F sln<'^^F.+ jFrj = «sin()[iF,+(l -(i)Ft] (2-15)

The above derivation illustrates the use of the momentum equations to relate the total
static pressure gradient in termsof the separate ojmponents of friction, acceleration,
and static headshould be emphasized at this point that the frictional component
It

has been defined in terms of the force (dfg+dFf).

2.2.3 Conservation of Energy

The equation describing the conservation of total energy for both phases considered
together is,

ind9-dw)- IFdi+dp^ + ^^j+tFssiiiOdz (2.16)

Where &q is the net heat absorbed from the surroundings per unit mass and dw is the
net work done by unit mass of the fluid on the surroundings. The terms on the right-
hand side of eq. (2.16) represent the change In enthalpy, the change in kinetic energy,
and the change in potential energy respectively. The change in enthalpy di, is given by
the relationship

26
 : „ :

CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

di = 5q + dE+ IW^ V,+ Wt rj (2.17)

where dE is the dissipation of mechanical energy into heat per unit mass. Substitution
of eq. (2.17) into (2.16), simplification, and rearrangement gives, for the case where
the net work done on the surroundings is zero (5w = 0),

=
dE d r '
f
u
»f n
+ + irgsin0 (2.18)
dz dz 2

Using the relationships derived in section 1.4 this becomes.

dE —
dp'
-{^K^h+(l-x)vr] = —+
dz 2 dz
d x^v.^ (1

Once again it will be seen that the total pressuregradient can be expressed in terms of a
frictional dissipation term, an accelerational (kinetic) head term, and a static (poten-
tial) head term. However, it can be seen that unlike the case for single-phase flow the

three separate components do not, in general, take on the same value in both the
momentum and the energy equations. In the case of the energy equation the frictional
term (dEjdz) includes not only the dissipation of mechanical energy within the fluid
due to friction at the channel walls but also at the interface due to the relative motion
of the phases. Equation (2.18) could also have been obtained by adding together the
equations representing the change of total energy of each individual phase under
conditions of mass transfer. These general equations are, however, greatly complicated
by the terms representing the heat and mass exchanges between the phases, the re-
coverable work done by one phase on the other, and the dissipation of mechanical
energy at the interface.

2.2.4 Use of the Momentum or Energy Equation to Evaluate the Pressure Gradient

It is possible to use either the momentum equation or the energy equation as a

starting point for the evaluation of the pressure gradient in two-phase flow. When
experimental pressure drop data are to be correlated the procedure is as follows

Using the momentum equation :

(a) Use the measured void fraction (a) or that calculated from some arbitrary
model (i.e., ‘homogeneous’ or ‘separated flow’) to calculate the acceleration
(eq. (2.14)) and the static head (eq. (2.15)) components respectively.
(b) Calculate the frictional pressure gradient by difference and correlate against the
independent variables.

Using the energy equation '

(a) Calculate the pressure drop due to the change in potential energy of the fluid.
Void fraction is not required.
(b) Calculate the pressure drop due to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid
using some arbitrary model (i.e., ‘homogeneous’ or ‘separated flow’).

27
 )

THE BASIC MODELS

(c) Calculate the fiictional (or ‘irreveisiWe* or *viscous dissipation’) pressure loss by
difference and correlate against the independent variables.

Both methods require information about the \oid fraction though its importance in
the two cases may differ. The energy balance approach has some advantages in that it
avoids the difficulty of a negative friction component (wall shear stress) which is
sometimes found in slug or annular flow when there is a reverse flow of liquid at the
channel wall.
The majority of workers have, hovvever, adopted the momentum balance as the
basic equation and have defined the frictional component in terms of the wall shear
force (eq. (2.12)
The be derived from adopting the energy balance approach have only
benefits to
been examined What follows is therefore based almost entirely on the mo-
briefly.^’

mentum balance approach. The object is to show how the basic models have been
developed, to compare them with experimental data and to show how they may be
corrected to take into account second order eflects.

2.3 The Homogeneous hfodel

The ’homogeneous’ model, also known as the ’fricnon factor’ or ‘fog flow’ model,
considers the two phases to flow as a single phase possessing mean fluid properties. The
model has been in use in various forms m the steam generation, petroleum, and
refrigeration industries for a considerable time.

2.3.1 Derivation of the Sfodel and Assumptions

The basic premises upon which the model ts based are the assumptions of

(a) equal vapour and liquid linear velocities,

(b) the attainment of thermodynamic equilibrium between the phases, and
(c) the use of a suitably defined single-phase friction factor for two-phase flow.

From the consideration of flow patterns in chapter I it might be expected that this
model would be valid for the bubbly and wispy-annular flow patterns, particularly at
high linear velocities and pressures. However, the model has often been applied in-
discriminately to problems in which other flow patterns would be expected. For steady
homogeneous flow the basic equations reduce lo the following form

CenJinuity iV ^Apu (2 20)

Momentum —Aip—^T—ApgsxnOdz IKdii (2 21)

Energy 6q — Svi = di-f-d^^^ +£sinfldz (2 22)

where df = Sq + dE+vdp
In the above equations p, ii, and u represent the average density, specific volume, and
velocity of the homogeneous fluid, df represents the net lota! wall shear force. The

28
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
homogeneous fluid specific volume v is defined as the total volumetric flow rate Q
divided by the total mass flow rate fV. Using the relationships presented in section 1.4,

= ^ = [^ t'g+Cl -:>c)yf] = [yf +>: afj =^

^
(2.23)

where p is the homogeneous fluid density

From the premise (a) above.

U( = Ug = « (2.24)

so that.

U — Gv=j (2.25)

and

a = = /?, (2.26)
V

The total wall shear force dFcan be expressed in terms of a wall shear stress T^v acting
over the inside area of the channel.

dF = TyfPdz (2.27)

where % can be expressed in terms of a friction factor fyp

(2.28)

Remembering eq. (2.12)

(2.29)
\dz ) Adz A A \ 2 J
This is the familiar Fanning equation which for the case of a circular channel {PjA =
A/D) becomes

^/tp y _ 2 /tp Gj (2.30)

D ~ D
From eq. (2.14)

(2.31)
Vdz / dz dz

Evaluating d(u)/dz neglecting the compressibility of the liquid phase

d(C) dx dy./dp^
(2.32)

From eq. (2.15) and eq. (2.26)

gsinO
pgsinO = (2.33)
-(sf-
29
 THE BASIC MODELS
The total static pressure gradient as evaluated from the homogeneous model can be
represented by substitution of eqs. (2.30), (2JI), and (2.33) into eq. (2.13) and re-
arranging:

2UG‘v, idx gsinS

l+i| ^

D 'dz v,[l+x(Pf,/p,)]
(2.34)
'dp,^
1

23.2 The Two-Phase Friction Factor

All the terms in eq. (2.34) are definable except one, the two-phase friction factor/rr- To
use the homogeneous model it is necessary to apply a suitably defined single-phase
friction factor to two-phase flow. A number of different approaches have been made
to the definition of this two-phase friction factor.

(a) The friction factor /ff has been assumed equal to that which would have occurred
had the total flow been assumed to be all liquid. This friction factor, denoted by
the symbol will be a function of the all-liquid Reynolds number (GD/tif) and
the pipe relative roughness (e/f>). Equation (2.30) becomes

where

is the frictional pressure gradient calculated from the Fanning equation for the total
flow (liquid plus vapour) assumed to flow as liquid, i.e.,

of/f, in the evaluation of the two-phase frictiona’ pressure gradient does

The use
not allow extrapolation to the correct value when x = I, i.e., with single-phase
vapour flowing through the conduit. A second method overcomes this difficulty.
(b) The friction factor fjy has been evaluated using a mean two-phase viscosity /I in
the normal friction factor relationships. The form of the relationship between fi
and the quality x must be chosen to satisfy the following limiting conditions:

I= 0, /i - ft: » = 1. ji = ft (2.37)

Possible forms of the relationship arc

(i) 4=^+"^. (2.38)

M P, Pr

(an equation proposed by McAdams el u/.*)

(ii) p = xit,+(,l~x)p„ (2.39)

30
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(the definition chosen by Cicchitti et al.^)

(iii) ji = plxVgHg+il-x)V[fi{'] (2.40)

(suggested by Dukler et al^).

Assuming that the friction factor may be expressed in terms of the Reynolds
number by the Blasius equation

/TP = 0 079[Gi)//i]-i (2.41)

it can be shown that for equation (2.38)

-i
(2.42)

In eqs. (2.35) and (2.42) the two-phase frictional pressure gradient is expressed
in terms of the single-phase pressure gradient for the total flow considered as liquid.
This method of representation is often useful for comparison and calculation needs.
In general

(2.43)

where is known as the two-phase frictional multiplier. Equation (2.38) is the

most common definition of fi and therefore values of the term

<pt,^ = \l+x r1 +x

are given in Table 2.1 for the steam-water system as a function of quality and
pressure.

Table 2.1 Values of the two-phase frictional multiplier for the homogeneous
model steam-water system

Pressure
bar (psia)
Steam
Quality l-OI 6-89 34-4 68-9 103 138 172 207 221-2
% by wt.
(14-7) (100) (500) (1000) (1500) (2000) (2500) (3000) (3206)

16-21 3-40 1-44 1-19 1-10 1-04 1-01 1-0

1

5 67-6 12-18 3-12 1-89 1-49 1-16 1-06 1-0

10 121-2 21-8 5-06 2-73 1-95 1-30 1-13 1-0

20 212-2 38-7 7-8 4-27 2-81 2-08 1-60 1-25 1-0

30 292-8 53-5 11-74 5-71 3-60 2-57 1-87 1-36 1-0

14-7 7-03 4-36 3-04 2-14 1-48 1-0
40 366 67-3
5-08 3-48 2-41 1-60 1-0
50 435 80-2 17-45
20-14 9-50 5-76 3-91 2-67 1-71 1-0
60 500 92-4
22-7 10-70 6-44 4-33 2-89 1-82 1-0
70 563 104-2
25-1 11-81 7-08 4-74 3-14 1-93 1*0
80 623 115-7
7-75 5-21 3-37 2-04 1-0
90 682 127 27-5 12-9
8-32 5-52 3-60 2-14 1-0
100 738 137-4 29-8 13-98

31
 THE BASIC MODELS
2^3 Use of Model to Evaluate Pressure Loss

In order to be of use in the evaluation of pressure drop, cq. (2.34) must be integrated
with respect to axial length. In general this must be a step«ise procedure over the
interval for which the evaluation is required. Equation (2.34) may be integrated
analytically in some cases, provided a number of simplifying assumptions are made.
These could be, for example,

(a) that (C^j:(drj/dp){<l,i.e., the compressibility of the gaseous phase may be neg-
lected. Inmany cases this approximation is s-alid. For instance with a steam-water
flow at 82-75 bar (1200 psia), a mass \eIocity of 4900 kg/m* s (1000 Ib/ft* s) and a
value of a: = 0-10 the term G*x (dp,/d/») becomes —0-008.
(b) that the term (ptjvtl and the friction factor remain constant over the length
considered.

or particular interest is the case where liquid is evaporated from an inlet condition
at the saturation temperature (x = 0) to a vapour-liquid mixture having a mass
quality, x. For a linear change of x over a length L (Ar/dr = const) it follows that

2J.4 The Application of the Homogeneous Theory to Experimental Observations

The friction factor for use in the homogeneous flow model can be calculated from
single-phase flow correlations as discussed in section 2.3.2 or, alternatively, estimated
directly from measured two-phase pressure drops using the procedure outlined in
section 2.2.4. For instance, values of f^ in the range 0 0029-0-0033 have been sug-
*• *
gested for low-pressure flashing steam-water flow^’ and values of about 0-005 for
analyses of circulation m high-pressure boilers’* * and petroleum pipe stills.’
Davidson et al}° reduced their high-pressure steam-water pressure drop data by
the method outhned in section 2.2.4. The experimental two-phase friction factor/j^
was plotted against the Re>'noIds number for all-liqmd flow {GDIpf\. Large discrep-
ancies from the single-phase friction factor were observed at Reynolds numbers less
than 2x10* (Fig. 2.2). It was found that considerably better agreement with the
normal single-phase flow relationship (eq. (2.41)) was obtained if the experimental
friction factor was plotted against the all-Iiquid Rej-nolds number multiplied by the
ratio of the inlet to outlet mean specific volumes. This is equivalent to defining a two-
phase viscosity /t as

(i45)

This equation is a further definition of two-phase viscosity; it does not extrapolate to

the vapour phase viscosity as the mass quality x approaches unity. Five possible
definitions of mean two-phase viscosity have been given. One reason for the failure,
so far, to establish an accepted definition is that the dependence of the friction factor

on viscosity is small.

32
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

m n nnnMr
amna 1 iBBa
nm 1 iin^ s 1 nn
!
1
SI inIlf
m
III III
III III
i BE
1 III
rai Biaaaai
1miHH
mmt B
1 III 1
iwm B 1
s 1
| nil
H 1 nil
II II

Bi 1 i IB
[Rll
11 1 1 illIB 1 1 II 1

1 IH 1 1 1B 1 nwBBnna
1

1
HI 1 in

m
in
11 in IHH 111
in in 1 BWI
n II^W Bfl
Bl tmmm
m z Bl 1K
m 1 1
Bl 1 III
1 1 ni m
twm 1 II
11
1

1 1 1 ni 111 II 1

Fig. Z2. Experimental Two-Phase Friction Factors, Obtained for High Pressure Steam-
Water Mixtures by Davidson et al.

2.4 The Separated Flow Model

The separated flow model considers the phases to be artificially segregated into two
streams; one of liquid and one of vapour. In the model’s simplest form each stream is
assumed to travel at a mean velocity. For the case where the mean velocities of the
two phases are equal the equations reduce to those of the homogeneous model. The
separated flow model has been continuously developed since 1944 when Lockhart and
Martinelli published their classic papers on two-phase gas-liquid flow.

2.4.1 Derivation of the Model and Assumptions

The basic premises upon which the separated flow model is based are the assumptions
of:

(a) constant but not necessarily equal velocities for the vapour and liquid phases,
(b) the attainment of thermodynamic equilibrium between the phases,
(c) the use of empirical correlations or simplified concepts to relate the two-phase
friction multiplier and the void fraction (a) to the independent variables of
the flow.

Again from a consideration of the various flow patterns it would be expected that this
model would be most valid for the annular flow pattern. The basic equations for a
steady separated flow have been given in section 2.2. The momentum equation may be
rearranged to give

33
 )
THE BASIC MODELS

As stated previously the frictional pressure gradient can be expressed in terms of the
single-phase pressure gradient for the total flow considered as liquid. Thus

Alternatively it may be expressed jo terms of the single-phase pressure gradient for the

liquid phase considered to flow alone in the chaonel

(2.48)

Now using the (cf.cq.(i4l))

Blasius equation (cf. eq. (2.41)

(2.49)
s,. L<'-»)J
and from eqs. (2.47) and (2.48)

(2.50)

(ip \ ... <1 r*’ "(I

(2.51)
diL— -^-(rr^J
Upon expansion, neglecting the compressibility of the liquid phase

d r^’c, (i->)*cii
d.L ot (I-.) J

djrf 2.:i’, 2(1-4 )c, 1 /a<.\( (l-.i)’p, Jt’i’il]

dzLl “ <-“) J V.'Al O-”)’ jJ

dpr.t^dp, /d»\ f (l-j)’p,
(2.52)
dzL« dp JJ
The total static pressure gradient as evaluated from the separated flow model can be
represented by substitution of eqs. (2.47) and (2.52) into cq. (2.46) and rearranging,

-O'
. 1 ^idxrfTxe,
D ^'•+“diL{~
+P( (!-“)]

(2.53)

34
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
2.4.3 Use of Model to Evaluate Pressure Loss
In common with eq. (2.34) (homogeneous model) eq. (2.53) requires, in general, a
stepwise integration. Analytical integration is, however, possible provided certain
simpUfying assumptions are made. These could be, for example.

(a) that

1
^ Xl-xYvt <1
1
La\dpy dp
i.e., that the compressibility of the gaseous phase may be neglected;
(b) that the specific volumes (Ug and V() and the friction factor remain constant over
the length considered.

For the particular case where a fluid is evaporated from liquid at the saturation
temperature (x = 0) to a vapour-liquid mixture containing a mass quality x, with a
linear change of a: over a length L (dx/dz = const.)

2ffoG^v ,L\
Ap =
D L^Jo J L“W (i-“) J
Lgsin0
I>ga+Pf(l-a)]dx (2.54)
r
2.4.4 The Evaluation of the Two-Phase Multiplier ((^fo^) ond the Void Fraction (a)

In order to apply eqs. (2.53) and (2.54) it is necessary to develop expressions for the
two-phase multiplier l4>to') ^nd the void fraction (a) in terms of the independent flow
variables. This was first achieved by Martinelli and co-workers. The Martinelli model
was successively developed in the period 1944-49 from a series of studies of isothermal
two-phase two-component flow in horizontal tubes. These investigations were thus
confinedinitially to the frictional component of eq. (2.46). These studies culminated

in a paper by Lockhart and Martinelli," which proposed a generalized method for

calculating the frictional pressure gradient for isothermal two-component flow. A
later extension of the work covered the estimation of the accelerative component and
resulted in the well-known Martinelli-Nelson" method for the prediction of pressure
drop during forced circulation boiling and condensation.
2.4.4. 1 The Lockhart-Martinellf^ Correlation. In this treatment, a definite portion
of the flow area is assigned to each phase and it is assumed that conventional friction
pressure-drop equations can be applied to the flow path of each phase. Interaction
between the phases is thus ignored and this leads to an inconsistent result for the
relationship between pressure gradient and void fraction as will be shown below.
Certain basic postulates were used to establish the correlation;

(a) Four flow regimes were defined on the basis of the behaviour of the flow (viscous
or turbulent) when the respective phases were considered to pass alone through the
channel.
(b) The liquid and gas phase pressure drops were considered equal irrespective of the
details of the particular flow pattern. Also, since the initial concern was with the

35
 THE BASIC MODELS
frictionalcomponent of the pressure drop, (dp/dr F), only— the acceleration and
static head components being assumed negligibly small —
then the frictional
pressure drop in the gas phase must equal the frictional drop in the liquid phase
irrespective of the flow pattern details.

The frictional pressure drop for the liquid flow may be written as

where Z), is the unknown ‘hydraulic diameter' of the liquid flow. A similar
expression can be written for the gas phase.

(2.57)

The hydrauhe diameter of each phase ts related to the cross-sectional area (/<{ or
A,) through which the phase is flowing at any instant as follows,

(2.58)

(2.59)

The friction factor f (or /,) may be expressed in a Blasius type equation

/,= K^eC^J' (2.60)

By using eqs. (2 48), (2 56), (2 58), and (2.60) it may be shown that

In other words the ratio of the two-phase frictional pressure gradient to that which
would exist if the liquid phase were to be flowing alone in the pipe is a function only
of the fraction and shape of the flow area occupied by the liquid phase. Similarly for
the gas phase,

It is instructive to apply the Lockhart-MartincIIi assumptions to the case of annular

flow. Dividing eq. (2.58) by A (= rtZ>*/4)

y = (l-a)(D/D,)* (2.63)

Substituting eq. (2,63) into (2 61),

36
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

(2.64)

For annular flow with a liquid film of thickness 5,

= —- =45; 45
r,
47:Z)5 , 47rZJ5
Df
nU
Thus
D _D _ 1
Df~45"(l-a)
Then substituting into eq. (2.64),

= (l-a)'’-2(l-a)“<"+‘> = (l^a)"^ (2.65)

This result is incorrect. The correct relationship for annular flow will be derived in
section 3.5.1. This is:

<^,^=(l-a)-^ (2.66)

The discrepancy between and (2.66) highlights the neglect of the inter-
eqs. (2.65)
action between tbe phases. ChisboW®
has cotiected the above treatment by allowing
for the interfacial shear force (S) between the phases.
Because of the above criticism it is prudent to consider the Lockhart-Martinelli
correlation as purely empirical. Martinelli and his co-workers argued that the two-
phase friction multipliers 4>(^ and could be correlated uniquely as a function of a
parameter Xwhere,

This was verified using their experimental data. The resulting graphical correlation is
shown in Fig. 2.3 where (p is plotted against X. All four flow regimes were correlated
in this manner. In chapter 3 it is shown that the parameters and (p^^ can be related
to the parameter X^ by relationships of the form

= ( 2 - 68 )

and
= l+ (2.69)

The curves in Fig. 2.3 are well represented by eqs. (2.68) and (2.69) when C has the
following values:

liquid gas C
turbulent - turbulent (tt) 20
viscous - turbulent (vt) 12
turbulent - viscous (tv) 10
viscous - viscous (w) 5

37
 THE BASIC MODELS
To use the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation to calculate the two-phase friction pres-
sure gradient, it is only necessary to calculate the friction pressure gradients for each
phase flowing alone in the channel and then use Fig. 2.3 or altematisely cqs. (2.68) or
(2.69). The correlation was developed for horizontal two-phase flow of tw o-component
systems at low pressures (close to atmospheric) and its application to situations out-
side this range of conditions is not recommended.

It follows that if the parameter is a function of the parameter X then the void

fraction a must also be a function of X. The correlation between a and X as derived

by Lockhart and Martinelli is independent of the flow regime and is givxn in Fig. 2.3.
The actual values tabulated in the oripnal paper follow closely the relationship given
in eq (2.66) with This expression may be combined with eq (2.68) (with
C =» 20) to give an explicit equation for void fraction in terms of the parameter X.
2.4.4.2 The MartlnelU-Nelson}^ Corretoum. TTie Lockhart-Martinelli correlation

38
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
low pressure air-liquid mixtures, but the information
related to the adiabatic flow of
was purposely presented in a generalized manner to enable the application of the
model to single component systems and to steam-water mixtures in particular.
For the prediction of pressure drops during forced circulation boiling Martinelli
and Nelson*^ assumed the flow regime would always be ‘turbulent-turbulent’. The
correlation of frictional pressure gradient is worked in terms of the parameter

which is more convenient for boih’ng and condensation problems than (see eqs.

Fig. 2.4. Value of as a Function of Pressure and Mass Quality (Martinelli-Nelson)

(2.47) and (2.48) ). Thermodynamic equilibrium was assumed to exist at all points in the
flow and the curve correlating in Fig. 2.3 arbitrarily applied to atmospheric
pressure steam-water flow. A relationship between (p^ and Z,, was established for the
critical pressure level by noting that as the pressure is increased towards the critical

point, the density and viscosities of the phases become similar. The relationship may
be represented by eq. (2.68) with the value of C = 1-36.^® Knowing the curves for
critical and atmospheric pressure, curves at intermediate pressures were established
by trial and error using the data of Davidson’® as a guide. Having established the
curv'es oT(p[ versus A',, for a number of pressures, curves of <p[/ as a function of mass
quality x were plotted as shown in Fig. 2.4. Table 2.2 also gives values of (p(J^ as a

39
 THE BASIC MODELS
function of mass quality and pressure. Tabic 2,1 gives values for the two-phase
multiplier from the homogeneous model and the figures in the two tables can be
directly compared. It will be observed that the deviation between the friction multi-
pliers for the homogeneous model and the Maftinelli-Ncison correlation can be up
to a factor of two. The term

is required in eq. (2.54). Martinclli and Nelson evaluated this integral from the graph
shown in Fig. 2.4. This function is shown for the steam-water system in Fig. 2.5.

Table 2.2 Values of the two-phase frictional mtiltipljcr for the Maninelli-Nelson
model stcatn-watef system

PreMuw
bar (i>s>a)

Quality 1 01 6 89 34 4 68 9 103 138 172 207 221-2

y.by wt.
(147) (100) (500) (1000) (IJOO) (2000) (2500) (3000) (3206)

t 56 1)5 12 I 1 105 I-OO

24 175 )-43 3-t7 lOO
10 69 28 54 2 45 1-75 1*30 1-00
20 ISO 56 162 86 51 3 25 219 l-Sl 1-00
50 245 85 250 n-6 68 404 2 62 1 68 1-00
40 3S0 29 2 84 4 82 3 02 1 83 1 00
SO 450 145 34 9 170 99 5 59 3 38 197 1-00
so S4S 174 400 111 6-54 5 70 210
70 625 199 446 214 iM 7 05 3 96 2 23 lOO
SO 6S5 216 48 6 229 |2 8 7 70 4 15 2 35 1-00
90 720 210 480 225 tJo 79$ 4 20
100 525 tJO 300 150 86 590 3'70 215 1-00

Values of the void fraction (a) are also required. Martinclli and Nelson used the curve
shown Fig 2.3 for steam-water flow at atmospheric pressure and showed that, at
in
= p = x. Knowing the corves of a versus A’,, for both atmos-
the critical pressure a
pheric and critical pressures, curves at iotenricdiatc pressures were interpolated.
These curves were then transposed to give values of a as a function of mass quality x
with pressure as parameter (Fig. 2.6 (p. 43)). The term

appears in eq. (2.54). To case computation, values of this term, designated rz, have
been evaluated using the values of void fraction given in Fig. 2.6. The calculated values
ofr 2 are shown in Fig. 2.7 (p. 44) as a function of pressure with exit mass quality as
parameter. The designation r, was given to the term [(vri/vr)Ar] which appears in eq.
(2.44)— the homogeneous model.
2.4.4.3 The Thom Correlation. An alternative set of consistent values for the terms
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
have been published by Thom. ^ These
revised values were derived using an extensive
set of experimental data for steam-water pressure drops obtained at Cambridge,
England, on heated and unheated horizontal and vertical tubes. The alternative values
of these quantities as suggested by Thom are given in Table 2.3.

15 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 3000 Dsia

I I I I I
1 1 1
n

1 psr

Fig, 2.5. - dx as a Function of Quality and Absolute Pressure Steam-Water

0
(Martinelli-Nelson)

2.4.5 The Application of the Separated Flow Model to Experimental Observations

The Lockhart-Martinelli-Nelson model has been used extensively for the correlation
of experimental pressure gradients and void fraction measurements for both single
and two-component gas-liquid flow. Generally, it is found that the separated flow
model is capable of more accurate predictions than the homogeneous model.
Two general observations can be made concerning the application of the Lockhart-

Martinelli correlation.

41
*

Thom*

by
given

a*

model

flow

aeparaled

the

for

factor*

Ihe

of

values

Rcviicd

J
2
TaWe
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(a) It has been widely recognized that the curves of experimental data plotted as
(f)[
(or (f>g) versus X
(Fig. 2.3) are not smooth but show discontinuities of slope which
may
be associated, quitedefinitely, with changes of flow pattern.'"^’
(b) An of mass velocity upon the curves of
effect versus X has also been widely
reported. example of this effect is shown in Fig. 2.8 (p. 45) where experi-
mental values of (pf/ obtained by Isbin et al.'^ for steam-water flow at 68-9 bar (1000
psia) are plotted. For a mass velocity (G) of 540 kg/m^ s (0-4 x 10® Ib/hr.ft^) the data
lie close to but slightly above the line suggested by Martinelli and Nelson while the

0-1
0001 O-OI

Mass quality x

Fig. 2.6. Void Fraction a as a Function of Quality and Absolute Pressure Steam-Water
(Martinelli-Nelson)

values of for higher velocities lie considerably below the correlation. These data
agree well with the homogeneous model prediction (Table 2.1). Data from other
sources confirm, firstly, that there is a mass velocity effect with steam-water flow at
high pressures; secondly, that the original Martinelli-Nelson correlation line corres-
ponds to a mass velocity of 500-1000 kg/m^ s andhomogeneous model
thirdly, that the

yields values close to those obtained experimentally for mass velocities greater than
2000 kg/m^ s. For example, the data of Sher and Green^“ for steam-water flow
through vertical rectangular channels at 75-7 bar (1 100 psia) and 138 bar (2000 psia)
show a considerable influence of mass velocity. Values of (pf/ were evaluated for each
mass velocity tested over the range 950 to 6780 kg/m^ s and were found to decrease
as the flowrate was increased. The co-ordinates of the graphs of versus a: for
each mass velocity are given in Table 2.4. The values from the homogeneous and

4J
 THE BASIC MODELS

S » tt TO VB TOO aro 3OT

P5,3

Rg- 2.7. MuUiphcr ri as a Function of Pressure for Various Exit Qualities Steam-Water
(Maflinelli-Nelson)

44
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Martinelli-Nelson correlations at 138 bar are also given for comparison. It can be
seen that the results obtained by Sher and Green for a mass velocity of between 1080
and 1360 kg/m^ s correspond very closely with the Martinelli-Nelson values. Likewise,
the results for a mass velocity of 2000 kg/m^ s correspond closely to the homogeneous
model.

Fig. 2.8. Effect of Mass Velocity on the Value of at a Pressure of 68-9 bar (Isbin et al.)

A further example of the mass velocity effect is found in the data from CISE as
reported and examined by Muscettola.^* Figure 2.9 shows data taken for steam-water
flow in a vertical round tube, 0-5 cm internal diameter, at a pressure of 68-9 bar. At a
fixed value ofmass quality x a sharp decrease in with increased mass velocity is
observed. The Martinelli-Nelson and homogeneous models effectively bracket the
experimental results. Values from the Thom'^ correlation (Table 2.3) are also shown.

45
 THE BASIC MODELS

Fig. 2.9. Further Example of Mass Velocity Effect at 68-9 bar (Musccttola) (CISE data)

46
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
It is clear that the Martinelli-Nelson correlation provides more accurate pressure
drop estimates in the low mass velocity range (G<1360 kg/m^ s); the homogeneous
model gives better agreement in the higher mass velocity ranges (C >2000-2500 kg/m^s).
This is perhaps to be expected since the Martinelli approach is based on a separated
(annular) flow concept whilst the homogeneous model assumes a fully dispersed flow.
Sufficient information is now available on the effect of mass velocity, for attempts to
have been made to add empirical corrections to the friction multipliers obtained from
either the Martinelli-Nelson or the homogeneous models.
From the above discussion it might be expected that the void fraction (a) would also
be a function of mass velocity. This is indeed the case for vertical up flow at least.
Quantitative data which illustrate the effect have been reported by Baker^^ and by
Zuber et for the case of Freon at elevated pressures and by Hughmark and
Pressburg^^ for low-pressure air-liquid flow. Figure 2.10 shows data obtained by
Zuber for the evaporation of Freon 22 in a vertical 1 cm i.d. heated tube. Effects
associated with the absence of thermodynamic equilibrium are clearly visible at low
void fractions. These effects are discussed in detail in chapter 6. In the region of
positive thermodynamic quality an increase in mass velocity increases the void fraction
at a given value of x. The void fractions predicted from the Martinelli-Nelson correla-
tion for the steam-water system at the same value of (Pf/Pg) are also shown and, with
a little imagination, might be expected to correspond to mass velocities near 1000
kg/m* s. The predictions from the homogeneous model yield even higher void fractions
and might be expected to be valid at mass velocities greater than 2000 kg/m* s.
Baker*^ has given an empirical equation to allow for the influence of mass velocity
on the void fraction in vertical up flow:

a*(y*-l)+a
(2.70)
Y-a(Y-Y*)
where Y= 0-021 (Pf/Pg) G'*'®®* and G is the mass velocity in kg/m* s. This equation
is valid over the range 7-5 < y<300 and G<950kg/m* s. For convenience a plot of
a versus mass quality x for various values of Y is given in Fig. 2. 1 1 (p. 50). This equation
should be used with care and certainly not outside the above limits. The data shown
in Fig. 2.10 are reasonably well represented by eq. (2.70).
The reason for this influence of mass velocity will be more clearly seen in chapter 3
where better correlations for void fractions will be developed.

2.5 Recent Correlations for use with the Homogeneous or Separated Flow
Models
Recent attempts to correct existing models for the influence of mass velocity on the
friction multiplier, have been published by Baroczy** and by Chisholm.*®

2.5.1 The Baroczy Correlation

The method of calculation proposed by Baroczy** employs two separate sets of curves.
The first of these is a plot of the two-phase frictional multiplier ^f„* as a function of a
physical property index [(Pf/Pg)° ^(Uf/Vg)] with mass quality x as parameter for a

47
 THE BASIC MODELS
referencemass velocity of 356 kg/m^ s (1 x 10® Ib/hrft^) (Fig. 2. 1 2 (p. 5 ) and Table 2.5).
1
1

The second is a plot of a correction factor fl expressed as a function of the same physical
property index for mass velocities of 339, 678, 2712, and 4068 kg/m^ s with mass quality
as parameter {Fig. 2.13 (p. 52)). This plot serves to correct the value of obtained

from Fig. 2.12 to the appropriate value of mass velocuy. Thus,

2/r.gi',.
(2-71)
S')-
The method proposed by Baroezy was tested against data from a wide range of

48
CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

49
 THE BASIC MODELS
systems including both liquid metals and refrigerants with satisfactory agreement
between the measured and calculated values.

2.S.2 Chisholm's Method

Chisholm^'* found that eq. (2.d8) provided a simple method of introducing the influ-
ence of mass velocity on A most comenient general expression** for the coefficient
C is

C= + iW *+(t’A)" ’
I (2-72)

where/l«=0 5(2”-''^-2).

_jniii
mil
^iiiii
.jiiiK^aimii
maimiiii
amiiii
ISiS!«KalKil
Mini
niiiiiiiaiBiimiii
izimmMsm ~iniiii
ISSiSililKimill IMIIII
iniiii

Fig. 2.11. Vananon of Void Fraction « with Mass Quality x and Parameter F

For rough lubes (« = 0 in Blasius equation (2.60)) 1 ~ 1 ; for smooth tubes (n = 0 25)
A =» 0.68. At the critical pressure (r^ = v,; r,, 0) = C
takes on a value of 2 for rough
tubes and 1-36 for smooth lubes. For steam-water flow tubes at pressures above m
30 bar (435 psia) Chisholm*® recommends the following procedure for the evaluation
of

(a) Mass velocity C^C*

For smooth tubes-. G* »= 2000 kg/m* s (1-47 x 10* Ib/hrfl*)
Calculate the value of C from eq. (2.72) with A = 0 75 (corresponding to n = 0 2)
and Cl ((?*/(?)
For rough rubes. G* = 1500 kg/m* s (/*/ x lo* ib/hr ft*)
Calculate the value of C from eq. (2 72) with A = I (corresponding to n = 0) and
Cl = (G*/G)
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(b) Mass velocity G>G*
For smooth tubes (G>2000 kg/m^ s) and rough tubes (G>1500 kg/m^ s)

2
(2.73)

0
multiplier-

phase

Two-

Mercury (°C) 3^5 ^26 650^60

Water (°C) ^ 250 300 350 374

Fig. 2.12. Two-Phase Friction Pressure Drop Correlation (Baroczy)

where

r c iiir, cii (2.74)

0

(2.75)

51

FACUL'T O' 3 4 'iINi'iiir'JT L'll'.'’-’?

THE UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
. I
j

Experiment Miropolskii [32]

Theory Chisholm [30]
Theory Baroczy [22]

nl I 1 1 ^ 1

0 20 «3 60 80 100
Steam quality - % by wt.

Fig. 2.14. Ratio of 4i<,^ to <^io^from Homogeneous Theory. Comparison of Experiment with
Theories of Chisholm and Baroczy

The parameter represents the ratio of 4>f^ to that calculated from the homogeneous
model. For values of mass velocity greater than G* this parameter will be less than
shows the ratio of the actual value of
unity. Figure 2.14 to that calculated from

the homogeneous model (eq. (2.42) ) and compares experimental results from rough
tubes from Miropolskii^^ for a pressure of 30 bar with the methods proposed by
Baroczy^^ and Chisholm.^®

53
 :

THE BASIC MODELS

The method proposed by Baroczy can be used directly with systems other than
steam-water. The Chisholm method may also be adapted by calculating the value of
(he property index */(p,/p,)l for the system being considered, choosing the
steam pressure with the same value of the properly index and evaluating <f>,^ as if it
were for the steam-water system. This value of may then be used in the remainder
of the calculation. This adaptation of Chisholm’s method is not recommended for
values of the property index below 001. In this tatter case the Baroezy method should
be used.

2.6 The Influence of Imposed Heat Flux on the Void Fraction and Pressure
Gradient

In addition to the effect of mass velocity on the friction multiplier Tarasova*^* has
found a complex dependence on the heat flux imposed on the tube. A characteristic
drop in the experimental value of 4>,^^ was observed at the point along the tube at
which dryout (see chapters 8 and 9) occurred. This drop in might be expected to
result from the decrease in effective roughness that the vapour core experiences as it
passes the dryout transition. The disappearance of the slow moving liquid film also
means an increased void fraction at this point. It is therefore recommended that, in the
‘liquid deficient region’ (see chapter 4) corresponding to the 'drop flow' pattern, the
homogeneous model be used to calculate and a.
At lower qualities the frictional pressure gradient is increased
in the presence of a
heat flux over that in an unheated tube. The estimation of pressure drop and void
fraction in the absence of thermodynamic equilibrium under subcooled boiling and
low quality conditions is discussed fully in chapter 6. Tarasova^^‘ has given an
empirical equation relating the value of m heated and unheated tubes for the
steam-water system as follows

where 4> is on the tube (watls/m*) and G is the total mass velocity
the heat flux
(kg/m^s). This relationship was independent of pressure.
In the region that influenced by lack of thermal equilibrium but below
away from
the dryout transition the value of the local friction multiplier and the local void fraction
are little alTected by the presence of an imposed heat flux.

References

1. McAdams, W H etal ‘Vaporizationinsidehorizontaltubes— H — Benzene-oil mixtures’.

Trans. ASME, 64, 193 (1942). .

2. Cicchitti, —
A. et al 'Two-phase cooling experiments pressure drop, heat transfer and
burnout measurements’. Energia Nucleare, Vol. 7, No 6, pp. 407-425 (I960).
3. —
Dukler, A E etal ‘Pressure drop and hold-up in two-phase flow’ Part A ^‘A compari-
—
son of existing correlations’ and Part B ^“An approach through similarity analysis’.
Paper presented at A.l Ch E meeting held Chicago 2-€ Dec. 1962, also 4 I.Ch E J. 10(1)
38-51 (1964).

54
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
4. Benjamin, M. W. and Miller, J. G. ‘The flow of a flashing mixture of water and
steam
through pipes’. Trans. ASME, 64, 657-664 (1942).
5. Bottomley, W. T. ‘Flow of boiling water through orifices and pipes’. Trans. North
East
Coast Inst, of Engrs. and Ship Builders, 53, 65-100 (1936-37).
6. Allen, W. F. ‘Flow of a flashing mixture of water and steam through pipes and valves’
Trans. ASME, 73, 257-265 (1951).
7. Lewis, W. Y. and Robertson, S. A. ‘The circulation of water and steam in water-tube
boilers and the rational simplification of boiler design’. Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London)
143, 147-181 (1940).
8. Markson, A. A., Raverse, T. and Humphreys, C. G. R. ‘A method of estimating the
circulation in steam boiler furnace circuits’. Trans. ASME, 64, 275-286 (1942).
9. Dittus, F. W. and Hildebrand, A. ‘A method of determining the pressure drop for oil-
vapour mixtures flowing through furnace coils’. Trans. ASME, 64, 185-192 (1942).
10. Davidson, W. F. et al. ‘Studies of heat transmission through boiler tubing at pressures
from 500 to 3300 pounds’. Trans. ASME, 65, 553-591 (1943).
11. Lockhart, R. W. and Martinelli, R. C. ‘Proposed correlation of data for isothermal
two-phase two-component flow in pipes’. Chem. Eng. Prog., 45, 39 (1949).
12. Martinelli, R. C. and Nelson, D. B. ‘Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation
boiling of water’. Trans. ASME, 70, 695 (1948).
13. Thom, J. R. S. ‘Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation boiling of water’.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 7, 709-724 (1964).
14. Sze-Foo Chien and Ibele, W. ‘Pressure drop and liquid film thickness of two-phase
annular and annular mist flows’. Paper presented at Winter Annual Meeting, New York
of ASME 25-30 Nov. Paper 62-WA-170 (1962).
15. Gazley, C. Jr., and Bergelin, O. P. Discussion of Reference (11). Chem. Eng. Prog., 45
(1949).
16. Charvonia, D. A. ‘An experimental investigation of the mean liquid film thickness and the
characteristics of the interfacial surface in annular, two-phase flow’. Paper presented at
the Winter Annual Meeting in New York of ASME 26 Nov.-l Dec. Paper No. 61-WA-
243 (1961).
17. Kegel, P. K. ‘Two-phase flow in a vertical column’. B.Ch.E. Thesis, University of
Delaware (1948).
18. Dukler, A. E. ‘An investigation of pressure drop for isothermal two-phase film flow in a
vertical tube’. University of Delaware M.S. Thesis (1949).
19. Isbin, H. S. et at. ‘Two-phase steam-water pressure drops’. Nuclear Engineering Part
VI. Chem. Eng. Symp. Series No. 23, 55, 75-84 (1959).
20. Sher, N. C. and Green, S. J. ‘Boiling pressure drop in thin rectangular channels’. Nuclear
Engineering Part VI, them. Eng. Symp. Series No. 23, 55, 61-73 (1959).
21. Muscettola, M. ‘Two-phase pressure drop—comparison of the “momentum exchange
model” and Martinelli-Nelson’s correlation with experimental measurements’. AEEW-
R.284 (1963).
22. Baroczy, C. J. ‘A systematic correlation for two-phase pressure drop’. A.I.Ch.E. reprint
No. 37, paper presented at 8th Nat. Heat Transfer Conf. Los Angeles, August (1965).
23. Tarasova, N. V. and Leont’ev, A. I. ‘Hydraulic resistance with a steam-water mixture
flowing in a vertical heated tube’. Teplo. Vyso Temp. 3, No. 1 pp 115-123, Jan-Feb.
(1965).
24. Tarasova, N. V., Leont’ev, A. I., Hlopuskin, V. I. and Orlov, V. M. ‘Pressure drop of

boiling subcooled water and steam—water mixture flowing in heated channels Paper .

presented at 3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conf. held in Chicago, Vol. 4, pp. 178-183, Paper 133
(1966).
25. Baker, J. L. L. ‘Flow regime transition at elevated pressures in vertical two-phase flow’.
ANL-7093 (1965).
26. Chisholm, D. ‘A theoretical basis for the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation for two-phase
flow’. N.E.L. Report No. 310 (1967).

55
 THE BASIC MODELS
27. Hughmark, G. A. and Pressburg, B. S. ‘Hold-up and pressure drop with gas-liquid flow
in a vertical pipe’. A.I.Ch.EJ., 7 (4) 677-€82 (1961).
28. Chisholm, D. ‘The pressure gradient due to friction during the flow of boiling water’.
N.E.L. Report No. 78 (1963).
29. Zuber, N., Staub, F. W., Bijwaard, G., and Kfoeger, P. G. ‘Steady state and transient
void fraction in two-phase flow systems’. GEAP 5417 (1967).
30. Chisholm, D. ‘The influence of mass velocity on friction pressure gradients during steam-
water flow’. Paper 35 presented at 1968 Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics Con-
vention I. Mcch. Engrs. Bristol, March 1968.
31. Chisholm, D. and Sutherland, L. A. ‘Prtdiciion of pressure gradients in pipeline systems
during two-phase flow’. Paper 4 presented at Symposium on Fluid Mechanics and
Measurements in Two-Phase flow systems, Univ. of Leeds, Sept. 1 969.
32. Miropolskii, E. L., Shitsman, M. E. and Shneenova, R. I. ‘Influence of heat flux and
velocity on hydraulic resistance with steam-water mixture flowing in tubes’. Thermal
Engng., 12 (5). 80(1965).

Example 1

A vertical tubular test section is to be installed in an experimental high pressure water

loop. The tube is 10 16 mm i.d. and 3-66 m long heated uniformly over its length. An
estimate of the pressure drop across the lest section is required as a function of the
flow-rate of water entering the test section at 204*C and 68-9 bar.

(1) Calculate the pressure drop over the test section for a water flow of 0*108 kg/s
with a power of 100 kW applied to the tube using

(i) the homogeneous model

(ii) the Martinelli'Nelson model
(til) the Thom correlation
(iv) the Baroezy correlation

(2) Estimate the pressure drop versus flow-rate relationship over the range 0 108 to
0 811 kg/s (2-15 USGPM) for a power of 100 kW and 200 kW applied to the tube
using

(i) the Maninelh-Nclson model

(ii) the Baroezy correlation

Solution: Part 1

100 X 10*
(a) The enthalpy rise across the tube Ai « — = 0 925 MJ/kg

A length of tube (z,t) is required lo preheat the water to the saturation temperature
given by

z..= I.54m
h Aj 0*925

The outlet mass quality is given by

A/-f-/„-i, 0925-1-0872
if,
“ 1*51

56
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Zfi —the enthalpy at the temperature = 0-872 MJ/kg
inlet
—the enthalpy of
ii saturated water 68-9 bar = MJ/kg at 1-26
ifg —the latent heat of vaporization 68-9 bar = MJ/kg. at 1-51

(b) Pressure Drop in Preheating Section

Mass valoaity (O - ^ IO-«

“
^
The Reynolds number (Re,) = T—1 =
L J
at 204°C (Tfi) /ifj = 1-35 X 10-^Ns/m^ o,; = M65 x 10"^ m^kg,
Re„ = 1-OOx = 0-0046

at 285°C (Tsat) fit = 0-972 x 10-'*Ns/m^ u, = 1-35 x lO'^ m^kg,

Re, = 1-40 X 10^/f„ = 0-0044

The frictional pressure drop in the preheating section, taking average property
values, is given as:

2 X 0-0045 X (1335)^x1-255x10-^x1-54
APf= ^ - 10-16x10“^

= 3-06 kN/m^

The acceleration of the water due to a change in specific volume produces a small
pressure drop:

Ap, = = [1-35- 1-165] X 10-3 X (1335)^

= 0-330 kN/m^
The gravitational head pressure drop:

9-807x1-54
_ 12-05 kN/m^
Vf 1-255x10-3

(c) Pressure Drop in the Two-phase Region

(i) The homogeneous model

Equation (2.44) may be used if/tp is constant over the channel length and if

X (dt)g/dp) is very much less than unity.

(i)a.«S.,.as=-«5..0-.[^]

(j2 ^ ^ (1335)3 X 0-353 X (-4-45 X 10-®) = -0-0028

(which is much less than — 1)

57
 THE BASIC MODELS
Evaluation offjp

Various assumptions may be made about the iwo-phase viscosity thus;

fi *= fi, = 0 972x10-* Ns/m^

Equation (2.38) i *= —+^ ^ h,

*
« 2-89 x 10"* Ns/m^,
i‘ /'i Itt

fi = 5-30x10-^ Ns/m^
Equation (2.39)^ « fi= 7-32x 10'^ Ks/m^

Equation (2.40) fi = ^1(1— x)c,p, + a:pji,l e = I'07x 10"* m^/kg,

fi = 3 4SxlO-^Ns/m^

Equation (2.45) ~ t'f *’•* m’/kg

fi |^*+

fi
= 7-73 X IQ-* Ns/m^ ,

The frictional pressure drop

2/„x(1335)’xl }SxlO-’x2-l2 f. .
/'265xl0-'x03S2M
10 16x10-'
[ I35xl0-'x2 j\
- 4'5x 10' /„ kN/m'

Equation U CD A* v»lueor A Pi
(N$/m») it lX= r. J cN/m*

0 972x10"* I 4 10’ 00044 0 0044 197

(2 38) 0 330x10-* OCKUO 0 0042 189
(2.39) 0732x10-* I SB X 00042 00043 (93
(2 40) 0343 x10-* 3 94x10* 000373 0 00407 18 23
(2 45) 7 73x10-* 0-176x10* 00062 00051 218

The acceleration pressure drop

* (1335)*x2-65xI0'^x0 353 « 16 7kN/m=

The static head pressure gradient

9-807xlx2-I2
Ap
gsin<?(E- 2 „),
— In
2-65 X 10"^ X 0 352
In (7.95)

= 4-6 kN/m^

58
 : : 2

CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

(ii) The Martinelli-Nelson correlation

Equation (2.54) may be used since

la[dpj dp\(l-a)^ Jj
is much less than unity.
The frictional pressure drop

The value of

for p = 68-9 bar, = 0-352, from Fig. 2.5

= 7-05

2 X 0-0044 X ( 335)2 x 1 -35 x lO’^ x 2- 1

^ _
1

X 7-05 = 30-9 kN/m^

10-16x10-2

The accelerational pressure drop

Ap3 = G^vtr2 = (1335)2x1-35x10-2x4-55 = 10-95 kN/m^

The value of r2 at 68-9 bar, = 0-352 from Fig. 2.7 = 4-55

The gravitational pressure drop:

gsin9(L—z,
Apz = dx
VfXo -n-
The integral is evaluated graphically using the known values of a as a function of
X evaluated from Fig. 2.6 for the specified pressure.

it? = 1

9-807x1 x2-12x0-38
.
Ap^ = ,
= 5-85kN/m22
1.35x10'

(iii) The Thom correlation

The frictional pressure drop: the value of < — interpolated from

Jo

Table 2.3 = 4-5 Api = 19-85 kN/m2

The accelerational pressure drop: the value of r 2 is interpolated from:

Table 2.3 = 5-5 Ap, = 13-25 kN/m2

59
 THE BASIC MODELS
The gravUalional pressure drop: the term

can be evaluated using the following relationship for « as a funalon of x.

Mx
TT. — r: where for p = 68-9 bar it/ = 12-2

alternatively values of the term are given

gi' in Thom’s

original paper’ ^ =* 0 37

9-807xlx2-12x0-37
»=- = 5-69 IN/m’
1-35x10"^

(iv) The Baroezy Correlation

The frictional pressure drop: the value ^ o - use djrj' is evaluated

J
usingFigs.2.12and2.13. fl •= Iforanvaluesofjand|— dv| obtained by
J
integration from Fig. 2.12 » 5.75

&Pt = 25-4 IcN/m*

The other components, accelerational and gravitational, are taken to be the same
as for the Martinelli-Nelson model.

(d) The Overall Preisure Drop

The total pressure drops across the euiirc heated length can now be evaluated.

Homogeneous model
•essure drop MartinellH-
ompoTientj Nelson
ttt (2 38) Ed 0.39) Eq (2.40) Eq (i45)
1

-phase IcKlm*
306 306 3-06 306 3-06 306
0 330 0 330 0 330 0-330 0-330 0 330 0-330
!2-0S «2-0S t2-OS taos .295 1205 I2-C5

hase kN/m*
19 7 1S9 19 3 U2S 30-9
167 167 16 7 16 7 10 95
46 46 46 46 3 83 5 69

pressure drop
564 530 631
_
Avmfe of >n modds — 57-4 LNfm’
Highestvatue — €3](+i01^
Lowest vahie —54 2 (-5-4%)
60
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Part (2) Pressure DroplFIo*. Charactensiics at 100 k IV

1 1

Flow-rate (USGPM) 2 3
4
•T 1 8 10 15
1

Flow-rate (kg ’s) 0-103 0 162 0216 0 324 0 432 0 540 0-811
Tolai ttai to flo\d
(VU/ig) 0-925 0 615 0 461 0 307 0 230 0 185 0 123
Preheating length (r,J, m 1 54 2 32 3 10 3 66 3 66 3 66 3 66
Exit qualiiv (jr,) 0 353 0149 0 047 0 0 0 0
Mass x-eloatv (kg s) 1335 2000 2670 aOOO 5340 6670 10 000
Resxolds nnnber at
204 C(yIO-') I-OOO I 505 2-007 3011 4015 5-018 7 527
at2S5"C(y I0-“I I 397 2-094 2 793 4 190 5 587 6 983 10 474
C= X I0-‘ I 732 4 7 13 16 28 5 445 100
Fnction factor at 204 C 00046 00043 00041 0-0039 0-0037 0-0036 0-0035
at 285 C 0-0044 00041 0-0039 0 0037 0-0036 0-0035 0-0033

5irf le Phase
Fnctional hpt (kN/ta*) 3 06 9 65 21 8 55 1 94 3 143 308
Acceleration Ap. (kN/m*) 0330 0 737 1 32 2 98 5 28 8 24 18 5

1
Gravitational Api (kN 12-05 IS 1 24 1 28 6 28 6 28 6 28 6

Tko phase
Martin elli-Nelson
(L-r„). m 2 12 1 34 0 57 0 0 0
Fnctional Apr (kN'tn*) 309 235 9 45 0 0 0 0
r2 4 55 I 95 0 93 0 0 0 0
Acoelerational Ap, (kN/m') 10 95 10 5 8 91 0 0 0 0
Gravitational Ap, (kN'm^) 5 85 5 65 3 21 0 0 0 0

Marunelli-Nclson Total
pressure drop (IcN/rf) 63 I 68 2 68 9 86 7 128 ISO 356

Baroczy Fnctional Apf

(kN/m*)
wm 17 65 6 55 0 0 0

Barocz> Total pressure drop

(kN/m*)
BB 57 6
'

62 3 65 9 86 7 128 180
t
356

61
 THE BASIC MODELS
Pressure DropfFiow Characteristics at 700 kiV

now-rate (USOPM) 2 3 4 6 8 10 15

ETo'K'O.tA q 108 qu2 0216 0 324 0431 0-S40 0811

(MJrt:g) 1 843 123 0923 0615 0461 0 369 0 246

Preheating length (r.^), m 0 772 119 1-54 2 33 3-06 3 66 3 66
Exit quality (y.) 0 964 0 536 0 353 0 149 0 047 0
Maaa velocity (kg/tn* *) ins 2000 2670 4000 5340 6670 lOOOO
Reynolda number
at204*C(xl0-’> 1000 1-505 2 007 2011 4-015 5-016 7 527
at 285‘C(xIO->J 1 397 2094 2 791 4 190 5 587 6 983 10474
C^xlO'* 1-782 4 7-13 16 28 5 445 too
0 0046 00043 00041 0-0039 00037 0-0036 0-0035
at 283‘C 00044 00041 00039 00037 04503 6 0-0035 0-0033

Singh Phase
Frictional hpt {kN;m*) 1 61 4 82 33-0 79 3 143 5 308 3
Accelerationai Ap,(kN/m* 0 330 0 737 2 9? 5 28 824 18 5
Gravitational APi(kN/m’) 6 03 9-06 18 1 24 1 28 6 28 6

Two Phase
2 69 250 211 1-34 0 57
Frictional Apr fltN/m*) 874 105 no 84 3 35 6 0
18 1 8A4 4 33 193 093
Aeeeleratianal Ap* (kNfm* 43 S 431 43 6 421 35 6
5 84

m
Gravitational Ap< (kN/m^) 4 19 3-09 5 65 J2i »

Ml 184 188 181

HI
B1 67 6 67 5 52 8 0

130 5 1413 551

aow-USGPM

62
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
1.
PROBLEMS
Derive the energy equations for each phase separately for the case of an
air lift
pump. Assume that the expansion of the gas is isothermal and that there is no heat
or mass transfer between the phases. Assume the losses in the foot piece
are
negligible and that the liquid is incompressible. Derive an expression
for the
mechanical efficiency of the pump.

2. A novel design of desalination plant makes use of the flashing process to lift the
fluid to the next stage. Assuming homogeneous flow write down the energy equation
for the combined phases. Discuss the shape of the duct if the internal energy of the
4.
superheated fluid is to be converted into potential rather than kinetic energy.

3. Derive an expression for the acceleration pressure gradient dpjdz for the case
where a mass fraction E of the liquid stream in a separated flow is entrained in the
gas stream and flows at the gas velocity u^. The remaining liquid (IVf(l-E))
flows at a velocity Mj. Assume that a is the fractional cross-sectional area occupied
by gas, y is the fractional area occupied by separated liquid and (1 — a — y) is the
fractional area occupied by entrained liquid.

Answer
dzj~ dzl ct y (1-a-y) _

where y = 1— a—

Liquid metal M.H.D. devices often make use of a jet condenser where internal
energy in a vapour state is converted to kinetic energy in the liquid state. Write
down the equation for the combined phases describing the energy transfer. Assume
that pure saturated vapour enters the horizontal constant area channel and that this
vapour is totally condensed on to a liquid stream at the exit. Assume the condensa-

63
 THE BASIC MODELS
tion process occurs at constant pressure and that no heat is lost from the channel
walls. Discuss the values of the initial velocities of the separate phases necessary
to give the maximum increase in liqtud phase kinetic energy across the device.

5. Estimate the friction pressure gradient in a 10-15 cm bore unheated horizontal pipe
for the following conditions:

Fluid — propylene
Pressure —8-175 bar
Temperature —
7”C
—
Mass flow of liquid 2*42 kg/s. Density of liquid 530 kg/m^—
—
Mass flow of vapour 0 605 kg/s. Density of vapour 1-48 kg/m^ —
Answer 447 N/m^m
6. Estimate the friction pressure gradient in a 13-3 cm bore return tube for the follow-
ing conditions;

Fluid —
steam-water
Pressure— 180 bar
Mass flow of steam— 12-23 kg/s
Mass flow of water—2-78 k^s.
Answer 192 N/m*m.
7. Estimate the friction pressure gradient in a 5 08 cm bore evaporating tube for the
following conditions:

Fluid—Steam- water
Pressure— 180 bar
Inlet mass flow of saturated water—2-14 kg/s
Outlet mass quality ar,—0 1825.

Answer 402 N/m* m.

64
 3

EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

3.1 Introduction

The ‘homogeneous’ model and the ‘separated flow' model are the two most widely
used and tested treatments of two-phase flow at present available. However, a large
number of other empirical and semi-empirical methods have been suggested from time
to time and a few of these approaches are outlined in the first half of this chapter. The
most relevant and useful of these methods are those which attempt to model the
particular hydrodviiamic features of the flowand therefore the treatments are loosely
grouped under the various flow patterns discussed in chapter 1 Needless to say, these
.

methods have to be used in conjunction with some method of defining the extent of
the flow regime such as a flow pattern map.
The second half of the chapter is taken up with a discussion of two-phase flow
through various features such as bends, enlargements, contractions, orifices, and
valves.

3.2 The Drift Flux Model

This model has been developed principally by Zuber^ and Wallis^ together with their
co-workers. The model is fully developed in Wallis’s book^ and only the essential
relationships will be given here. Using eq. (1.10) the relative velocity between the
phases, u^f, can be expressed as

= 0'E-«f) = f - (3.1)
(1-a)

Clear fractions and define a drift such that

= u^[l-a) =7,(1 -o:)-;r2 = (3-2)

The drift flux, physically represents the volumetric rate at which \’apour is passing
fonvards (in up-fiow') or backwards (in dowm-flow) through unit area of a plane normal
to the channel a.xis already travelling with the flow at a velocity y. To preserve con-
tinuitj' an equal and opposite drift flux of liquid (/f,)
must also pass across this same
plane. Rearranging eq. (3.2),

65
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS Of TWO*PHASE FLOW

i, « «J+j,t (3.3)

The above relationship is true for one^imemional flow or at any local point in the
flow. It is oflen desirable to relax the restriction of one-dimensional flow. Denoting
the average properties of the flow by a bar, thus, u, then,

j.=(ii)+0V) (3.3)

Dividing by 5

(y\) _ (V) 0^)

(3.4)
(5) •*(5)‘^(fi)

Define a parameter, Co, such that.

(5?)
^ (3.5)
(5)0)

It is also found conNenient to define a neightrd nteart drift velocity^ w,,, such that.

r, (3 6)

Then

(3.7)

Dividing through by(j)

(5.) m -jk;> (3.8)

0) (5) ’ 0)

It will be seen that if there is no motion between the phases (5„ = 0)

local relative
then a »= homogeneous flow, b =
for one-dimensional In other words the
parameter Co represents an empirical factor correcting the one-dimensional homo-
geneous theory to account for the fact that the concentration and velodty profiles
across the channel can vary independently of one another.
The drift flux model can be used with or without reference to any particular flow
regime Experimental data plotted as (/*)/(«) versus 0) are used to yield expressions
for Co and (J,f) (or aUcmatively u^j). The particular v-alues these parameters take up
will vary depending upon whether or not the chosen data are restricted to a particular
flow pattern. For example the data shown in Fig. 2.10* and similar measurements for
steam-water flow at elevated pressures can be wtII correlated by the use of the follow-
ing values in eq. (3.9) without reference to flow pattern.

66
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Co = M3, = 1-41 (3.10)

J
The approach, therefore, satisfactorily accounts for the influence of mass
drift flux
on the void fraction as seen in the separated flowmodel and eqs. (3.9)and (3.10)
velocity
may be used to provide the required relationship between void fraction and the
independent flow parameters.
The drift flux model is valuable only when the drift velocity is significant compared
j/jj >0 05y). This
with the total volumetric flux (say limits its usefulness to the bubbly,
slug, and chum flow patterns.

3.3 Bubbly Flow

3.3.1 The Bankoff^ Variable Density Model
An alternative name for this approach would be the ‘homogeneous model with
correction for two-dimensional effects’. The model treats the case where radial gradients
exist in the concentration of vapour bubbles across the channel. The concentration is
assumed to be a maximum at the centre of the channel and zero at the walls. No
relative motion is assumed between the vapour bubbles and the liquid at any radial
position. A power law distribution is assumed for both the velocity and the void
fraction

«/Mm = iylrY"” (3-11)

a/a„ = 0’/r)''" (3-12)

where u and a are the local velocity and void fraction respectively, and a„, are the
maximum (axial) values, y is the distance from the tube wall and r is the tube radius;
/nand n are arbitrary exponents. Integration and manipulation of eqs. (3.11) and (3.12)
leads directly to the result that the mean void fraction a is related to the mean volu-
metric quality ^ by the relationship

a = X^ (3.13)

where X is a function of m and n as follows:

2(rn-f-n + mn)(m-f n + 2mn)
(n + 1)(2 h + l)(m l)(2m + 1)
-t-

For n = 0-1-5 and m = 2-7, had an effective range of 0-5-1. Bankoff' found good
X
agreement with the Martinelli-Nelson values of a (a<0-85) for steam-water flow
with X
= 0-89.
Comparison of eq. (3.13) wth eq. (3.9) shows that, for the case of no local relative
motion between the phases, = 1 /Cg. Expressions of the form of eq. (3.13) have been
X
* Armand* suggested a value of 0-833
reported widely in the Russian literature.*-
forX when P<0-9. Both Armand and Treschev® and Bankoff* suggest that AT increases
with pressure and Kholodovskii® suggested that, in addition X was a weak
function

of mass velocity.

67
 :

EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

3.3.2 The Hughmark^ Correlation
Following a suggestion by Bankoflf, Hughmark developed a void fraction correlation
in which K Z
was related to a parameter which was defined as follows

2=r [] _;j]-

Table 3.1 Values of AT as a function ofZ

(Hughmark*)

Fig. 3.1. Comparison of Various Void Fraction Models

The inter-relationships between the various correlations may be seen more easily*”
on a plot of (^/5) versus (s,j//) (Fig. 3.1). For those models where relative motion is
ignored horizontal lines are drawn. It is clear that the dependence of K upon Z in
the Hughmark correlation reflects the variation of (JijS) with and points to the
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
fact that the assumption of no relative motion between the phases is too great a
simplification.

3.3.3 Marchaterre and Hoglmd^^ Correlation

From section 1.4, eq. (1.12) for separated flow is

( 1 . 12 )
Mf 1-VV “ )\pJ
The ratio {uju^ is known as the slip ratio and is often used in the correlation of void

fraction data. Marchaterre and Hoglund, using a large amount of data from a variety

of sources, have proposed a correlation in terms of the slip ratio. The

correlation is

plotted against the ratio of the volumetric flow-rates

shown in Fig. 3.2. The slip ratio is

(QglQs)- The Froude number is the parameter characterizing the separate curves and
is the velocity in the channel
for the total mass flow
is defined as (iii/lgD) where

of vapour and liquid assumed to be liquid (i.e., the velocity of liquid at the start of
stated that for values of less than 0-25 m/s the
evaporation in a vertical tube). It is

the relative velocity between the

phases (iig-Uf) and the correla-
significant velocity is
influence of diameter decreases
tion is no longer valid. It would also appear that the
increased and it is recommended that a diameter of 7-5 cm
as the channel diameter is
diameter exceeds 7-5 cm.
be used in evaluating the Froude number where the channel
69
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
The correlation reproduces the correct trends of void fraction with mass velocity but
predicts values about 10-J5 per cent lower than measured.

3^.4 The Drift Flux Model

For the case of one-dimensional vertical up-flow of isolated small vapour bubbles with
little coalescence (a<0-2) Wallis* has suggested that the following values should be
used in eq. (3.9);

(3.16)

Alternative values of the constant 1*53 are 1*18* and 1-41.*

Fig. 3.3. Variatton Q„ for Bubbly-SIug Flow of Steam—Water Matures

For the case of vertical up-flow in the bubbly-slug flow region (referred to byZuber*
as the churn-turbulent region) the recommended value of is given by

(3.17)
“fi

A plot of i7,j (m/s) against pressure for the steara-water system is shown in Fig. 3.3
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
for convenience. The value of Cq is dependent upon channel diameter and reduced
pressure

Tubes (a) D>5cm, Q = 1-5-0-5P,

(b) D<5cm, P,<0-5, Cq = 1-2
(3.18)
(c) D<5cm, P,>0-5, Q = l'2-0-4(P,-0-5)
Rectangular Ducts Cq = 1-4-0-4P,

For down-flow the sign of

vertical in eq. (3.9) is changed. For horizontal bubbly
flow to zero in eq. (3.9) and Cq takes on the value given in eq. (3.18).
Mgj is set

It is recommended that the pressure drop in bubbly flow be calculated using the

separated flow model with the values of void fraction calculated from the above
relationships. The wall shear force in bubbly flow is usually small and the frictional
pressure gradient can be evaluated using eq. (2.35) with little error.

3.4 Slug Flow

3.4.1 The Drift Flux Model
For the case of vertical fully developed turbulent slug flow {[jD Pf//if]>8000), the
following values should be used in eq. (3.9)

Co = 1-2, Kgj = 0'35 (3.19)

This expression for iigj represents the bubble rise velocity in a tube of stagnant liquid
for the case where inertia forces dominate. Alternative expressions are given by
Wallis^ for Ugj when viscous and surface tension forces are important. Expressions for
Cq and for annular, rectangular, and rod cluster channels have been developed by
Wgj

GrilBth.^^ For the case where slug flow is developing the rise velocity is somewhat
increased’^ above that given by eq. (3.19) and Griffith recommends that in a channel
where boiling is taking place the value of calculated from eq. (3.19) should be
increased by a factor of 1-6.

For horizontal turbulent slug flow ([) D pf/pf] >3000), tigj can be set to zero and Cq
equals 1-2. This leads to the simple relationship first obtained by Armand^

5 = 0-833^ (3.20)

Incidentally, this relationship infers that the influence of mass velocity on the void
fraction in horizontal flow will be absent.
The pressure drop in slug flow can be calculated using the separated flow model.
The static head and acceleration terms may be estimated directly from the void fraction
calculated from the above relationships. The wall shear stress is more difficult to
estimate since in vertical up-flow the liquid velocity at the wall will be downwards
during the passage of the vapour bubble and upwards during the passage of the sub-
sequent liquid plug. The time average wall shear stress may therefore be either positive
or negative. Negative wall shear stress results in ‘negative’ frictional pressure gradients

71
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
In the separated flow momentum balance. Wallis* has proposed that the wall shear
stresses around the vapour bubble should be ignored. This is strictly true only for
horiiontal slug flow. This assumption results in the following expression for the
frictional pressure gradient in slug flow;

For long \-apour bubbles {LJD>lSi in vertical slug flow a correction to the pressure
drop must be made for the amount ofliquid held up in the flim around the bubble.

3.5 Annular Flow

Annular flow is a particularly important flow pattern since for a wide range of pressure
and flow conditions it occurs over the major part of the Tna« quality* range (x from
0-1 and below, up to unity). In other words, in a vertical tube evaporator as much as

90 per cent of the tube length may be in annular flow.

The two-dimensional analj-sis of the annular flow pattern by applying the normal
methods of single-phase flow would, at first sight, appear relatively straightforward.
In practice, the range of flow conditions.over which the entire liquid mass flow-rate is
contained as a symmetrical film on the channel wall with a smooth interface between
the film and the vapour core, is very small indeed. In the general case, as unknown
fraction (£) of the liquid flow will Iw entrained in the vapour core and the interface
between the film and the vapour core, will be highly disturbed. A further fundamental
feature of annular flow ts that the method by which the annular flow is formed greatly
influences the subsequent behaviour of the system even at considerable distances
downstream. This is due to the faa that different tyi;>es ofphase mixing device produce
difierent amounts of initial entrainment and the mass exchange processes betw ten the
vapour core and the liquid film (those of estrainment and deposition of droplets) are
relatively slow. Asa result, an 'equilibrium* situation where there is no net transfer of
liquid to, or from, the film is very seldom reached to isothermal systems and never in a
system where evaporation is occurring Even a qualitative understanding of the pro-
cesses occurring in the latter case has only recently been developed. These processes
govern the occurrence of the important dryout transition in heated systems and are
discussed in chapter 9.
Only the essential relationships allowing the computation of pressure drop, film
thickness, and the amount of entrainmecl will be reviewed in this section and the reader
is on annular flow by Hewitt and Hall-Taylor'*
referred to the comprehensive treatise
for fuller details of this particular flow pattern.

33-1 The Dquid Film

Despite the limited range of application, it is convenient to start by considering the
entire liquid flow to be in the film and the interface tobe smooth. In addition it is
assumed that gravitational and accelecatiooal forces are absent, ie., a steady iso-
thermal axisymmetric horizontal flow (Fig. 3.4). From a force balance on the com-
bined phases and then on the vapour phase alone

72
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
/dp \ 4Tw
(3.22)

1
(3.23)
Vdz J {D-25)
It IS convenient to develop the present analysis in terms of already
familiar parameters
such as <j)f and a. Dividing eq. (3.22)by (dp/dzF)f, thepressuregradient for the liquid
phase considered to flow alone in the channel,

=~ (3.24)

—
1

^p+dp
D

L
•

h \

Fig. 3.4. Shear Stress Distribution in Horizontal Annular Flow

where Xf is the wall shear stress when the liquid phase flows alone in the channel,

tw=/Tp(^]; (3.25)

Substituting eq. (3.25) into eq. (3.24) and remembering that iif =j{/{l -a) (eq. (1. 10) ),

then,

(3.26)

It is an interesting fact that the Reynolds number of the liquid film on the channel
number when the liquid is assumed to
wall (4 5u, pfifij) is identical with the Reynolds
flow alone in the channel (D Ji pdpr)- Since the friction factor/rp can be expected to be
related to the liquid film Reynolds number in the same manner as the friction factor _/f
is related to the liquid-alone Reynolds number then (Ap//r) taken as unity.
Therefore,

1
(3.27)

This simple result is important since, knowing the liquid film flow-rate, it is possible to
obtain the liquid film thickness from the pressure gradient or vice versa. A number of

73
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
empirical correlations including that of Lockhart and Martinelli (section 2.4 4.1)
correspond closely with this relationship.

More which relate the liquid film flow-rate with the frictional pres-
refined analyses
sure gradient and the film thickness have been published by Calvert and Williams/^
Anderson and Mantzouranis,** Dukler** (down-flow), Hewitt’® (up-fiow), and Kunz
and Yerazunis.’’’ The general procedure in these treatments has b«n to write down
the distribution of shear stress in the liquid film, relate this to the velocity gradient
using one of the empirical relationships for eddy viscosity, integrate to get the velocity
profile and integrate once again to obtain the film flow-rate. The earlier treatments
imply either a constant shear stress across the film’* or incorrectly allowed for the
effect of gravitational forces.’^ A series of improvements have been systematically
incorporated in subsequent theories including the use of the correct shear stress
distribution,’* the effect of curvature,’** '* the influence of shear stress distribution on
the eddy viscosity relationship,’^ and the inclusion of molecular viscosity in the
turbulent region.”
For the case where the influence of gravitational forces can be ignored these im-
proved theories all give results very close to eq. (3.27). A plot of the liquid film
friction factor/rp versus the liquid film Reynolds number confirms that at low (Re<2fXi
and high (Re >8000) Reynolds numbers the conventional single-phase laminar and
turbulent (Blasius) friction factor relationships are also valid for film flow. At a
Reynolds number of 1000 the value of/tp lies about a factor 1-5 above the conven-
tional laminar relationship on a smooth curve having the laminar and turbulent
friction factor relationships as asymptotes.
In the general case a mass fraction, E, of the tola) liquid flow may be entrained in
the vapour stream and the liquid film flow-rate will then be IF,(1 -£). In many cases
the entrained droplets can be assumed to travel at velocities close to the vapour velocity
and for large values of the ratio {vjv,) their contribution to the liquid volume frac-
tion (1 —a) is small. In this case eq (3.27) can be modified so that m the evaluation
of the pressure drop for the total liquid flow (IF,) flowing alone in the channel is

replaced by the pressure drop for the liquid film flowrate (fFf(l —£)) flowing alone in

the channel.
In vertical annular flow it is necessary to take into account the influence of gravi-
tational forces on the shear stress distribution in the liquid film (Fig 3.5). Carrying
out a force balance on the shaded element of liquid film it can be shown that the shear
stress at any diameter d within the liquid film is given by,

where

Analytical expressions for the velocity distribution in the film and the film flow-rate
may be derived’® for the case of laminar flow (t = /i, (dUf/dy); h, = 0 at d =* X>) by
integration of eq. (3.28).

74
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
In vertical annular flow as the vapour velocity is continuously decreased for a given
liquid film flow-rate a minimum observed in the pressure gradient. This minimum
is

corresponds closely with the interesting special condition of zero wall shear stress. The
shear stress distribution in this case is illustrated in Fig. 3.5. Ignoring any changes in
momentum of the streams the total pressure gradient (d/j/dz) consists only of the
static head term (eq. (2.15)) since the frictional pressure gradient (based on the wall
shear force) is zero. This condition highlights the fundamental differences between the
momentum and energy balance approaches to two-phase pressure drop. In this special
case, although no frictional losses take place at the channel wall, irreversible energy
losses still occur at the interface. This condition corresponds, at low liquid flow-rates,

1 mKam H
1
1 si

11
11
n 1
1
Fig, 3,5, Shear Stress Distribution in Vertical Annular Flow

to a value of « 1.1. If the vapour velocity is reduced below this value the pressure
gradient increases sharply, the wall shear stress becomes negative and the liquid close
to the wall will flow downwards whilst that near the interface will travel upwards.
Finally, the interfacial shear stress can no longer ensure the transport of the liquid
flow entering the tube, ‘flow reversal’ takes place and the lower limit of co-current
upwards annular flow is reached.
The shear stress distribution given by eq. (3.28) (or simplifications of it) forms^the

starting point of the more recent analytical treatments of vertical annular flow.
A considerable amount of tabulated information in dimensionless form for velocity
profiles and film flow-rates as a function of wall shear stress, film thickness,
and the
forces has been presented by Hewitt.
balance between interfacial and gravitational
factor/jp for
Wallis^ has plotted some of these results in terms of the liquid film friction
vertical flow,
vertical flow against film Reynolds number. The friction factor (/^p) for
single-phase
at constant pressure drop, follows that for horizontal flow(i.e., the usual
Reynolds number after which
flow relationships) up to some particular value of film

75
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
point, as might be expected, it falls dramatically. Wallis has given empirical equations
relating this critical value of Reynolds number with the pressure drop.
A
simple but accurate correction to the constant shear stress {horizontal flow)
approach to allow for the influence of gravitational forces in vertical flow has been
suggested by Collier and Hewitt.’® Thus

(3.30)
(3T,-2/>^g)

where If'fv tbe film flow-rate allowing for gravitational forces and is the film
flow-rate for constant shear stress. Thus for a given pressure drop and film thickness,
the film flow-rate decreases below that implicit in eq. (3.27) as (Pf 5g) becomes a sig-
nificant fraction of T]. In horizontal annular flow variations exist in the film thickness
around the periphery of the tube. Buticrworth** has examined this topic as part of a
general study of annular flow**' in situations where the film thickness varies with
circumferential or axial position. The continuity equation relating the peripheral and
axial film mass flow-rates (r, and F,) for no mass transfer to or from the film is

£rz
^r 0 ( 3 - 31 )
Oz dO

where r is the tube inside radius and 0 is the circumferential co-ordinate. Neglecting
inertia eflects, a laminar flow solution can be obtained assuming the only forces acting
are an axial intcrfacial shear t, and a gravitational force. Thus,

r. = ^’ (3,32)

(Pi-P,)prssmes‘
P'
3 )1 ,

Solutions obtained from the differential equation formed by the substitution of eqs
(3.32) (3.33) into (3.31) show a rapid draining of the liquid film to the base of the tube
since there is no means of returning upper surfaces of the tube. In practice,
liquid to the
however, ‘equilibrium’ horizontal annular flow in which there is no change of local
film thickness with length can be achieved. Various explanations for this effect have
been put forward; wave ‘lift’ forces,’® a secondary circulation in the gas phase induced
by variations of interface roughness’* and the entrainment of droplets at the base of
the tube and their subsequent deposition over the upper surface of the tube.” Which,
if any, of these explanations is correct remains to be seen, The solution of eq. (3.31)
for fully developed flow (3r,/5z =
0) is that F* «
0. Butterworth** has suggested

that the mechanism for returning liquid in the film against the gravitational force can
be expressed as.

r,*= (3.34)
r dfl

where is a circumferential transport coefficient. Thus cq. (3.33) now becomes

76
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

J,
_ (Pf- Pg) Pfg sin 05^ k ar^
(3.35)
3 pf r 00
Substituting for from eq. (3.33) and solving the resulting differential equation
yields,

(3.36)
C+flcos0
where C is a constant of integration and a is given by,

r(P{~P^g
(3.37)
3krf
In air-water experiments in a horizontal tube 31-3 mm diameter Butterworth®® found
that the film thickness varied by a factor of ten from top to bottom of the tube. For
these experiments eq. (3.36) was obeyed approximately with o 3 mm"^ and k 2-8
mm.

3.5.2 The Vapour Core

Now consider the vapour core. Returning to eq. (3.23) and dividing by (dp/dz F)^ the
pressure gradient for the vapour phase flowing alone in the channel.

4> S
2 h—R— 1/2 (3.38)
Tg (P-2S) T. a

where is the wall shear stress when the gas phase flows alone in the channel.

(3.39)
];

where /; is the interfadal friction factor, u^ is the mean vapour core velocity, and u-, is

the interfacial liquid velocity. Usually the interface velocity is very small compared with
the vapour core velocity and can be neglected. Substituting (3.39) into (3.38) and re-
membering that Wg = JJa. (eq. (1. 10)) then

(3.40)

If the interface is smooth then (/l/^) will be close to unity and therefore.

~~ 5/2 (3.41)

This equation a poor representation of the experimental variation of

is
with a
except at very low liquid rates (Ref < 100). At higher liquid rates the interface becomes
disturbed by small ripples and the interfacial friction factor (/;) increases progressively
above the smooth tube value (f^. Shearer and Nedderman
^ have given recom-

mendations for calculating the interfacial shear stress in this ripple region. At higher
liquid rates (Ref >400) much larger disturbance waves occur at the interface with the

77
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
onset of tuibulcncc in the film. A number of attempts have been made to correlate the
variation of the interfacial friction factor or efTcciiNC interface roughness in this
‘disturbance wave’ region with the other flow parameters. These studies include those
of Calvert and Williams.'^ Anderson and Mantzouranis,'* Roberts and Hartley,^**
Hewitt and co-workers, Levy,** and Wallis * The main finding from these studies
has been that the interface friction factor or roughness is a direct function of the liquid
film thickness. The simplest of the relationships proposed is that of Wallis* which
states that for the case of no entrainment and ignoring the interface velocity

X+300a/D« l-h7S(l-a) (3.42)

/f

Substitution of eq. (3.42) into (3.40) gives

l+75(J-a)l
(3.43)
a*'* J
This relationship, the smooth interface relationship (eq. 3.41) and the empirical
curve of Lockhart-MartincIIi are shown in Fig. 3 6 together with a tjpical variation
of 4>t vapour velocity. Wallis has considered the eficct of
liquid rate at constant
interface velocity and entrainmertt upon the interfacial shear stress and has suggested
empirical corrections for these effects. Assuming that the interface velocity is twice
the mean film velocity U(, then.

(3.44)

where p« is the average density of the vapour core including entrainment given by.

riF.+EwH
(3.45)
'’•'[-srJ
Making use of eq. « ratio (u,/Uf)
(1.12) for the (»,/»,) then.

Applying these corrections to eq. (3.43).

33J Entrairnnem
Use can be made of the foregoing equations given in sections (3.5.1) and (3.5.2) only if
the fraction of liquid entrainment in the vapour core (£) can be specified at the outset.
However, in the general case this variable is never known with any accuracy since it is a
function of such intangibles as the method of forming the annular flow. One particular
phase-mixing device may ensure all the liquid starts out at the channel wall, whilst a
second may spray the entire liquid flow mto the vapour stream and let the liquid film

78
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
form by deposition of droplets. Starting from one of these
extremes, the approach to an
equilibrium’ condition where there is no net transport of
liquid to or fromthe film
may take a long length of channel, typically 200-400 channel
diameters.
Entrainment from a liquid film is associated with the onset of
disturbance waves at

Fig. 3.6. The Variation of with Film Thickness

the interface and in general depends on both the vapour and liquid flow-rates. At low
liquid flow-rates corresponding to the ‘smooth’ and ‘rippled film regions (liquid film
Reynolds numbers below 200) little or no entrainment will take place even at very high
vapour velocities. With the onset of turbulence in the film, for Reynolds numbers

79
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
between 200 and 3000, the amount of entrainment is a function of both sapour and
Jiquid flow-rates. In fully turbulent flow, abosc a film Reynolds number of
3000, the
conditions for the onset of entrainment and the fraction of liquid entrained are largely
independent of the liquid film flow-ratcand depend primarily upon the vapour vclocit}'.
Hewitt and Hall-Tajlor’* base reviewed the large number of empirical criteria which
have been published for the estimation of the conditions at the onset of entrainment
and this reference shouM be consulted for further details. For the case of a fully
turbulent film (Roj > 3000) tkecritical vapour tclocicy for {he start ofenfraionient from
the film may be given by.

(3.48)

0|Z34S6Tt9T9nODW
<r P,
Dimenstoniess vapour velocity
Fig. 3.7. fintrainment as a Function of Vapour Velocity (Stetn-Walln)

This relationship wnh a different constant (2-42 x 10 ') was suggested by Steen and
recommended by Wallis.* In practiw there is some difficulty in defining the precise

SO
 )

CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

vapour velocity at which entrainment starts. If the fraction of liquid entrained in
the
gas stream is plotted against the vapour velocity (cf. Fig. 3.7) the curve
rises slowly
from zero and then increases almost linearly with vapour velocity finally levelling
out
at high vapour velocities. Wallis and Steen preferred to extrapolate the
linear portion
of the curve to zero entrainment to obtain the critical vapour velocity. This procedure
would yield the correspondingly higher value for the constant in eq. (3.48). Figure 3.8
shows the critical velocity for the onset of entrainment (evaluated from eq. (3.48)
plotted against pressure for the steam-water system. Also shown is a curve (for
D = 10 cm and .v = 0-5) evaluated from the empirical correlation of Mozarov^^ who
studied entrainment of condensate from the walls of steam pipes with downward flow
over the pressure range 7-46 bar.

Various attempts^''* have been made to correlate the fraction of liquid entrained
in the vapour core at ‘equilibrium’, i.e., far downstream of any phase-mixing device.
Unfortunately, most of the information on entrainment published to date is not for
the ‘equilibrium’ condition. In making such measurements care must be taken to ensure
that conditions, particularly pressure, at the downstream measurement point are held
constant and that measurements are made at various downstream positions to check
that equilibrium has been reached.
Wallis and Steen^ have suggested that for the case where the liquid film is fully

turbulent (Ref>3000) the fraction of liquid entrained in the vapour core is a unique
function of the critical vapour velocity. This relationship is shown in Fig. 3.7. This
approach fails to take into account a general increase in the fraction of liquid en-
trained as the channel diameter is increased from 1 cm to 4 cm. The curve shown in

Fig. 3.7 is consistent with the larger channel diameter. Data^’ taken on a 1 cm diameter

tube fall on a parallel curve about 40 percent lower. Figure 3.7 should therefore be
viewed with some caution until further reliable information becomes available.

At high liquid rates, the wispy annular region is entered, the concept of a critical
vapour velocity for the onset of liquid entrainment breaks down, and considerable
entrainment occurs at all values of vapour velocity. The form of the criterion governing
thischange has yet to be ascertained (see section 1. 6.4.1) but gross entrainment at all
vapour velocities is likely at values of Re, greater than 20,000 or alternatively j[*
greater than 1 -5.

3.5.4 Inter-relationships in Annular Flow

The individual relationships discussed in the preceding sections (3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.3)
can be combined in various ways to provide a complete method of analysis for axi-
symmetric annular flow. The particular method chosen for this combination of the
individual relationships depends on whether a prediction is to be made from
known
relationship to be
independent variables or, alternatively, whether one particular is

tested using actual experimental data.

In the case where a prediction is to be made, the known independent variables
are

usually the individual phase flow-rates, the physical properties

of the phases and the

81
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

Fig. 3.8. Variation of Critical Steam Velooty for Onset of Entrainment with Pressure

channel geometry. In addition some idea of the amount of entrainment (E » 0,

£ s 1 or ‘equilibrium’) may be possible from a knowledge of the design of the phase-
mixing device and of its location refaiive to the point of interest (i e., close to or well
upstream from the point of interest). The procedure for the calculation is shown in
diagrammatic form in Fig. 3.9 and is as follows'

(1) Use known values of the phase flow-rates, physical properties, and channel
geometry to obtain an initial estimate of the combined frictional and static head
pressure gradient from the homogeneous or separated flow models using the
methods given in chapter 2.
(2) Use the information on the amount of liquid entrainment to obtain the liquid film
flow-rate.

(3) Use the pressure gradient and the liquid film flow-rate to obtain the liquid film
thickness.

(4) Use the vapour phase flow-rate, physical properties, and the channel geometry

82
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
together with the calculated film thickness and entrained liquid
fraction, E, to
obtain the value of and a new estimate of the pressure gradient.
(5) Return to step (3) and iterate between steps (3) and (5) to obtain consistent values
for the film thickness and pressure gradient.

If, in addition to the phase flow-rates, the pressure gradient is

known accurately (by
measurement), the inter-relationships between the dependent variables can be used
to
estimate the entrained liquid fraction (£) as follows.

(a) Use the vapour phase flow-rate and the measured pressure gradient to evaluate
Using eq. (3.47) assume various values of E and solve equation for the cor-
responding values of a consistent with the calculated value of Plot a against E.

PRESSURE
GRADIENT
% FILM THICKNESS
FILM FLOWRATE
ENTRAINED
LIQUID FRACTION
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
CHANNEL
OEOMETRY

Fig, 3.9. Inter-relationships in Annular Flow

(b) Calculate the liquid film flow-rate for various assumed values of E, evaluate the
respective values of using the known pressure gradient and obtain from eq.

(3.27) the corresponding values of a. Plot a against E.

(c) Locate the intersection of the lines drawn from steps (a) and (b) and read off the

appropriate values of E and a.

It should be emphasized although the pressure gradient is relatively sensitive
that,
to the level of liquid entrainment, the above procedure is not a particularly accurate
method of determining the amount of entrainment.
The pressure gradient referred to in the previous paragraphs comprises the com-
bined frictional and static head terms only. The use of any directly measured pressure
gradient will require that this be corrected for accelerational effects. The
accelerational

pressure gradient is a function of the level of entrainment (E) (see problem 7, chapter

2) and thus an iterative solution is often necessary.

83
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TW0*PI1ASE FLOW
3.6 Wispy-annular Flow

No attempts have so far been made to develop specific methods of analysis for this
(low pattern. In general, the major fraction of the liquid is entrained in agglomerates in
the vapour core and the homogeneous model has been found reasonably satisfactory
for a first approximation.
In this re^on under conditions of hydrodynamic equilibrium (i.e., far downstream
of any phase-mixing device) it is observed” that at a pven vapour flow-rate the liquid
film flow-rate remains sensibly constant and that any additional increase in liquid
may be
flow-rate serves only to increase the entrained liquid flow. This obsen-ation
used to provide a tentative basis for an analysis method in the wispy-annular flow
pattern. It is recommended that the methods found satisfactory for the annular flow
region be used to evaluate the liquid film flow-rate for conditions corresponding to
the actual vapour flow-rate and a liquid phase flow-rate corresponding to a value of
jf*
=> I'O. The difference between the calculated film flow-rate and the actual liquid
flow-rate may then be assumed to be entrained in the vapour core.

3.7 Chenoweth and Martin^* Correlation for Large Bore Pipes

Pressure drop data for pipe diameters above 5 cm bore are very few and the data
obtained inNew Zealand by Lester at}* on 10-3 cm and 1 5 4 cm pipes with steam-
water mixtures at pressures of 2 to 7 bar are valuable in this respect. \Vben com-
pared with Lockhart-Martinelli correlation these data fall below the correlating line
by 25-50 percent. A similar discrepancy was noted by Baker^® who presented results
for gas-oil flow in 10 cm to 25 cm bore pipes at pressures around 70 bar.
The reason for this discrepancy can be found in the fact that the Lockhart-Martin-
elli is only valid for conditions close to atmospheric pressure (r,/r,Bs800,
correlation
C„ = 20) At higher pressures where the value of the specific volume
in eq. (2 68)
ratiodrops rapidly the value of C from eq. (2.72) also decreases. A value of C = 10 is
given by this equation for the conditions of Chenowelh and Martin's tests with air-
water flow in a 7-5 cm bore pipe at a pressure or7 bar. This value of Csubstituted into
eq. (2.68) very satisfactorily correlates the experimental results.
Chenoweth and Martin** also developed a correlation which has been very success-
ful in correlating data from these larger pipe sizes (both single and two<oroponent
systems). This is shown in Fig. 3.10 where the abscissa denotes the superficial liquid

volumetric fraction (1-fl) and the ordinate is the two-phase multiplier 4>u. The
family of lines on the plot refeir to different values of theialio((dp/dzf)^(dp/dzF)f«l
which in fact can be shown to be identical to the inv'ersc of the property index
used by Baroczy.Thc term (dp/dziO,»isdefinedmthesame manner as
(dp/dz F),o(cf.cq (2.36) ) and is the fnctiooal pressure gradient that would exist if the
total flow (vapour and liquid) was assumed to be vapour and was flowingin the channel.
The data of Lester, when compared with the Chenoweth and Martin correlation, were
represented within ±35 percent; considerably better than the original Lockhart-
Martinelli correlation. This correlation is therefore recommended for pipe bore sizes
greater than 5 cm.

84
 M.rtin)

.nO

(Chenowoth

Pipe.

Horizon,.!

Urge

in

Drop

Pr.csnrc

Friction

Two-Ph.re

T„,bul.„,

for

Cc„.l.,lo„

3.10.

Ffc

85
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
3.8 Pressure Losses through Enlargemeots, Contractions, Orifices, Bends, and
Valves

One of the least-studied aspects of two-phase vapour-liquid flow is that of the change
in static pressure and the energy loss associated with such features as enlargements,
contractions, orifices, bends, and valves. These features occur in practical pipe runs
and in the vaporizing sections of boilers and evaporators. Their influence can be
particularly marked on the characteristics of natural drculation units.
One common way of calculating frictional los^ at local features in single-phase
flow is to express the resistance of the feature in terms of the equivalent length of
straight pipe. This same procedure can be applied to two-phase flows, although in
general the equivalent length of pipe tends to be somewhat longer than for single-
phase flows. In single phase flow the velocity profile becomes fully developed a maxi-
mum of 10-12 pipe diameters downstream of the feature. In ttvo-phase flow the
distance downstream over which the influence of the feature is felt is greatly increased
(by up to ten limes).
If the change in channel cross-section is gradual and no flow separation occurs
(nozzle or diffuser angles S®-?'’) a reduction of pressure energy may be recovered as a
comparable increase in kinetic energy or vice versa. If wall shear forces and gravita-
tional effects are Ignored the changes in static pressures may be obtained by modifying
eq. (2.14);

The inclusion of the term in (dd/de) results in an additional term in the numerator
of cqs. (2.34) and (2.53) respectively. For the homogeneous model eq (2.31) becomes,

(3.51)
dr A dz

and the additional term in the numerator of eq. (2.34) is

For the separated flow model eq. (2.SI) becomes.

(3.52)
^dr / dz|_ a (I— «) J <4 L « (!-«) Jdz

and the additional term in the numerator of eq. (2.53) is

(I— Jc)*rr‘l^
y4 1_ a (1— a) Jdz

3.8.1 Sudden Enlargement

In the case of a sudden enlargement in the cross-sectional area of the pipe flow, separa-
tion will occur and the above equations are no longer valid. The general method used

86
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
in single-phase flow is, however, still applicable to a one-dimensional separated
two-
phase flow. Consider a tsvo-phase flow passing through a sudden enlargement (Fig.
3.11). Wall shear and grasitau'onal forces are ignored and subscripts I and 2 will be
used to denote the conditions at planes I and 2. The pressure just downstream of the
enlargement (plane 1) is found to be equal to that at the end of the smaller section of
pipe and a simplified momentum balance for the combined flow yields,

PiA.-p^A, = fli(Wt2-«si)^ir,((;f,-i/f,) (3.53)

Substituting for 11’^, 11’^, and Wf in terms of G, x, i, Cf, and using the continuity
relationships cqs. ( 1 .4) and (1.7) and defining c as the ratio (-4,//l2), eq. (3.53) becomes

Fig. 3.11. Sudden Enlargement

Pi-Pi = Ct’eTf 1(1 -«2)

(3.54)
.1(1 -Si)

This equation was first derived by Romie.^* If the void fraction remains unchanged
across the feature (i, = a, = a), eq. (3.54) becomes

G,^c-(l-o)r (3.55)
Pz-Pi -=:)
.( 1

Comparing with that for the total flow assumed to be single-phase liquid
this result
multiplier. For
reveals that the term in the square brackets acts as a two-phase
homogeneous flow eq. (3.55) reduces to

Gi^c-(l-«r)Cf (3.56)
Pz-Pi=

Equations and change in static pressure across the

(3.56) relate the
(3.54), (3.55),
feature to the flow parameters. In the case of a sudden enlargement only a fraction of
recovered as an increase in pressure energy; the
the decrease in kinetic energy can be
This frictional dissipation dEcan be evaluated from a
remainder is dissipated as heat.
simplified energy balance on the combined phases
between planes 1 and 2.

87
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
iV w.

Using the continuity equations (1.4) and (1.7), assuming that a, = aj » a, and
remembering that a = AylAj, cq. (3.57) can be rearranged as,

dE
crO' ^ (!-»)
Pz-Pi - ~ I

(3.58)
[xi’,-Kl-x)i',] 2[xf,+{l-x)iv]

The term on the right-hand side of cq. (3.58) represents the frlctionai pressure
first

change across the enlargement. This can be evaluated by substituting eq. (3.55) for
(P 2 ~Pi) into cq. (3.58) For homogeneous flow this frictional pressure loss becomes,

= + (3.59)

Measurements of void fraction made in the vicinity of sudden enlargements by

Richardson^’ (horizontal flow) and by Petrick and Swanson’'* (vertical flow) indicate
that the assumption Si = » a is only approximately true Large variations in void
fraction take place across the enlargement and the initial value is only recovered some
considerable distance downstream Ferrel and McGee” found that for steam-water
flow at a pressure of 8 2 bar the homogeneous model (eq (3.56)) over-predicted the
rise in static pressure across an enlargement by a factor I -5 to 2. The use of measured

void fractions in eq (3.57), however, gave good agreement. Fitzsimmons*® on the

other hand found that for steam-water flow through expansions at a pressure of
82'6 bar and high mass velocities (G>2700 kg/m*s) the homogeneous model gave
satisfactory predictions. Chisholm*' has applied the method discussed m section
2.5.2 to evaluate (he static pressure change at an enlargement,

Pa-Pi = (3.60)

The value of C is given by cq (2.72) with X = I and Cj = 0 5. In fact the value of Cj

is found to vary slightly with pressure and a bctlcr value for Cj is Equation
(3.60) or alternatively eq. (3 55) (with the value of « for pipe flow) is recommended for
the calculation of the static pressure change across an enlargement.

3.8.2 Sudden Contraction

The general approach used for single-phase flow can again be applied to a two-phase
separated flow passing through a sudden contraction (Fig. 3.12). As the fluid passes
from plane 1 it is accelerated and pressure energy is
to plane c at the vena contracta
converted to kinetic energy with or no frictional dissipation. Beyond plane c,
little

however, the conditions arc similar to those for a sudden enlargement and frictional
dissipation occurs. Equations (3.5^ and (3.58) derived in section 3.8.1 can therefore
be applied to this ‘enlargement’ from plane c to plane 2 to obtain an expression for the
frictional pressure loss The coefficient of contraction Cg is used to denote the ratio
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
AJAi and replaces c; likewise the mass velocity G^{ = G2 /CJ replaces in eqs.
(3.55) and Rearranging and simplifying the equations yields the following
(3.58).
expression for the frictional pressure loss across a sudden contraction.

Fig. 3. 12. Sudden Contraction

For homogeneous flow this frictional pressure loss becomes:

Apf = (3.62)

The change in static pressure at a sudden contraction is given by the sum of the

frictional dissipation and the theoretical kinetic energy change. For the homogeneous
model

G2^
Pi-Pz =
Vf
l+P IX (3.63)

In the above equation n =A IA 2 nnd the coefficient of contraction is a function

1

of a. For turbulent single-phase flow Perry'*^ gives

0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 1-0
Ija 0
0.625 0-686 0-790 1-0
Cc 0-586 0-598

0-5 0-45 0-36 0-21 0 07 0

fe-‘)
that the homogeneous
Both Ferrel and McGee^^ and Geiger and Rohner^® found
89
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
model (eqs. (3.62) and (3.63)) satisfactorily represented their cxpcriiaental data for
steam-water flow through sudden contractions. Fitzsimmons'*® measured the pressure
change across three contraction geometries (5 08/3-81 cm, 5-08/2-54 cm, 7-62/5 08 cm)
for steam-water flow at high mass velocities and a pressure of 82-6 bar. The measured
pressure drops were found to lie within 20 percent of the homogeneous model pre-
dictions In the first two cases but to be up to a factor of two greater in the third case.

It seems likely that the placing of the downstream pressure tapping in this case did not
allow the full pressure recovery, bearing in mind that a considerably greater length of
pipe is required in two-phase flow. Again measuTcments of void fraction made by

Richardson’^ (horizontal flow) and by Petrick and Swanson’* (vertical flow) in the
vicinity of sudden contractions indicate that the assumption implicit in the above

equations, that a, ‘= Sj — «. is only approximately true The measured void fractions

are considerably difTercnt from those predicted from ihe homogeneous model and the
fact that this model gives the best predictions for the change instatic pressure must be

regarded as coincidence.*’

3.8.3 Orifices

The pressure drop caused by the passage of a vapour-liquid flow through a sharp-
edged orifice is of considerable mtcresl m Ihe field of flow metering It is also important
In the design of steam and refrigeration plant and in assessing the consequences of the
failure of high-pressure circuits
Again it is possible to derive an expression for the static pressure change across an
orificeby extending the conventional single-phase incompressible flow treatment to the
case of a separated two-phase flow (Fig 3.13) and writing the energy equation for the
combined phases between plane I and the vena conlracta plane 2. The expressions
obtained can be progressively simplified by assuming the void fraction is unchanged
on passing through the orifice and, subsequently, if desired, by assuming homogeneous
change in static pressure between planes 1 and 2 will be,
flow. In this latter case, the

90
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Pt-P2 (3.64)

In the above equation, the subscript o refers to the plane of the orifice plate and is
the coefficient of discharge which equals the contraction coefiicient modified to
allow for the small amount of frictional dissipation and velocity profile effects. In
single-phase flow, is a complex function of Reynolds number and

In practice, it is found that the use of eq. (3.64) is very inaccurate and considerably
overestimates'*"*’ ‘*^ the pressure drop, particularly at low qualities. James'*"* has pro-
posed that the two-phase multiplier should be evaluated using a modified mass
quality where .y,„ is related empirically to the true mass quality, .v, by the expression.

(3.65)

This simple modification should, however, be used to provide rough estimates only.
Hoopes"*^ and Thom'*® found that an alternative form of the two-phase multiplier was
an improvement over the unmodified homogeneous model.

Pl-P2 = (3.66)

where a the void fraction is evaluated from a straight pipe flow correlation for con-
ditions at the vena contracta. Although this represents an improvement over the un-
modified homogeneous model, the accuracy of prediction (+50 per cent) is still
relatively poor.
A completely different and superior approach is that in which the flow processes in
the orifice itself are considered. Such a method has been proposed by Chisholm and
his co-workers."*®"*^ The following assumptions are made:

(a) the two-phase flow is incompressible

(b) the upstream momentum is negligible
(c) there is no phase change in the orifice
(d) wall shear forces are neglected in relation to interfacial forces between phases
(e) the proportion of the flow cross-section occupied by each phase remains constant
through the orifice.

Consider the orifice shown in Fig. 3.13. In single-phase flow it is found that the con-
traction to the vena contracta occurs with little or no frictional loss. Therefore follow-

ing assumption (b),

Pi Ai — P2^c~ (3-67)

A more convenient form of the momentum balance across the orifice in single-phase
flow is

( 3 - 68 )
(j>i-P2)^o+F=
and Fis the force due to the
where the single-phase velocity at the vena contracta
is
face of the orifice plate. Jobson as s own
variation of pressure over the upstream
that

91
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

(3-69)
‘a, [c„ 2C„’J a.
where Co is the discharge coefficient {^AJA^.
Chisholm*^ has applied eq. (3.68) to each phase assuming a shear force S exists
between the phases. Thus for the liquid phase

(3.70)
Afa
and for the vapour phase

-S- If,",, (3.71)

Disiding eq. (3,70) by {AtJt,) and substituting the relationship Wj = At,; t'fJPt
and eq. (3.69)

(3.72)

Similarly for the vapour phase

y » r. ^ "1 t'ee*
(Pi Pi)p,[i (3.73)
2

For convenience a 'shear force ratio* 5^ is defined as

. sc„
(3.74)
' A„(P,-P,^
Substituting eq. (3.74) into (3.72) and (3.73) and combining gives

(3.75)

where

(3.76)

Also

(3.77)
Si-feXS"
Let
W,^c, fY’{l-x)‘v,
(3.78)
ZA/
and

.
W/ V, W* X* P,
(3.79)
2 A/ 2Cp^ Aj^
92
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
where A/?f and Ap^ are the pressure drops for the liquid and vapour phases flowing
alone through the orifice.
From eqs. (3.78) and (3.79)

fe)(r-©“-
Dividing eq. (3.72) by (3.78) and remembering that = =
(P 1 -P 2) A/j^andyl^ Af^ + A^^

Aprp [l+-^gcMfc]^
(3.81)
APf [1 + '^R ^gcMfc]
Substituting eqs. (3.76), (3.77), and (3.80) into (3.81)

^Ptp i .
JAPg\' ,
C 1
(3.82)
Apf ^'^\Apt)
where

C = Z+i (3.83)

A number of alternative derivations of eq. (3.82) are possible and this equation can be
used quite generally for the correlation of two-phase pressure drop data"*' (see section
2.5.2). The alternative form in terms of the pressure drop with the vapour flowing
alone is

^=l-t-CX + A:2 (3.84)

Apg

If there is no shear force between the phases, S = 0, Sr = 0 and from eq. (3.76)
Z= 1 and C= 2. Thus, from eq. (3.84)

= (3.85)

This equation was originally derived by Murdock'*’ and was used by him as a basis
for analysis of data for steam-water and gas-liquid flow through orifices. The data
were actually fitted better by the slightly modified form.

= 14.1.26 Z (3.86)

Chisholm*^ has taken all available data for flow through orifices (excluding those
points which do not comply with the assumptions stated earlier) and has correlated
them in terms of eqs. (3.82) Table 3.2 summarizes his findings.
and (3.84).

Clearly Z from unity and phase interaction must be consid-

is considerably different

ered. A general procedure for predicting Z has not yet been developed but for steam-
water flow Chisholm and Leishman®* have suggested that Z is a function of reduced
pressure, P^. Below a pressure of 150 bar,

93
EVfPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF

94
 fA-v/AiTE. AINU l^UiNjUtXS5A 1 lUW

Z = 019+0-92P, (3.87)

Chisholm^® has also suggested a modified form of eq. (3.82) thus

1+5-3 j;+y2 (3.88)

where

(3.89)

and Cf and Cg are the contraction coefficients for the liquid and the vapour phase cor-
responding to the two-phase pressure drop. This single equation satisfactorily cor-
relates the data for the three orifices tested by Chisholm and Watson."*®
Two-phase pressure drop data across thin plate (t < 1 0 mm) restrictions with rectangu-
lar slotshave been reported by Janssen.®® Chisholm"** recommends that the value of C
for use in eq. (3.82) be evaluated from eq. (2.72) with A = 1 and Cj = 0-5. Pressure
drop data across thick plates (/>10 mm) have been reported by Cermak, Jicha, and
Lightner®’ and by Janssen.®® Chisholm"** recommends that the value of C for use in
equation (3.82) for this feature be evaluated from eq. (2.72) with A = 1 and C2 = 1-5.

3.8.4 Nozzles and Venturis

Interest in two-phase flow through nozzles and venturis is increasing as a result of the
possible application to jet pumps, M.H.D.devices, and flow metering. Equations
(3.82)and (3.84) can also be derived for nozzles and venturis. Graham®® has given the
resultsof measurements for the flow of air-water mixtures through nozzles 1-59, 2-54,
and 3.50 cm diameter mounted in a 5-08 cm bore pipe. A single value of C = 14 was
found to correlate all the data taken. Data taken by Bizon®’ for a venturi with a throat
to upstream pipe diameter ratio of 0-58 with steam-water flow were correlated with
C= 2-6. It is recommended that for nozzles, C be evaluated using eq. (2.72) with A = 1

and C2 = 0-5.

To allow for the expansion of the vapour phase,®® eqs. (3.75), (3.77), and (3.80)
require modification. If the expansion satisfies the equationpv"= constant then.

Uf, ^vj B r*
where Ugi is the vapour specific volume upstream of the feature, r is the ratio of the
downstream-to-upstream static pressure (P 2 IP 1 ) and B is given by

95
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
and

(3.93)

The table below gives values of B for various values of r and n. The validity of this

i-o 0 75 0 55

1-0 I '575
10 1 514
10 I 496
to 1-422
lo 1-387

Tnetbod was demonstrated by Chisholm** using the data of Vogrin*’ for the flow
of air-water mixtures through a venturi having an inlet diameter of 2-54 cm and a
throat diameter of 0 514 cm. A value of C = 5-3 correlates the data using cqs. (3.82)
and (3.93) and this value is, in turn, consistent with the measurements reported by
Vogrin of the void fraction at the throat and the local slip ratio. Watson** found that
for air-water flow through various sharp edged orifices with y< 10 the term B was
not required in eq. (3.93).

3.8,5 Bends, Tees, Colls, and Valves

Experimental data on flow around bends and other fittings are given by Chenoweth
and Martin** and Fitzsimmons.** In the latter work it was reported that the pressure
drop around bends was up to 2-5 times higher than that predicted using single-phase
pressure loss measurements and multiplying by an experimentally evaluated straight
pipe multiplier (this latter term was found to agree reasonably well with the homo-
geneous model at the high mass velocities used).
ChishoIm**hasexamincd (he data of Fitzsimmons** for 90® bends using eq. (3 82).
He found that the coefficient C, in eq (2 72) for C was a function of relative radius
R/D where R is the radius of the bend and D is the pipe diameter. The following table

H
D
gives values of Cj for 90® bends as a function of RID. The high value of C2 at an R(D
of unity presumably results from the fact that sharp bends act as efficient phase

96
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
separators.The case with RjD equal to zero corresponds to a tee which appears to
act asan efficient phase mixing device. Chisholm'^* recommends the following values
of Cl and A for use with eqs. (2.72) and (3.82):

90° bends C2 = 1 -1-35 DIL, ;.= 1 (3.94)

180° bends and 90° bends with

upstream disturbance C2 = H-20 DIL, A = 1 (3.95)

Tees C2 = 1-75 A= 1 (3.96)

The ratio LjD is the equivalent length to diameter ratio of the bend.
Pressure drop and void fraction measurements for flow in helical coils have been
reported by Rippel et by Baneijee, Rhodes, and Scott, and by Boyce, Collier,
and Levy.®'^ In general, it has been found that for estimating the frictional component
of the pressure drop the two-phase multiplier to be used should be that for straight
pipe flow. The influence of coiling on two-phase frictional pressure drops is therefore
correctly allowed for by evaluating the single-phase pressure gradients taking account
of the increased friction factors resulting from coiling.®^ For laminar flow the ratio
of the coil to straight pipe friction factor is given by

where K= [Re(Z)/cO° *], rfis the coil diameter, D the tube internal diameter, and/, the
straight pipe friction factor. The transition Reynolds number is increased in a
coil

(Re).„„, = 2300[1 + 8-6 (D/d)'”""] (3-98)

For turbulent flow the increase in friction factor is given by

///; = [Re(W]°'’' (3.99)

for [Re (D/rf)^]> 6

Despite the presence of strong secondary flows in a coil the value of void fraction
measured by Boyce, Collier, and Levy^* appeared to remain unchanged from that in a
straight pipe. It is recommended that the frictional and accelerational components of
the pressure drop be evaluated using straight pipe values for void fraction. Equation
(3.27) remains valid for annular flow in helical coils.

For valves, Chisholm"** recommends the following values of C2 (based on the

measurements of Fitzsimmons^®) for the evaluation of C in eq. (2.72) and its subse-
quent use in eq. (3.82)

Gate valve C2 = 1-5

Globe valve C2 = 2-3

97
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
3^ Coodnsions

None of ibe empirical methods for pressure drop prediction is suitable for esw- case.
The homogeneous model is fairly dose for hi^ mass selocities and the separated flow
model fits more closely at low mass \dodiies. This recocsiable mass selcdty eflect
is taken account of by the correlations of Barocay*’ and Chisholm*' arxl these cor-
relations are recommended as beins probably the best at the time of wriiiac.
There is a continuing need to assess the asailable correlations to esiaHrsh which is
best o\-er certain ranges of conditiotts and what the ttpccied accuracy may tc. In
eariy 1962 it was estimated that there were oxer iS^OOO indixidual measurements of

pressure drop and DuiJer** compared a data hank of 2620 points for borirontal
flow pressure drop, and xoid fraction with a number of correlations. The detailed
results are interesting but e\cn more significant are the large standard dsMaiiors
(typically 25-50 per cent) found withal! the methods csamined. A note of caution is
therefore required; the reader should treat with rcstrxaiions any claims of accuracy
made for particular correlations. SMwnexer possible, efforts should he made to as-
certain the flow pattern in order to tLamint the more specific correlations coxering
just one region.

References

1. J. ‘Axerage xolumeaxs eenc«r.tTauon ia tw ophase

Zuber, N. and Findlay, systeRs’.
Trans. ASMEJ
Hrat Transfrr 87. 453 (1965).
2. Wallis, G B. publahed by Mj(jfa» HnJ(1969X
3. Zuber. N., Staab. F. W, Bijvxaard, G., and Kroeger, P. G. "Stedy sate and tr«ssiett
xoid fraction in two-phase flow systems’. GEAP $4J7(l957X
4. Bankoff, S. G. ‘A xariable deosit) sinsJe-Cuid mocSel of two-phase flow widi parueular
refoence to steam-water Bow Trcrj.AS^IBJ Heel Trcvfer Senes C S2(19Wl
5. Around. A. A. *Tbe restsunce during the mox«mcr.i of a rwo-phase system la bcnzontil
10.
pipes’ /crtsrjo I'sfs Tep!a. /-or (l).Fp. 16-23(1945). AERE-UhTra.'S S2S-
6. Aiiaaad,A.A.aadTresd»ex-.G. G ’InxesiitalJoaortheresiSUtKedunngihemoxesrKr.t
of xapour-waicr mixtures in a heated boiler tebe ii high pressure* tzresna I so. Tej-h.
/Rrr.(4)pp. 1-5, April (1947) AERE-Ub Trans 816.
7. Arsund, A. A. ‘laxasligatioa of the oedunism of two-phase flow m xenical pipes'.
an>cJs in a book csntled Hj'drt^-Ksnses asd krs: trarsfer m:h bexitp, ed. M. A
Stynkoxidu Acad. Nauk SSSR, Moscow (1954).
8. Kholodoxsl^ G. E. 'Gcoeialinuoa of openmectal da« on the amdatioa of water in
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9. Hurfimart, G. A
"Hold-up in cas liquid flow'. Cher^cal Er^inemrg Prv^ms. 58, No. 4,
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—
Designing for Two-Phase Flow Report of a Meeting at N.E.L. 17 Jaa. 196S, Pan II.
Void Fraction prediction under saturated condiocss. N.E.L. Report No. 3S6 (1969).
11- Mardaterre. J F. and Hoglund, B. W". ’Corrdaaoa for two-phase flow'.
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12. CnffitiuP A.S M.E paper No 6>HT-20NaL Heat Transfer Conf Bestoa, Mass. 1953.
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AJ.OlE. Jaamal, 1, 78 (195S)
14. Maatzouranis, B. G- Ph.D. Thesis I959,Ucix’er^*or Lcodoa, see also Anderson, G. R
and Maatzouranis, B. G., Chrrrscal ErgineeriKg Srieisop, 12, 109 {19£OX
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15. Dukler, A. E. ‘Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in vertical falling film systems’.
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to vertical upward flow in a tube’. AERE-R 3680 (1961).
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19. Collier, J. G. and Hewitt, G. F. ‘Data on the vertical flow of air-water mixtures in the
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(1961).
20. Roberts, D. C. and Hartley, D. E. ‘A correlation of pressure drop data for two-phase
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27. Cousins, L. B. and Hewitt, G. F. ‘Liquid phase mass transfer in annular flow droplet
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99
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
expansions: water and steam mixtures at 600 to 1400p.s i a. GEAP 4622(1964);
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of Two-phase mixtures’. NEL Report No. 217 (Feb. 1966).
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M (4), 419-433 (1962).
48. Chisholm, D. ‘The flow of steam/water mixtures through sharp-edged orifices’, Engrg.
and Boiler House Revle>v, pp. 252-256 (Aug. 1958).
49. Chisholm, O. and Watson, G. G. ‘The flow of steam/water mixtures through sharp-
edged orifices’. NEL Report No. 213 (Jan. 1966).
50. Chisholm, D. ‘A brief review of the literature on flow of two-phase mixtures through
orifices, nozzles and venturimetcrs’; and Watson, G. O. The flow of steam-water mixtures
through orifices*. Papers presented at meeting held at N.E.L. 6 Jan. 1965, 'Metering of
two-phase mixtures’. NEL Report No. 217 (Feb. 1966).
51. Watson, O. G., Vaughan. V. E.. and McFarlane. M. W ‘Two-phase pressure drop with a
sharp-edged orifice’. NEL Report No. 290 (May 1967).
52. Chisholm, D. ’Flow of incompressible two-phase mixtures through sharp-edged orifices’.
J. of Meeh. Engnrg. Scl,9(l) 72-78 (1967)
53. Chisholm, D. ’Pressure gradients during the flow of incompressible two-phase mixtures
through pipes, venturis and orifice plates’. Brit. Chem. Engrg 12 (9), 454-457 (1967).
54. Chisholm, D. ’Pressure losses in bends and ices during steam-water flow NEL Report
No 318 (1967); see also £/i^ff^. fl/n/^Of/er J/owe RetifH' (Aug. 1967).
55. Graham, E. J ’The flow of air-water mixtures through nozzles’ NEL Report No. 308
(1967)
56. Moissis, R. and Radovcich, N. A. Two-phase flow through a vertical venturi’ Paper
presented at Heat Transfer Conf. A.I Ch E.-A S.M.E. Boston (Aug 1963) (63-HT42)
57. Bizon. E. ’Two-phase flow measurement with sharp-edged orifices and venturis’. AECL-
2273 (1965).
58. Chisholm D. ’Flow of compressible two-phase mixtures through throttling devices’.
Chem. and Process Engng., pp. 73-78 (Dec. 1967)
59. Vogrin, J. A. ’An experimental investigation of two-phase two component flow in a
horizontal converging-diverging nozzle’. ANL-6754 (1 963)
60. Jobson, D A. ‘On the flow of a compressible fluid through orifices*. Proc. Inst. Mech
180(Pt INo. 23), 549(1965-66).
61. Chisholm D and Leishman, J The metering of wet steam’. CAem. onrf Procew £n^n^
pp 103-106 (July 1969).
62. Rippel, G. R et al ’Two-phase flow in a coiled tube’ I. and E. C. Process Design and
Develop., 5, 1. 32-38 (1966)
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
63. Banerjee, S., Rhodes, E., and Scott, D. S. ‘Pressure drops, flow patterns and hold-up
for co-current gas liquid flow in helically coiled tubes’, presented at A.I.Ch.E. meeting,
Tampa Florida (May 1968).
64. Boyce, B. E., Collier, J. G., and Levy, J. ‘Hold-up and pressure drop measurements in
the two-phase flow of air-water mixtures in helical coils’. Co-current gas liquid flow.
Plenum Press (1969).
65. Srinevasan, P. S., Nandapurkar, S. S., and Holland, F. A. ‘Pressure drop and heat trans-
fer in coils’. The Chemical Engineer, CE 113-119 (May 1968).
66. Dukler, A. E. et ai. ‘Pressure drop and hold up in two phase flow—Part A. comparison A
of existing correlations and Part B. An approach through similarity analysis.’ Paper
presented at A.I.Ch.E. meeting held Chicago (2-6th Dec. 1962).
67. Baroczy, C. J. ‘A systematic correlation for two-phase pressure drop’. A.I.Ch.E. reprint
No. 37 paper presented at 8th Nat. Heat Transfer Conf. Los Angeles (Aug. 1965).
68. Butterworth, D. ‘Note on fully developed horizontal annular two-phase flow’. Chem.
Engng. ScL, 24, 1832-1834 (1969).
69. Butterworth, D. ‘Air-water climbing film flow in an eccentric annulus’. Paper presented
at Int. Symp. on Res. in Co-current Gas-liquid flow. University of Waterloo, Ont.,
Canada (18-19 Sept. 1968) (see also AERE-R5787).
70. Jacowitz, L. A. and Brodkey, R. S. ‘An analysis of geometry and pressure drop for
annular flow of gas liquid systems’. Chem. Engng. Sci., 19, 261 (1964).
71. Russell, T. W. F. and Lamb, D. E. ‘Flow mechanisms of two phase annular flow’. Can.
J. Chem. Engng. 43, 237 (Oct. 1965).
72. Fletcher, R. H. and McManus, H. N. Sibley School of Mech. Engng. Interim Report
ARO(D) Project No. 3199E, April 1965.
73. Moissis, R. and Griffith, P. ‘Entrance effects in two phase slug flow’. Trans ASME J. of
Heat Transfer, 84, Series C, 29 (1962).

Example 1

Calculate the film thickness, film flow-rate, and pressure drop for vertical upflow of an
air-water mixture in a 30 mm
bore tube. The air flow is OT kg/s and the water flow
0-2 kg/s. The relevant physical properties are:

Pf = 1000 kg/m^ pg
- 1-64 kg/m^
Pf = 10”® Ns/m® Pg = 1-8 X 10”® Ns/m®
<7 = 0-072 N/m

Solution
The solution of this problem follows that recommended in section 3.5.4 and illus-

trated in Fig. 3.9.

(a) Initial estimate of pressure gradient

4x0-2
Reynolds number of liquid phase =
7rx003x 10”®
Gf = 283-5 kg/m® s
= 8500

ft = 0-0082

_ \ _ 2f( G{® _ 2 X 0-0082 x 283-5 _ -^1^2

dz f
Dp, 0-03 X 10®
]0I
 n — m

EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

— 4x0 1
Reynolds number of gas phase = -
jrx0 03xl-8xl0"*

! 2-36x10*
(7, = 141-7 kg/m^ s

/, = 00036
IS, G,^ 2x00036x141-7^
= 2-93 X 10* N/m^ m
Dp, 0 03x1-64
"
(dp/drr),]* r 43-9
J « 01225
,(dp/d2f>J U-93xl0*J
From eq. (2.69)
= \^CX+X^ where C = 20
= l-f-20x01225-f00I5 = 3-465

^ X 10’ X 3 465 = 10 15 kN/m’

(b) Estimate of entrainment

It willbe assumed that the entrained liquid fraction is at ‘equilibrium’. The liquid
film Reynolds number (ssRe,) is greater than 3000— therefore the Wallis-Stcen
correlation (Fig. 3.7). The tube diameter is 30 mm, close to the channel diameter
for which Fig. 3.7 Is valid.

IHI*/
86-4 m/s.

/ u / 86-4x 1-8x 10
Dimensionless gas velocity = -^l~ I
«
0072
\Pt/ VoooJ
= 8-75X10"*

From Fig. 3.7 C»= 0 6tS

Therefore the liquid film flow-rate W,f = 0077 kg/s

(c) Esiimale offilm thickness

As discussed in section (3.5.1) eq. (3.27) is modified when entrainment occurs such
that

where is evaluated using the pressure drop for the liquid film flow-rate (Wfp)
flowing alone in the tube.

102
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Reynolds number Re^p = RejCl-i') = 8500x0-385 = 3270

f„ = 001045
2x001045x109^
= 8*3 N/nr m
0-03 X 10^

^ 2 r (dp/dzF)! 10*15x10^
r..
= 5^; = 1-225x10^
L(dp/dz F)fFj 8-3

4i5
(1-a)^ = 0-815 X 10" (l_a) =Z£= 2-855x 10"^
j)

5, the liquid film thickness = 0-214 mm

(d) Revised estimate of pressure gradient
Use can now be made of eq. (3.41) to obtain a new estimate of the value of (j)^ and
hence the pressure gradient.

g
2
(t^)J
ri+75x2-855xl0"nr0-l+0-615x0-2ir 0-97145 \

L 0-97145^/^
JL 0-1
JL ^1,2-855x 10-7

^ X 4),^ = 2-93 X 10* X 6-58 = 19-3 kN/m* m.

/g

(e) Iteration to obtain accurate values offilm thickness and pressure drop
It is now possible to return to step (c) and obtain new estimates of 8, the film
thickness. Iteration finally obtains consistent values of the film thickness and two-
phase pressure drop

8 = 0-175 mm, = 5-19, f = 15-2kN/m*m

j
The film thickness therefore is 0-175 mm
The film flow-rate is 0-077 kg/s
The pressure drop is 15-2 kN/m* m
Example 2
Calculate the static pressure change and the irreversible pressure loss at a sudden
enlargement in a horizontal pipe from 25 to 50 mm
diameter for the flow of a mm
103
 EMPIRICAL TREATMENTS OF TWO-PHASE FLOW
steam-\v-ater mixture. The sj-stem pressure is 10 bar, the mass quaUty is 5 per cent and
the mass 0ow-rate is 0-7 kg/s.

Solution
From the steam tables r, = M27x 10"* m*ykg r, « 0-156 m*/kg

The upstream cross sectional area x25*xl0~* = 4-91 x 10"* m*

The upstream mass velocity C, * - ^ 1425 kg/m* 5

The upstream to dowiistream area u =i

From eq. (3.60)

Pj- p, = C,* ff (1 -o) r, (I +^+

where C =» [i+(Cj-;.)Crf,/r,)® [(r^r^)® *+(r,/r,)®'*] (2.72)

andvlel C2 = 0-5
Therefore

C= 0-5E(l38-5)® *-f(I/I38-5)® *] « 5-935

= 1-95 kN’/m* (pressure rise)

The irrcrersible pressure loss from eq. (3.59)

Apr •= — (I-o)’Pi j^l+

(^)*]
l-475*x 10*
= (0-75)*xl-i27xl0-*[l + 137Sx0-05]
^

= 5.06kN/m*

PROBLEMS
1. Starting with eq. (3.9) derive an expressioa for the void fraction in a heated diannel
in which evaporation is occuiring in terms of the mass quality x, the inlet velodO'
U/, of liquid to be evaporated, the drift velocity Ugj, and the phase densities.
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Answer: _ x
Cox[(Pf — Pg)/pf] + [Co + Wgj/«fo] Pg/Pf

2. Using the equation derived from problem 1 and the values of Cq and Mgj given by
eq. (3.10) verify that the drift flux model does satisfactorily account for the effect
of mass velocity seen in Fig. 2.10.

3. Calculate the pressure drop around a 20 cm radius 90° bend in a horizontal 50 mm

bore pipe for the flow of a steam-water mixture. The system pressure is 10 bar, the
mass quality is 5 per cent, and the mass flow-rate 0-7 kg/s.

4. Starting with the shear stress distribution given by eq. (3.28) for a liquid film in
vertical annular flow obtain the expressions for the velocity profile (Wf(ri)) and the
film flow-rate (JVfp) for the case of laminar flow.

5.
Answer:

where Y= and X ^J(D-2S)+^iD-2dr

2n Pi
Wt,=
/if

Repeat the calculation discussed in Example 1 for the case where the liquid flow-rate
is increased to 1-0 kg/s.

(note; in this case the flow pattern is ‘wispy annular’, the initial pressure drop
calculation should be made using the homogeneous model, and the recommenda-
tions listed in section 3.6 should be used to compute the entrained liquid flow-rate.)

105
 —

INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING

4.1 Introduction

The object of this chapter is to introduce the subject of boiling, particularly for the
case where the fluid
is evaporated in a heated channel or duct. The elementary thermo-

dynamic aspects of the liquid-vajKJUi phase change are briefly reviewed to provide a
background to a discussion of the basic aspects of bubble nucleafion and growth. This,
in turn, leads to a qualitative description of the heat transfer regimes present when a
stagnant liquid is boiled in a container such as an electric kettle. Finally, the various
inodes of heat transfer encountered when a liquid is circulated to a heated channel
are described and classified by means of a boiling map which enables the detailed
features of convective boiling to be dealt with in sequence in the succeeding chapters.

4.2 Elementary Thermodynamics of Vapour/LIquId Sjitems

Figure 4.1 shows diagrammatically the pressurc-volume-temperature (PVT) surface

for unit mass of a pure substance. The various stable equilibrium phase states can be
clearly seen. The stable regions of present interest are those of liquid alone, liquid and
vapour, and vapour alone. This limits the temperature range of interest to T, (the
tnple point) at the lower end and (the critical point) at (he upper end. For a constant
temperature T within this range the pressure and volume vary along a line such as
ABCD. Liquid only exists along theline AB and vapour only exists along the line CD.
Liquid and vapour co-exist along the line BC. The saturation curve is the locus of
points such as B and C Along the line BC tbepressure remains constant and the volume
oF the unit mass (specific volume, p)is determined by its heat content (enthalpy, i).The
projection of the liquid -i- vapour surface in the pressure-temperature plane (viewed in
the direction of the arrow) results to a single curve —the vapour pressure curve
relating pressure and temperature between 7\ and T,. Corresponding values of the
pressure and temperature taken from this curve are known as the saturation pressure
(Psat) 2 nd saturation temperature (Tsat) respectively.
Experimentally, the vapour pressure curve may be determined by partly filling a

large diameter container with the civosen substance under vacuum, mounting the
container in a controlled uniform temperature field and recording the pressure of the
vapour above the liquid for each desired temperature level. At equilibrium, the number

106
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
of molecules striking and being absorbed by the interface from the vapour phase is
exactly equal to thenumber of molecules being emitted through the interface from the
liquid phase. For a planar interface, the pressures in the liquid and vapour immediately
adjacent to the interface are equal at equilibrium.
So far only stable equilibrium phase states have been considered. Other metastable

Fig. 4.1. Pressure-Volume-Teraperature Surface for a Pure Substance

or unstable states can occur where the co-ordinates of pressure, volume, and tempera-
ture (PVT) do not lie in any of the surfaces shown in Fig. 4. 1 . For example, it is possible
with care to reduce the pressure imposed on a liquid at constant temperature along a
line AB without the formation of vapour at point B. Likewise it is possible to increase
the pressure imposed on a vapour along a line DC
without the formation of liquid at
C. The PVT co-ordinates of these metastable states lie along an extrapolation of AB
to B' or DC to C’. Point B' may also be reached by carefully increasing the liquid

107
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
temperature above the saturation temperature corresponding to the imposed static
pressure; this process is and the metastable liquid state is
referred to as superheatiiig
referred to as superheated liquid. Similar statements can be made about the vapour
state at C
where the equivalent cooling process is termed supersaturation and the
metasiable vapour stale is referred to as a super^turated vapour.
Vapour and liquid phases can coexist in unstable equilibrium states along lines
such as BB' or CC. In this instance the pressures in the liquid and vapour in the

Fig. 4.1a. Pressure-Volume Surface for a Pure Substance

vicinityof the interface arc no longer equal at equilibrium. If the interface is concave
with the centre of curvature in the vapour phase then the vapour pressure (pg) will be
greater than the liquid pressure (pi) by an amount given by the following relationship;

‘’{7

where o is and fj are the respective radii of curvature of the

the surface tension and ft
interface. Because of the increased vapour pressure the number of molecules
sinking

and being absorbed by the interface from the vapour phase is greater than when the
number of molecules emitted
interface was planar. To maintain equilibrium the
This
through the interface from the liquid phase must increase correspondingly.

i08
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
increase can only be accomplished by increasing the temperature of the system (liquid
and vapour) above that necessary for equilibrium with a planar interface, i.e., the
saturation temperature (rsAr) corresponding to the liquid pressure (p(). Therefore the
liquid adjacent to the curved interface is superheated with respect to the imposed
liquid pressure.
A further feature of vapour-liquid equilibrium at curved interfaces is that the
relationship between liquid temperature and vapour pressure vapour pressure
(the
curve) is itself somewhat changed as a consequence of the curv'ature. For a concave

Fig. 4.1.b. Pressure-Temperature Surface for a Pure Substance

interface the vapour pressure for a ^ven liquid temperature is slightly reduced below
that for a planar interface; for a convex interface the reverse is the case.
This latter equilibrium state is unstable since any change in the curvature of the
interface in either sense will result in a divergent departure from the equilibrium state.

4.3 The Basic Processes of Boiling

.4.3.1 Vapour Formation
Vapour may form one of three ways corresponding to the departure from a stable,
in
metastable, or unstable equilibrium state. The formation of vapour at a planar
interface occurs when the liquid temperature is increased fractionally above the

J09
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
corresponding saturation temperature. The term ‘evaporation’ will be reserved for this
process and will be used to denote vapour formation at a continuous liquid surface
such as the interface between the liquid film and vapour core in annular flow. Evapora-
tion and condensation at a planar interface can be described in terms of the imbalance
of molecular fluxes passing through the interface from the vapour and liquid phases
respectively. The application of kinetic theory to the evaluation of the interfacial heat
transfer resistance is fully discussed in section 10.3, .

Fig. 4.J.C. Temperature-Volume Surface for a Pure Substance

Superheat requirements for vapour nuclealton. Initial considerations relating to the

formation of vapour from a mctastable liquid or an unstable equilibrium slate mvari-
ab/y start from the equation defining the mechanical equilibrium of a spherical vapour
nucleus (radius /•) in a liquid at constant temperature (T,) and pressure (Pf). Thus
2<r ,1

\ -r. , , ,

where p, is the vapour pressure inside the nucleus andpr is the imposed liquid pressure

corresponding to a saturation temperature TsAf^urvalure of the interface fractionally

lowers the vapour pressure (p,) inside the nucleus compared with that above a planar
interface (p*) for the same liquid temperature.^ It may be shown that

Pi = P®esp(-2pi’,M/r*RT)«
Alternatively from (4 2) and (4 3),

no
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING

To calculate the liquid superheat (T^— corresponding to the pressure difference

(/’to ~/’f)> can be made of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and the perfect gas law

dp _ ife
(4.5)
dT T(v,-v,)
If the specific volume of the liquid is small (Vg^Vf) and MpVg = RT then,
UjM
dT (4.6)
RT^
Equation (4.6) can be integrated from Pf to p^ and from Ts^t to Tgi

(4.7)

Substituting eq. (4.4) and rearranging,

(4.8)

If Vg>V{ and (2a (pf r*)<^ 1 then eq. (4.8) simplifies to

R Tsat^ 2a
(Tg — Tsat) — ^^AT — (4.9)
iigM ptr*
Equation (4.9) can be used without significant error for reduced pressures in the range
0-01 </’,<!.
Homogeneous nucleation. It will be observed from eq. (4.9) that the size of the equili-
brium vapour nucleus (r*) becomes smaller as the superheat (ATs^y) is increased, i.e.,
as a result of a decrease in system pressure (pf) along a line BB' (Fig. 4.1). Close to B'
the size of the equilibrium nucleus approaches molecular dimensions. Thermal
fluctuations occur in the metastable liquid and there is a small but finite probability
of a cluster of molecules with vapour-like energies coming together to form a vapour
embryo of the size of the equilibrium nucleus. This process of vapour formation in a
metastable liquid is referred to as ‘homogeneous nucleation’. The probability of the
formation of vapour nuclei of the necessary size can be estimated from the Boltzmann
equation for the distribution of molecular clusters of size r. The number of nuclei of
radius r, (Nr) per unit volume, is given by

N(r) =
where JV is a constant approximately equal to the number of molecules per unit volume
provided N(r) is small. AG(r) is the free energy of formation of a nucleus of radius r
and k is the Boltzmann constant. The free energy of formation of a nucleus of radius
r, AG(r) is given by

AG(r) = 47rr^ff— (Pg—Pi) (4.10)

Substituting eq. (4.2) into (4,10),

in
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

The free energy AG(r) is a maximum when r = r*

4
. .V
AG(r*) «= - Ttr*
3
V=—
16

3
Tza^
-2 (4.12)'
(Pt-Piy
Since the free energy of formation bubbles smaller than r* will collapse and
is less,
bubbles larger than r* will grow spontaneously. Homogeneous vapour nucleation will
therefore occur if one further molecule collides with an equilibrium embryo. The rate
of nucleation dn/dt in a metastable liquid at temperature r, is given by the product of
the number of equilibrium nuclei per unit volume and a collision frequency A,

Expressions for the collision frequency A have been given by Westwater^ [A = kTJh]
and Bernath^ [A = (2o/n/«)*] where m is the mass of one molecule and h is Planck’s
constant. For water at lOO^C, A is approximately 10'*~10” s"*.
The rate of homogeneous nucleation dnjdt is an extremely sensitive function of the
liquid temperature F,. At low superheats the value of dnjdi is insignificantly small but
it increases very rapidly as the superheat is increased. Simpson and Walls* have

suggested that significant nucleation occurs for values of dn/d/ between 10’ and 10^
cm*’ s" *. For benzene these values correspond to a very narrow range of temperature
(r,) from 224*C to 225'2*C respectively. For water at atmospheric pressure the liquid
temperature corresponding to a nucleation rate of 10’ cm*’ s"‘ is 320 7®C, i.e., a
superheat (AFjat) of 220-7*C.
This value of superheat is much greater than any experimental value which has
been measured for water’ even under very carefully controlled conditions. It is possible
to state that, for water at least, homogeneous nucleation from a metastable liquid state
can be discounted as a mechanism for vapour formation. However, homogeneous
nucleation can and does occur in organic liquids
Heterogeneous nucleation. Foreign bodies and container surfaces normally provide
ample nuclei to act as centres of vapour formation. This third method of vapour
generation from pre-existing nuclei is termed ‘heterogeneous nucleation’. Examples of
pre-existing nuclei are non-condensible gas bubbles held in suspension in the liquid
and gas- or vapour-filled cracks or cavities in container surfaces {known as nucleation
‘sites') or in suspended foreign bodies in the bulk liquid. The presence of a dissolved
gas, say air, in the liquid necessitates the gas partial pressure being taken into account
when considering the mechanical equilibrium of the vapour nucleus. Thus eq. (4.2)

is modified to

II2
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
The presence of dissolved gas reduces the superheat required to maintain a bubble of
radius r* in unstable equilibrium. In practice the evaluation of the gas partial pressure
may be complicated by the presence of temperature gradients and by finite rates of
diffusion of the gas through the liquid.
The free energy of formation AG(r*) of an equilibrium
Nucleation at solid surfaces.
vapour embryo is reduced by a factor in the presence of a flat surface. Kast® and
<j>

BankofF^ have shown that is a function of the contact angle 9 between the surface

and the liquid (measured through the liquid, Fig. 4.2(a) ). The factor is given by, (f>

,
(2+2cos6+cos6sin^6)
^ (4.16)

If the liquid completely wets the surface 9 = 0°, (j) = 1 and there is no reduction of the
free energy of formation of the embryo. If the surface is completely non-wetting
(0 = 180°) then (j> = 0 and no superheat is required for nucleation at the surface. In
practice most solid-liquid systems lie in the range between 0 = 0° and 90° and (j) lies

in the range 1 to 0-5. Consequently this reduction of AG(r*) is still insufficient to

account for the very much lower superheats found in practical situations, particularly
with water, compared with those required for homogeneous nucleation.
The solution to the paradox lies in the presence of pits or cavities in the surface
(shown schematically in Fig. 4.2 (b), (c), and (d) ). As the included angle of the cavity
OS) decreases so the ‘effective’ contact angle (0') increases. For the particular case
shown in Fig. 4.2(c) the interface in the cavity is flat, the ‘effective’ contact angle, 0',

is 180° so that and AG(r*) are zero. In the case of Fig. 4.2(d), AG(r*) is negative;
(p

that is to say that the vapour pressure in the cavity is lower than the static liquid
pressure. Thus it is possible for vapour to continue to exist in cavities in contact with
subcooled liquids provided the contact angle (0) is greater than 90°. The effective

contact angle, 0', is related to the flat plate contact angle, 0, and the included angle of
the cavity by

( 180 -^)
0' = 0-l- (4.17)
2

Since on any surface there are pits or cavities with a wide range of included angles,
there will always be situations like those illustrated in Fig. 4.2(c) and 4.2(d), with any
liquid-surface combination, having a contact angle 0 greater than 90°.At first sight, it
would appear that nucleation in these situations should occur at (in the case of Fig.
4.2(c) ) or slightly below (in the case of Fig. 4.2(d) ) the corresponding saturation
temperature, i.e., no superheat. In actual fact when considering the motion of the
interface in the cavity as the liquid temperature is slowly raised above the saturation

temperature, itbe seen (Fig. 4.3) that the interface rapidly travels up to the lip of the
will
cavity and then, as the vapour pressure in the cavity increases, so the interface becomes
concave. For the nucleus to continue to grow, the liquid temperature must now be
progressively increased above the saturation temperature to exceed the equilibrium
superheat corresponding to the radius of curvature of the interface. This radius of
curvature decreases as the nucleus grows until the contact angle 0 with the flat surface
isestablished. Further growth then tends to increase the radius of curvature and the

Ji3
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
bubble grows spontaneously in the superheated liquid. Thus it can be stated that the
size of the mouth of the cavity or pit determines the superheat at which a vapour bubble
will be nucleated at that site. This statement has been confirmed experimentally.*

Sizing of Active Nucleation Sites. Before eqs (4.8) or (4. 15) can be used to predict the
superheat required to induce nucleation at a heated surface, it is necessary to consider
what maximum size of vapour nucleus might be present on that surface and how this
size is related to the size and distribution of pits and scratches on the surface, the

Fig. 43, Nucleation from Cavities

contact angle, the pressure-temperature history of the surface after filling, and later

on, the temperature gradient away from the surface.

Bankoff® and Holtz*® have considered what happens when an initially dry surface
is flooded with a liquid. The liquid may or may not wet the surface. If it docs wet the
surface (0<9O°) when below the saturation temperature then by considering Fig. 4.2

it be seen that surface tension forces will cause any pits or scratches to fill unless
will
a partial pressure of cover gas remains in the cavity. Even in this case the gas may
rapidly diffuse out of cavities in the size range 0-25-25 ^m. A cavity that is completely

114
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
filled with liquid cannot act as a nucleation site. If no wetting occurs then, as indicated
previously, vapour formation will occur without any superheating. Two further
possibilities exist. If the internal shape of the cavity involves a sudden enlargement then
the cavity may not be filled when the liquid is subcooled. Figure 4.4 shows an idealized

form of such a re-entrant cavity. For subcooled liquid to pass the neck of the cavity
into the enlargement the imposed static pressure, Pf, must exceed the combined vapour
pressure, in the cavity together with the interfacial stress, 2cr/f, corresponding to the
radius of the liquid drop at the neck. If the neck of the cavity is narrow it will require

Fig. 4.4. Idealized Re-Entrant Cavity

Fig. 4.5. Formation of an Active Site

a considerable increase in static liquid pressure or a correspondingly large reduction

of vapour pressure (i.e., a highly subcooled liquid) to fill the re-entrant cavity.
The remaining possibility is that the liquid wets the walls of a conical cavity only
when the vapour pressure, Pg, is greater than the imposed liquid pressure, Pf. The likely
sequence of events leading to this last possibility may be seen in Fig. 4.5. This shows
a cavity in an initially non-wetting surface. The surface is flooded by the liquid which
isforced into the cavity by the imposed pressure Pf. When heat is applied to the surface
‘wetting’ may occur as a result of the dissolution of grease films in a solvent liquid or,
in the case of liquid metals, a chemical reaction between a non-wetting surface oxide
and the liquid metal. Nucleation will then be initiated from the size of vapour embryo

115
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
given by the minimum radius r to «hicb the liquid has penetrated into the cavity.
Thus,
2ir
(4.18)
Pt-(Pt+P,)

This relationship also es the minimum neck radius of an active re-entrant cavity for
the case where 0 = 90“ (Fig. 4.4). Oearly the temperature-pressure history of the
surface after filling is important in determining r. Account must be taken also of the
kineticsof the wetting process. A number of experimental confirmations*®’ **’*•
of this method of characterizing the size of active sites have been attempted with
varying sua»ss. The theory appears to work better for cases where wetting is a well-
defined chemical reaction (i e., for liquid metals)*®* than for water,** The theory
does explain the Wgh superheats observed with water when very high overpressures
have been applied prior to boiling. The good wetting properties of clean glass and the
anealing of most surface flaw-s means that high superheats before nudeation are often
observed in glass apparatus.

43.2 Simple Bubble Dynamics

Bubble grov>ih. Once the vapour nucleus has attained a size greater than that for
unstable equilibrium it will grow spontaneously. The growth may be limited initially

by the inertia of the surrounding liquid or latterly by the rate at which the latent heat
of vaporization can be conducted to the vapour-liquid interface.
Consider a spbencal element of a non-viscous incompressible liquid of radius r and
thickness 6r surrounding a sphencal cavity of radius R held at a constant excess
pressure Bp. The mechanical energy equation for this situation can be expressed as

(4 . 19)

where r is the velocity of the spherical liquid clement and is the initial radius of
the cavity. From continuity, f is related to the velocity of the bubble wall, R,

Substitution of cq. (4.20) into (4.19) )ield$,

2r.p,R>ft’ = y(R’-R„*)Ap (421)

Differentiating eq. (4.21) with respect to time and dividing through by /?* R yields,

Rg+-A’~^ (422)
2 Pf

This equation was first derived by Raylagh.*^ Tbc pressure in the liquid adjacent to
the bubble wall is [p*(^.0-2ff/R) where p/R,0 is the vapour pressure inside the

116
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
bubble. This pressure is a function of both radius and time. The excess pressure Ap
is therefore given by,

2a]
^p='
PiiR,t)
J (4.23)

where Pf is the imposed static pressure well away from the bubble. Equation (4.22)
then becomes,

RR+\r^ = -»f[^Tf-PB(^.0+ (4.24)

It is usual to assume complete thermodynamic equilibrium at the interface and

therefore Pg iR,t) is taken as the vapour pressure corresponding to the instantaneous
liquid temperature at the interface Tg{R,t). It is known that this assumption is not
and Bornhorst and Hatsopoulous‘* have considered the importance of
strictly correct
non-equilibrium effects on the bubble growth problem.

For water, the bubble growth process very rapidly becomes governed by conduction
of heat to the interface and Plesset and Zwick'^ have obtained a solution assuming
this limiting condition, viz.,

(4.25)

where Kf is the thermal diffusivity of the liquid and k( the thermal conductivity.
The asymptotic solution, valid at sufficiently large values of bubble radius, is

obtained by assuming that the bubble wall temperature Tg (R,t) has rapidly fallen to
the saturation temperature; Tg in eq. (4.25) is the uniform temperature (superheated)
of the liquid far from the bubble.
Thus

2A7^/_^Y (4.26)
/fgPg [nccj

Simpson and Silver^® have applied eq. (4.25) to the early stages of the growth in order
to provide an estimate of the bubble wall temperature T^{R,t) for conditions where
this is greater than Tsat. This, in turn, was related to the vapour pressure inside the
bubble Pg(R,t) using a linearized Clausius-Clapeyron equation. Thus

Pg(R,f) = Pg(Ro,0)-A R t* (4.27)

where

, [(^/3)«f]*Pg^(Ro,0)ffg^M2
(4.28)
kfR^T,^

In eq. (4.28), R is the universal gas constant and Pg{Rofi) is the vapour pressure
corresponding to the initial uniform liquid temperature, Equations (4.27) and (4.28)
T^.

can be substituted into eq. (4.24) and solved either on an analogue or digital computer
for the appropriate boundary conditions. For liquids with a relatively low thermal
conductivity (water and organic liquids) the asymptotic solution of Plesset and Zwick**

117
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
is approached very rapidly (< 1 ms); for liquid metal systems with a high conductivity
inertial effects in the liquid become important and the more correct relationships
(cqs. (4.24), (4.26), and must be used. Attempts have been made to consider
(4.27) )
bubble growth in non-uniform temperature fields but the problem is exceedingly
difficult.

Bubble detachment and frequency. The size and shape of vapour bubbles departing
from a heated surface are a strong function of the way in which they are formed. The
prime forces acting on a vapour bubble during the later phases of its growth are
buoyancy and hydrodynamic drag forces attempting to detach it from the surface and
surface tension and liquid inertia forces acting to prevent detachment. The liquid
inertia force is a dynamic force resulting from the displacement of liquid during bubble
growth. The growth velocity of a bubble and hence the inertia] force is a strong func-
tion of the liquid superheat which, in turn,is inversely proportional to the size of the

active cavity. A small cavity thus forms a bubble with a faster growth rate than from
3 large cavity. Hatton and Hail‘d have considered all the forces acting on a growing
bubble and have concluded that for small cavity sizes (rj<0 01 mm
for water at
atmospheric pressure) the bubble size at departure is dictated mainly by a balance
between buoyancy and liquid inertia forces. For larger cavity sizes, the growth rate
decreases, the dynamic forces become small, and the bubble size at departure is set
by a balance between buoyancy and surface tension forces.^* Fritz*® and Ende first
considered this latter case and proposed the equation.

OOiOSof-T.^ — :!*
(4.29)

When surface tension forces are dominant, the departing bubbles tend to be spherical.
With inertial forces dominant the bubble tends to be hemispherical and when both
forces arc significant the bubble has an oblate shape.*®
Individual nucleation sites emit bubbles with a constant frequency, the value of
which varies from site to site. Jakob*‘ observed that the product of bubble frequency
and departure diameter was a constant which Zuber** has evaluated m the following
form:

/Dj = (4.30)

Under conditions where governed by dynamic forces

the bubble departure process is

the relationship becomes / = const. For water at atmospheric pressure bubble

departure diameters are in the range 1-2 5 mm
and bubble frequencies in the range
20-40 s'*. \

4.4 Fool Boiling

Pool boiling is defined as boiling from a heated surface submerged in a large volume of
stagnant liquid. This liquid may be at its boiling point in which case the term saturated
pool boiling is employed or below its boiling point when the term subcooled pool boding
is used. The results of investigations into heat transfer rates in pool boiling
are usually

1J8
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
plotted on a graph of surface heat flux (^) against heater wall surface temperature
(7w)— thfi ‘boiling curve’. Such a curve for the boiling of water at atmospheric
pressure is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4.6. An alternative presentation might use

the wall superheat (T^^—Ts/a) rather than the wall temperature itself.

m
130

AB natural convection
120
BC nucleate boiling
ONB onset of nucleate HO
boiling
CHF critical heat flux
DE transition boiling
EF film boiling

(D
y
.2 40

30

20

10

0
70 100 200 400 700 1000 2000
Heater surface temperature, °C

Figr4t6. Pool Boiling Curve for Water at Atmospheric Pressure

The component parts of the boiling curve are well known —Fig. 4.7 shows a
representation of each region;
(a) the natural AB where temperature gradients are set up in the
convection region
pool and heat removed by natural convection to the free surface and thence by
is

evaporation to the vapour space.

(b) The onset of nucleate boiling (onb) where the wall superheat becomes sufficient
to cause vapour nucleation at the heating surface. This may occur close to the
point where the curves AB and B'C meet as is usually the case for water at atmos-
pheric pressure and above. Alternatively it may occur at much larger superheats
than those required to support fully developed nucleate boiling, resulting in a
sharp drop in surface temperature from B to B' for the case of a constant surface

119
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

-/

CW5 Onset Of
nudeate tJOil'mg

B' fKiCteate boiling

low heat fluxes

high heat fluxes

Tq_ DE Transition t»rlrng

nnWVsn'WvN.'s'swwwss

Fig. 4.7. The Various Stages in the Pool Boiling Curve

heat flux. This latter behaviour is associated with fluids at very low reduced
pressures, e g , water at below atmospheric pressure and liquid metals in particular,
(c) The nucleate boiling region (B'C) where vapour nucleation occurs at the heating
surface. Starting with a few individual sites at low heal fluxes the vapour structure

120
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
changes, as the heat fluxis increased, as a result of bubble coalescence and finally,

at high heat fluxes, vapour patches and columns are formed close to the surface.
(d) The critical heat flux (chf or point D) marks the upper limit of nucleate boiling
where the interaction of the liquid and vapour streams causes a restriction of the
liquid supply to the heating surface.
(e) The transition boiling region (DE) is characterized by the existence of an unstable
vapour blanket over the heating surface that releases large patches of vapour at
more or less regular intervals. Intermittent wetting of the surface is believed to
occur. This region can only be studied under conditions approximating to constant
surface temperature.
(f) The EF where a stable vapour film covers the entire heating
film boiling region
surfaceand vapour is released from the film periodically in the form of regularly-
spaced bubbles. Heat transfer is accomplished principally by conduction and
convection through the vapour film with radiation becoming significant as the
surface temperature is increased.

Each region will now be considered in more detail. ^

The natural convection region. In the natural convection region the liquid maV be at or
below the saturation temperature. The temperature gradient away from ther.surface
may be established from work on single-phase natural convection. For example, for
turbulent natural convection from a horizontal flat surface, one well-known correla-

M
tion^^ is ]
J

= 0.14 (4.31)'
Iktj A A A ^

where D is the diameter of the surface and p is the coefficient of expansion. (

-Nucleation in a temperature gradient. As the surface heat flux is increased so the surface
temperature exceeds the saturation temperature. Earlier discussion of vapour nuclea-
y
tion has considered only uniform temperature fields and it is now necessary to discuss
the influence on nucleation of a temperature gradient away from a surface. Consider
Fig. 4.8 which shows a conical active nucleation site with a hemispherical vapour
nucleus, radius r^ (corresponding to a contact angle, 0, of 90°), sitting at the mouth of
the cavity. For other contact angles a simple geometrical relationship exists between
the radius of the vapour nucleus and the radius of the eavity mouth. Also shown is the
liquid temperature profile away from the surface. The liquid temperature well away
from the surface is and the wall temperature is 7\v The temperature gradient is
assumed to be essentially linear through the thermal boundary layer, thickness S. If
the heat transfer coefficient in single-phase natural convection is h, then 5 is given
approximately by the expression

5 = (4.32)
it

Typically S may be of the order of OT mm for water.

Hsu^'^ postulated that the criterion for nucleation from this site is that the tempera-
ture of the liquid surrounding the top of the bubble should exceed that necessary for
the nucleus to remain in equilibrium (eq. (4.8) ). A convenient way of representing

J2J
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
this criterion diagrammatically is shown in Fig. 4.8, taking into account distortion of
the temperature isotherm due to the presence of the bubble. If the line representing
the liquid temperature profile intersects the equilibrium bubble curve then nucleation
occurs.The first nucleation site to be activated corresponds to the point of tangency
between the equilibrium bubble curve and the liquid temperature profile. The wall
temperature corresponding to this condition will be (rw)oNB- The remaining variable
is the relation of the location of the liquid temperature isotherm for 7, to the critical

bubble radius. Hsu^^ assumed this distance was 2 but Han and Griffith^^ suggested
1'5 r, from potential flow theory. It is often convenient to assume that no distortion

of the isotherm occurs and the distance is then r,. With this latter assumption, if the

liquid pool is at the saturation temperature, i.e., Tf„ = Ts\t then the size of the cavity

satisfying the condition of tangency will be r, «= 5/2, i.e., approximately 50 pm for

water at atmospheric pressure. The superheat corresponding to this size of cavity is
about rC for water. In practice some I0-I5"C of superheat is normally required to
initiate boiling of water at atmospheric pressure from a flat metallic surface.
The discrepancy lies in the fact that cavities of radius 50 pm are not normally
active sites (that is they do not contmn a vapour embryo). Returning to Fig. 4.8, if an
active site of size r. does not exist on the heating surface then the wall temperature

122
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
must be increased until the liquid temperature profile intersects the equilibrium bubble
curve at a point where active cavities do exist, e.g., to (rw')oNB- Brown^® has measured
the active site distribution on various surfaces and reasonable populations of active
sites (greaterthan 1 site/cm^) occur only for cavity radii below 10 /im.
Nucleate boiling. In the nucleate boiling region the surface temperature increases very
slowly for a relatively large change in surface heat flux (Fig. 4.6). The surface tempera-
ture is often expressed in the form of an empirical power law relationship,

Ty/ ~ (j>"
(4.33)

where ^ and n are constants depending upon the physical properties of the liquid and
vapour and upon the nucleation properties of the surface, n will normally be in the
range 0-25-0-5. Very many dimensionless relationships have been published over the
years which attempt to seek a relationship of the arbitrary form

Nu = CjRe*Pr»’ / (4.34)

by analogy with the relationships found satisfactory for forced convection of single
phase fluids. Various characteristic parameters have been inserted into these dimen-
sionless parameters.*^ For example, as one of many alternatives, the bubble diameter
at departure from the surface given by eq. (4.29) 'can be used as the characteristic
length in forming the Nusselt and Reynolds numbers

(4.35)

Rohsenow*® chose the superficial liquid velocity towards the surface as the velocity
Reynolds number
in the

Re =
r g T Pf (4.36)
'fgPfU(pf-Pg)J fi[

The complete equation proposed by Rohsenow*® contains an arbitrary constant C^f

included to account for the differing nucleation properties of any particular liquid-
surface combination thus

Nu = —
C-sf
Re<‘-">Prr-" (4.37)

This can be arranged to give

= c, J ‘
(4.38)
fig J 'rg\8(Pf“PgV J L ^ Jr

The original equation had values of n = 0-33 and m = 0-7. Rohsenow has, however,

recently recommended that for water only the value of m

be changed to zero. Values of
Csf for various liquid-surface combinations are given in Table 4.1. A detailed study
of the values of C^f and n for various liquid-surface combinations and various surface
preparation techniques has been reported by Vachon et al.^^'
Forster and Zuber®‘ used the bubble radius (eq. (4.26)) and the bubble growth
velocity (eq. (4.25) ) and obtained the following correlation

123
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

where r* is the equilibrium bubble radius given by eq. (4.9).

The mechanism of nucleate pool boiling has been the subject of considerable debate
during the past twenty or so years. Detailed observations and plausible theoretical
models abound.^’ None, however, have become generally accepted as the correct
explanation for the great improvement in heat transfer in this region.

Table 4.1 Values of for the Rohsenow equation for

various itquid-sufface ccHnbinatiORS

Liquid-turface eombiiutioa C,i

ifPeatane on polished copper 0-0154

K>7estane on potisbed nickel 0 0127
Water on polished copper 00128
Carbon tetrachloride on polished copper 0 0070
Water on lapped copper 0 0147
n.Peatane on lapped copper 0 0049
n-Peniane on emesy rubbed copper 0 0074
Water on scored copper 0-006S
Water on fround and polished stainless steel 0 OOSO
Water on Teflon pitted stainless steel 0 0058
Water on chemieaUy etched stainless steel 0 013}
Water on tneehaoically pobshed staioless steel 00132

Whenever possible It is reeommeaded tbit a pool boiling

csperiment ^ carsted out to determine the value of C,r
applicable lo the panicular conditions of interest. In the
absence of such information a value of C.r of 0 013 may be
used as a tint approumation.

(a) Atthe onset of (b) At moderaleheat {c> At low subcoolings

subcooted nucleate fluxes and
boiling subcooliogs

Fig. 4.9. Represeotatioo of Subcooled Nucleate Boiling

In the case of boiling of a liquid considerably below its saturation temperature

no bubbles are visible at the point of bubble nucleation (onb). Hot jets of
(Fig. 4.9),
liquid are projected from the superheated boundary layer into the cold liquid. As the
heat flux or the pool temperature is increased so vapour bubbles appear at the heating
surface but condense before they arc released. This process induces microconvection
in the thermal boundary layer as illustrated by the Schlicren photographs of Bahr
which are reproduced in Fig. 4.10. Finally, at temperatures close to the saturation
temperature, bubbles at the heating surface grow and detach only to be condensed in
the cold liquid as they rise to the free surface.
When the liquid is at the saturation temperature, bubbles no longer condense in the

124
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
liquid pool but rise to the free surface.
At low surface heat fluxes (or low superheats)
close to the onset of boiling (onb), the
main mechanism of heat transfer appears to be
one of bubble-enhanced natural convection. TTie bubble as it grows pushes a small

pictures 1-4 5-8 9-12

Fig. 4.10. Sequence of Pictures Demonstrating the Bubble Generation, the Bubble Con-
densation and the Induced Micro-Convection. Time Interval Between Successive Photographs
0-7xI0-^s(Bahr)

part of the superheated boundary layer away from the surface and, when it departs,
drags the liquid withit. Cooler liquid takes its place close to the surface and is heated

by transient conduction to restore the boundary layer. At higher heat fluxes the mech-
anism changes somewhat. Detailed visual observations of the bubble growth process

125
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
synchronized with studies of the temperature variation of the heating surface reveal
an interesting picture. Figure 4. 1 1 illustrates, in an idealized form, the behaviour during
nucleation at a single site on the surface. After detachment of the previous bubble there
is a period of time (the waiting period) while the bubble nucleus attains a critical

condition. As soon as the critical condition is reached, the bubble grows very rapidly
pushing superheated liquid away from the surface and leaving a thin layer of liquid
only a few micrometres thick (the ‘microlaycr’) adhering to the surface below the
bubble. This liquid is rapidly vaporized with the consequent rapid removal of heat
from the surface leading to a sharpieduciion in surface temperature. While the bubble

is growing rapidly inertial forces hold it to the surface. When the rapid growth rate is

concluded by the evaporation of the film, buoyancy forces cause the bubble to detach
from the surface. The disturbance zone around the bubble is about 1 *5 times the bubble
departure diameter,
f
V An important feature of the bubble cycle is the waiting period. In the nudeation

-'model of Hsu** this period is occupied by reforming the superheated boundary layer
by transient conduction as illustrated in Fig. 4.12. It is assumed that the detachment

of the bubble completely removes the thermal boundary layer and that at the start of
the waiting period (r « 0) the bulk liquid extends up to the wall. The thermal
boundary layer is slowly built up again by transient conduction until at a time i = tj
the temperature at a distance nr, from the surface becomes equal to that required for
an equilibrium bubble of radius r^. If there is an active cavity of r, then bubble growth
will occur after this time t„ the end of the waiting period. The onset of nuclealion

126
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
(onb) corresponds to an infinite waiting period. The theorj' of is in error in one
major assumes transient conduction to the liquid from a surface held at
respect. It
constant temperature. In actual fact, a considerable amount of heat is removed from the
heating surface in the microlayer vaporization process and the temperature of the heat-
ing surface itself must be recovered by transient conduction of heat from material
surrounding the site.

,
Critical heat flux (chf). Tbe curve, shown in Fig. 4.6 for the pool boiling of water at
atmospheric pressure from a flat surface, can only be obtained in its entirety under

circumstances where the temperature of the heating surface is controlled to a specified

value. In many practical cases, however, the surface heat flux is the independently
controlled variable. In this case, the boiling curve in the natural convection (AB) and
nucleate boiling (B'C) regions remains basically unaltered. However, if an attempt is
made to increase the value of the surface heat flux above D
the surface temperature
will jump from that corresponding to D (~ 135°C) to that corresponding to point D'
(~ 1 1 50°C) the next stable operating point in the film boiling region. In many practical
cases this large temperature jump is sufficient to cause failure of the heating surface.
Hence the colloquial name ‘burnout’ which is often used to refer to this phenomenon.
The critical heat flux in pool boiling is now generally accepted as being mainly of
127
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
hydrodynamic origin. The mechanism is one where sufficient liquid is unable to reach
the heating surface due to the rate al which wpour is leaving the surface.jln 1951
Kutateladze^* proposed that the critical heat flux was characterized by a limiting
vapour volumetric flux from the surface given by

(i,)M (4.40)

where the value of /fwasO 16+003. For the case where the liquid is at the saturation
temperature and all the vapour is produced at the heating surface, then

(4.41)
P, »ff

(4.42)

For liquid metals and also for certain two-component systems the assumption that all
>/
the vapour is produced at the heating surface may be untrue. Equation (4.42) is also
strictly valid only for boiling of pure liquids on large thick svcll-Bcttcd horizontal
surfaces facing upwards. Geometrical and surface effects may modify the value in
other situations. Small amounts of impurity in the liquid can also produce large
changes in the critical heat flux. In the case of a liquid subcooled below its saturation
temperature the critical heat flux is increased

^ClUT -K if, +B ATsys) (4.43)

Ivey and Morris** recommend the value of B be given by

.\« ’Vi
B = 0I| 'P,\
’m (4,44)

Transition boiling. In this little-studied region of the boiling curse, liquid periodically
contacts the heating surface with the result that the formation of large amounts of
vapour forces the liquid away from the surface and a vapour film or blanket is formed.
The region is normally only obtainable by controlling the surface temperature to a
predetermined value. From Fig 4.6 it will be seen that for water at atmospheric
pressure this temperature range is about I40-250'’C Because of the periodic nature of
the process the surface heat flux and temperature undergo large vanations of tempera-
ture with time. No adequate theory or model of this region exists at this time.
Fifm fcoifmg. Ait high temperature differences a continuous vapour him blankets the
heater surface. The major resistance to heat transfer is confined to this vapour film and,
because of the lack of liquid-solid contact, this region is the most tractable to analyse.
Vapour is removed from the film in the form of bubbles released regularly m both time
and space (Fig. 4.7). The wavelength is that for Taylor instability given by,

The
fal
relationships for the heat transfer coeffiaent in laminar or turbulent film boiling
(4.45)

128
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
in various geometrical situations can be established by direct analogy with
the
identical relationships derived for film-wise condensation (seechapter 10). For example,
for laminar film boiling from a horizontal tube, Bromley^® gives, by analogy with eq
(10.71);

*
/, _ Q.g2 Ps he
(4.46)
B Pg AT
where if^ is an effective latent heat of vaporization allowing for the effect of superheat

(4.47)

For very large tubes, horizontal flat surfaces, and very thin wires, eq. (4.46) is inac-
curate.For large diameter tubes and flat horizontal surfaces the characteristic length is
more correctly rather than the tube diameter D. Thus, Breen and Westwater^’
modified eq. (4.46),

0-59+0-069^ r^CPf-Pe) Pe V 'fg'T

(4.48)
D L K Pe at
Surface temperatures are usually high in film boiling and heat may be transferred by
radiation. Bromley^® proposes the following approximation for combining the effects
of convection and radiation:
h = /i,+0-75 h, (4.49)

where is the convective coefficient (for example from eq. (4.46) or (4.48) ) and is

the radiation coefficient. The value of Ii, is calculated by assuming radiation between
infinite parallel planar surfaces with the liquid acting as a perfect black body:

K (4.50)

where <r is the Stefan-Boltzman constant and e is the emissivity of the heating surface.

4.5 Convective Boiling

Tin chapter 1 (section 1.6.2) the various hydrodynamic conditions encountered when a
liquid boiled in a confined channel were described in general qualitative terms. These
is

earlier comments will provide a starting point for the more detailed discussion of the
various heat transfer topics to be dealt with in this section and the following chapters.

4.5.1 The Regimes of Heat Transfer

Consider again a vertical tube heated uniformly over its length with a low heat flux
and fed with subcooled liquid at its base at such a rate that the liquid is totally evapor-
ated over the length of the tube. Figure 4.13 shows, in diagrammatic form, the various
flow patterns encountered over the length of the tube, together with the corresponding
heat transfer regions.
Whilst the liquid is being heated up to the saturation temperature and the wall

129
Fig. 4.13. Regions of Heat Transfer in Convective Boiling
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
temperature remains below that necessary for nucleation, the process of heat transfer
is single phase convective heat transfer to the liquid phase (region A). At some point

along the tube, the conditions adjacent to the wall are such that the formation of
vapour from nucleation sites can occur. Initially vapour formation takes place in the
presence of subcooled liquid (region B) and this heat transfer mechanism is known as
subcooled nucleate boiling. In the subcooled boiling region, B, the wall temperature
remains essentially constant a few degrees above the saturation temperature, whilst the
mean bulk fluid temperature is increasing to the saturation temperature. The amount
by which the wall temperature exceeds the saturation temperature is known as the
‘degree of superheat’, and the difference between the saturation and local bulk
fluid temperature is known as the ‘degree of subcooling’, ATsub-

The between regions B and C, the subcooled nucleate boiling region and
transition
the saturated nucleate boiling region is clearly defined from a thermodynamic viewpoint.
It is the point at which the liquid reaches the saturation temperature (x = 0) found

on the basis of simple heat balance calculations. However, as explained in section

1.6.2, subcooled liquid can persist in the liquid core even in the region defined as
saturated nucleate boiling. Vapour generated in the subcooled region is present at the
transition between regions B and C (x = 0); thus some of the liquid must be subcooled
to ensure that the liquid mixed mean (mixing cup) enthalpy equals that of saturated
liquid (/f).
This effect occurs as a result of the radial temperature profile in the liquid
and the subcooled liquid flowing in the centre of the channel will only reach the satura-
tion temperature at some distance downstream of the point x = 0. The non-equilibrium
processes which occur around this transition will be discussed in detail in chapter 6.

In the regions C
G, the variable characterizing the heat transfer mechanism is
to
the thermodynamic mass ‘quality’ (x) of the fluid. Let the enthalpy of the liquid at
the tube inlet be in (corresponding to a temperature T(^. Then the enthalpy after a
length, z, along the tube is given by

<-(z) = --n+^ (4.51)

The ‘quality’ of the vapour-liquid mixture at a distance, z is given on a thermodynamic

basis as

x(z) = ^^^ (4.52)

or in terms of heat flux and length

x(z) = -^^(z-zsc) (4.53)

D G ifg
where z^c the length of tube required to bring the enthalpy of the liquid up to the
is

saturated liquid enthalpy, (). In the region 0<x<

1 and for complete thermodynamic

equilibrium, x represents the ratio of the vapour mass flow-rate to the total mass
flow-rate.From the thermodynamic definition, eq. (4.52), x may have both negative
values and values greater than unity. Although these are sometimes used for con-
venience, particularly in Russian publications, negative values or values greater than

131
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
unity have no practical significance other than to signify that in the former case the
conditionis that of a subcooled liquid and, in the latter case, that of a superheated

vapour. The variable x is also often referred to as the ‘vapour weight fraction’.
As the quality increases through the saturated nucleate boiling region a point may
be reached where a fundamental transition in the mechanism of heat transfer takes
place. The process of ‘boiling* is replaced by the process of ‘evaporation*. This tran-
sition is preceded by a change in the flow pattern from bubbly or slug flow to annular
flow (regions E and F). In the latter regions the thickness of the thin liquid film on the
heating surface is often such that the effective thermal conductivity is sufficient to
prevent the liquid in contact with the wall bang superheated to a temperature which
would allow bubble nucleation. Heat is away from the wall by forced con-
carried
vection in the film to the liquid film-vapour core interface, where evaporation occurs.
Since nucleation is completely suppressed, the heat transfer process can no longer be
called ‘boiling*. The region beyond the transition has been referred to as the two-phase
forced convective region of heat transfer (regions E and F).
At some critical value of the quality the complete evaporation of the liquid film
occurs. This transition is known as ‘dryout* and is accompanied by a rise in the wall

temperature for channels operating with a controlled surface heat flux, The area
between the dryout point and the transition to dry saturated vapour (region H) has
been termed the liquid deficient region (conesponding to the drop flow pattern)
(region G). This condition of ‘dryout’ often puts an effective limit on the amount of
evaporation that can be allowed to take place In a tube at a particular value of heat
flux. It is extremely important In the design of evaporators, pipe stills, steam boilers,
nuclear reactors, and other units cooled by forced convection boiling.

4.5.2 The Boiling Map

It is useful at this stage to describe, at least qualitatively, the progressive variation of
the local heat transfer coefficient along the length of the tube as evaporation proceeds
The local heat transfer coefficient can be established by dividing the surface heat flux
(constant over the tube length) by the difference between the wall temperature and the
bulk fluid temperature. Typical variations of these two temperatures with length along
the tube are shown in Fig. 4.13. The variation of heat transfer coefficient with length
along the tube for the conditions represented in Fig. 4.13 is given in Fig. 4.14 (curve
(i), solid line). In the single phase convective heat transfer region, the heat transfer
coefficient is relatively constant, changing only slightly due to the influence of tem-
perature on the liquid physical properties. In the subcooted nucleate boiling region the
temperature difference between the wall and the bulk fluid decreases linearly with
length up to the point where x = 0. The heal transfer coefficient, therefore, increases
linearly with length in this region. In the saturated nucleate boiling region the tempera-
ture difference and therefore the heat transfer coefficient remain constant. Because of
the reducing thickness of the liquid film in the two-phase forced convective region heat
transfer in this region is characterized by an increasing coefficient with increasing

length or mass quality. At the dryout point the heat transfer coefficient is suddenly
reduced from a very high value in the forced convective region to a value near to that
expected for heat transfer by forced convection to dry saturated vapour. As the quality

132
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
increases through the liquid deficient region so the vapour velocity increases and the
heat transfer coefficient rises correspondingly. Finally, in the single-phase vapour
region (:>c> 1) the heat transfer coefficient levels out to that corresponding to convective
heat transfer to a single-phase vapour flow.
The above comments have been restricted to the case where a relatively low heat
flux is supplied to the walls of the tube. The effect of progressively increasing the surface
heat flux whilst keeping the inlet flow-rate constant will now be considered with
reference to Figs. 4.14 and 4.15. Figure 4.14 shows the heat transfer coefficient plotted

Fig. 4.14. Variation of Heat Transfer Coefficient with Quality with Increasing Heat Flux as
Parameter

against mass quality with increasing heat flux as parameter (curves (i)-(vii) ). Figure
4.15 shows the various regions of two-phase heat transfer in forced convection boiling
on a plot of heat flux against mass quality—‘the boiling map’. Curve (i) relates to
the conditions shown in Fig. 4.13 for a low heat flux being supplied to the walls of
the tube (Fig. 4.15). Curve (ii) shows the influence of increasing the heat flux. Sub-
cooled boiling is initiated sooner, the heat transfer coefficient in the nucleate boiling
region is higher but is unaffected in the two-phase forced convective region. Dryout
occurs at a lower mass quality. Curve (iii) shows the influence of a further increase in
heat flux. Again, subcooled boiling is initiated earlier and the heat transfer is again

133
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
higher in the nucleate boiling region. As the mass quality increases, before the two-
phase forced convective region is initiated and while bubble nucleation is still occur-
ring, an abrupt deterioration in the cooling process takes place. This transition is
essentially similar to the critical heat flux phenomenon in saturated pool boiling and
will be termed ‘departure from nucleate boiling* (onb).
The mechanism of heat transfer under conditions where the critical heat Sux (dnb

Fig. 4.15. Regions of Two-Phase Forced Comtctivc Heat Transfer as a Function of Quality
with locreasing Heat Flux as Ordinate

or dryout) has been exceeded is dependent on whether the initial condition was the
process of ‘boiling’ (i.e., bubble nucleation m tbe subcoolcd or low mass quality
regions) or the process of ‘evaporation’ (i.e., evaporation at the liquid film-vapour

core interface in the higher mass quality areas). In the latter case, the ‘liquid deficient
region’ is initiated; in the former case the resulting mechanism is one of ‘film boiling’

(Fig. 4.15).
Returning to Figs. 4.14 and 4.15 it can be seen that further increases in heat flux
(curves (vi) and (vii) ) cause the condition of ‘departure from nucleate boiling’ (dnb)
to occur in the subcooled region with the whole of the saturated or ‘quality* rc^on
being occupied by firstly ‘film boiling’ and, in the latter sta^, by the ‘liquid deficient
region' —
both relatively inefficient modes of beat transfer.

134
 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
In Fig. 4.15 the film boiling region has been arbitrarily divided into two regions:
‘subcooled film boiling’ and ‘saturated film boiling’. ‘Film boiling’ in forced convec-
tive flow is essentially similar to that observed in pool boiling. An insulating vapour
film covers the heating surface through which the heat must pass. The heat transfer
coefficient orders of magnitude lower than in the corresponding region before the
is

critical heat flux was exceeded, due mainly to the lower thermal conductivity of the

vapour.

4.5.3 The Critical Heat Flux Condition in Forced Convection Boiling

Two separate and distinct
—
processes ‘departure from nucleate boiling’ (dnb) and
‘dryout’ —have been discussed which can cause an abrupt temperature rise in a heat
flux-controlled situation. In the present text, a distinction will be made between the
precise point at which a more or less rapid surface temperature rise from a tempera-
ture close to the saturation value is initiated and the point at which failure of the
heating surface due to rupture or melting occurs. The term ‘critical heat flux’ will be
used to cover the former case and will serve as a generic term covering the three pro-
cesses; DNB (subcooled), dnb
and dryout. The failure of the heating sur-
(saturated),
face will be termed ‘physical burnout’ and the heat flux which causes this condition,
‘the physical burnout heat flux’. The term ‘burnout heat flux’, which also suggests this
latter condition, has been abused by many who use it to denote the heat flux at which

the rapid deterioration of the cooling process occurs. This ambiguity can be illustrated
by reference to Fig. 4. 1 5. Low heat transfer coefficients coupled with the relatively
high heat flux values required to initiate film boiling in the subcooled or low quality
regions results in extremely high temperature differences at the critical heat flux
condition. Failure of the heating surface usually occurs and thus the heat flux to
initiate dnb is often identical with that to cause ‘physical burnout’ —the physical
burnout heat flux. However, this is not the case in the liquid deficient region where
higher heat transfer coefficients and lower critical heat fluxes cause only modest
temperature excursions at ‘dryout’. In this region the physical burnout locus denotes
a particular isotherm representing the failure criterion for the chosen heating surface.
The physical burnout heat flux may be many times the critical heat flux in this region.
In the following chapters criteria will be established whereby the boundaries
— —
delineated in Fig. 4.15 ‘the boiling map’ can be fixed. In addition methods for
calculating heat transfer rates and other relevant information in each heat transfer
region will be discussed in detail.

References

1. Thomson, W. Phil.Mag. (4) 42, 448 (1871).

2. Westwater, J. W. ‘Boiling of liquids’. Advances in Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2 (Ed.
Drew, T. B. and Hooper, J. P.) Academic Press, New York (1958).
3. Bernath, L. Ind. Engng. Chem., 44, 1310 (1952).
4. Simpson. H. C. and Walls, A. S. ‘A study of nucleation phenomena in transient pool
boiling'. Paper 18 Symp. on Boiling Heat Transfer in Steam Generating Units and Heat
—
Exchangers Manchester, (15-16 Sept. 1965).
5. Knapp, R. T. ‘Cavitation and nuclei’. Trans. ASME, 80, 1321 (1958).

135
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
6. Kast, W. 'Bedeuiung der KeirnUldong und der instationanen WarmcQbertragung fQr
den WarmeQbergang bei Blasenvcrdampfung und Tropfenkondensation*. Chemie Ing.
Teckn 36 Jahrg. 1 964/N9. pp. 933-940 (1964).
7. Bankoff, S. G. 'EbullUion from solid surface* in the absence of a pre-existing gaseous
phase’. Trans. ASME, 79, 735 (1957).
8. Griffith, P. and Wallis, 3. D. ‘The role of surface conditions in nucleate boiling*. Chem.
Engng Prog. Symp. Series, No, 30, 49 (1960).
9. Bankoff, S. G. ‘The prediction of surface temperature at indpient boiling*. Chem. Eng.
Prog. Symp. Series, No. 29, 55, 87 (1959).
10. Holtz, R. E. The effect of the pressure-temperature history upon incipient boiling
superheats in liquid metals*. ANL'71g4 (1966).
11. Fabic, S. 'Vapour nucleation on surfaces subject to transient heating*. Kept. NE-64-1,
University of California (Berkeley) (1964).
12. Griffith, P. and Snyder, C. The inechanism of void formation in initially subcooled
systems*. Rept. 9041-26, Mech. Engng. Dept. M.I.T. (1964).
13. Rayleigh, Lord. Phil. Mag. 34, 94 (i917);Sei. Papers, Vol. 6, Cambridge University Press,
504 (1920).
14. Bomhorst, W. J. and Hatsopoulos, G. N. Trans. ASMEJ. Appl. Mechanics, p. 847 (Dec.
1967).
15. Plcsset, M. and Zwkk. A. J. Appl. Pkys., 25, 474 (1954).
S.
16. Simpson, H. C. and Silver, R. S. Theory of one dimensional two phase homogeneous
non equilibrium flow*. Proe. Inst. Meek. Eng. Symp. Two-Phase Flow, 7 Feb. (1962).
17. Hatton, A. P. and Hall, I. S. 'Photographic study of boiling on prepared surfaces*.
Paper presented at 3rd Ini. Heat Transfer Conf., Chicago, (Aug. 1 9^.
18. Howell, J. R. and Siegel, R. ‘Incipience, growth and detachment of filing bubbles ia
saturated water from artiflaal nucleation sites of known geometry and size*. Paper
presented at 3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Chicago, (Aug. 1966).
19. Fritz, W.'Berechnungdes Maximal Volume von Dampfblasen*. PAyj. Z., 36, 379 (1935).
20. Johnson, M. A., de la Pena, J., and Mesler, R. fi. 'Bubble shapes in nucleate boiling*.
Chem. Engng. Prog. Symp. Series, 62, 1 (1966).
21. Jakob. M. Heat Transfer, 1 (John Wiley, New York) (1958).
22. Zuber, N. ’Nucleate boiling— the region of isolated bubbles-^imilanty with natural
convection*. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 6, 53 (1963).
23. Fishenden, M. and Saunders, O. An Introduction to Heat Transfer, Oxford Univenity
Press (1950).
24. Hsu, Y. Y. 'On the size of range of active nucleation cavities on a heating surface*.
Trans. ASMEJ. of Heat Transfer. 84, 207 (1962).
25. Han, C. Y. and mechanism of heat transfer in nucleate pool boiling.
Gnffith, P. *Tlie
Bubble initiation,
Pt. I: growth and departure*. Int.J. Heat Mass Transfer, 8, 887 (1965).
26. Brown, W. T. ‘A study of flow surface boiling'. Ph.D. Thesis, M.I.T. Medt Eng. Dept.
(1967).
27. Zuber, N. and Fried, E. Two phase flow and boiling heat transfer to cryogenic liquids’.
APS Journal, pp. 1332-1341 (Sept. 1962).
28. Rohsenow, W. M. *A method of corrclatmg heat transfer data for surface boiling of
liquids*. /^SAfF. 74, 969-975 (1952).
29. Vachon, R. I. ei al. ‘Evaluation of constants for the Rohsenow pool boiling correlation*.
Paper presented at U.S. Nat. Heat Transfer Conf. Seattle, Paper 67-HT-33. (Aug. 1967).
30. Vachon, R. I. et al ‘Pool boiling on polished and chemically etched stainless steel sur-
faces’. Paper presented at U.S. Nat. Heal Transfer Conf. Seattle, Paper 67'HT-34. (Aug.
1967).
31. Forster, H. K. and Zuber, N. ‘Bubble dynamics and boiling heat transfer*. A.I.Ck.E.
Journal, 1, 532 (1955).
32. Dwyer, O. E. ‘On inapient boiling wall superheats in liquid metals*. Jnt. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, 12, 1403-1419 (1969).

136
 J
INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE BOILING
33. Bahr, A. ‘The microconvection in boiling water induced by single bubbles’. Paper pre-
sented at Symp. on Two-phase Flow, Exeter, (21-23 June 1965).
34. Kutateladze, S. S. ‘A hydrodynamic theory of changes in the boiling process under free
convection’. Izv. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R. Otd. Tekh. Nauk. No. 4, p. 529 (1951).
35. Ivey. H. J. and Morris, D. J. ‘On the relevance of the vapour-liquid exchange mechanism
for sub-cooled boiling heat transfer at high pressure’ 137 (1962). AEEW-R
36. Bromley, L. A. ‘Heat transfer in stable film boiling’. Chem. Eng. Prog., 46, 221-221 (1950).
37. Breen, B. P. and Westwater, J. W. ‘Effect of diameter of horizontal tubes on film boiling
heat transfer’. A.I.Ch.E. preprint No. 19, 5th Nat. U.S. Heat Transfer Conf, Houston,
Texas, (Aug. 1962).

Example 1
Determine the wall superheat required to cause nucleation from a horizontal flat plate
immersed in water at atmospheric pressure,

(a) when active cavities of all sizes are present,

(b) when active cavities of sizes below 5 pm only are present.

Solution
The relevant physical properties for water are;

Tsat = lOO'^C = 373°K M = 18 kg/kmol.

a = 0-059 N/m /fg
= 2-255 MJ/kg
= OQ-l
p (coefficient of expansion) 7.2 ^ 10-4

Vf = 3-1 X 10"’ m^/s Pif = 1-9

(a) The thermal boundary layer thickness

From eq. (4.31)

hD
= 0-14 ^^gA7w£W^ (4.31)

h '7-2 X 10"^ X 9-806 x

= 0-141
kt
g
d (3-lxl0-’)2 r
= 0-14x5-192x10® ATw*
5 = 1-38 X 10~®/Arw*m (1)

(b) Local superheat relationship

Use can be made of eq. (4.9) since v^>Vt and

2x0-059
= 0-24(<l)
10®x5xl0"®

Equation (4.9) gives

— RT.
la
ATIat -
(4.9)
icgM ptT*

137
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The method used is that by Hsu for the determination of the nucleation condition
within a temperature gradient. No distortion of the isotherms by the bubble
nucleus is assumed.
Thus, = r*

8314-3x373* /2x0059\ /'2-96xlO"*Y

ATsat* ’C (2)
2-255xl0®xl8^I0*xr./ r,
)

(c) Wall superheat requirement

Now with all cavities present

rt~Sf2 (A7^)onb — 2A7i^T (Fig. 4.8)

For condition (a) combining eqs. (I) and (2)

4-92x10“* 9-84x10“
(A7w)onb *

« 7-12x10“* ATw*
Therefore (ATw)onb = 0 OIS'^C

S = 5-18 mm
For condition (b) because the inlerscctton of the liquid temperature profile and the
equilibrium bubble curve takes place close to the horizontal axis in Fig. 4.8,

(A^w)o^B ^ ^"^SAT
.
2-96x10“* 2-96x10'*
**
r,
“ 5x10’* “

PROBLEMS
1. Compute the relationship between superheat and equilibrium bubble radius for
liquid sodium at one atmosphere pressure (TVat *= SSl'C) using eq. (4.8). Compare
this with that obtained from eq. (4.9) and also the value for water at one atmos-
phere pressure. Docs sodium require a higher or lower superheat to cause nuclca-
tion than water?

Af = 23 kg/kmol R= 8314-3 N.m/kmo!."K = 3-78 MJ/kg

c = 0-1 13 N/m ~
Pf 742 kg/m* p, — 0-274 kg/m*

2. Compute the most likely size of active cavity on a stainless steel surface immersed
in liquid sodium at one atmosphere. Assume that the vapour pressure of sodium
within the cavity when ‘wetting’ takes place is negligibly small.

3. Modify eq. (4.22) to account for the influence of viscous forces within the liquid

on the growth rate of a spherical bubble in a uniformly superheated fluid.

Answer A*+4p
^
138
 5

SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

5.1 Introduction

After a brief comment concerning heat transfer to a single-phase liquid flowing in a

is taken up with the topic of heat transfer to a
channel, the remainder of this chapter
flowing subcooled liquid under conditions where nucleate boiling takes place at the
channel wall. The criteria necessary for the onset of nucleation with forced convection
are considered in detail. This is followed by a description of alternative methods for
calculating the change of heat transfer rate and surface temperature with the inde-
pendent variables such as velocity, heat flux, and liquid temperature. Finally the
various possible mechanisms of subcooled boiling are considered.
Although a very large proportion of the studies on forced convection boiling have
been carried out using the water-steam system, whenever justified the relationships
derived in this and the following chapters have been kept as general as possible so as
to apply to all single component systems.

5.2 Single-Phase Liquid Heat Transfer

Returning to Fig. 4.13, the first heat transfer regions encountered when a liquid is fed
to a vertical evaporator tube are those of ‘single-phase heat transfer to the liquid
phase’ (region A) and ‘subcooled boiling’ (region B). Figure 5.1 shows in an idealized
form the flow pattern and the variation of surface and liquid temperatures in the
regions designated by A, B, and C. In the following discussion it is assumed that the
pressure drop along the channel is small compared with the applied static pressure and
that the saturation temperature is constant along the channel. In any practical analysis,
however, the variation of saturation pressure and temperature with length can be
accounted for and the contribution of ‘flashing’ to the vapour flow-rate taken into
consideration when calculating the mass quality (x:).
Consider initially the region of the tube in which the bulk liquid temperature is
rising to the saturation temperature (regions A and B, z = 0 to z = Zs^-). A simple
heat balance up to distance z from the tube inlet gives,

4>r.Dz^WiC^f{T^z)-T,d (5.1)

where Cpf is the liquid specific heat and Tf (z) is the mean liquid temperature at a length
139
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
2 from the tube inlet. Rearranging and substituting C= 4 IVflnD^ then 7}(r) is
given by,

Tt(2)^T„+- (5.2)

Region C, saturated nucleate boiling, starts when Ti (r) equals Tsat* tb® saturation

. The eomWwi regTOftS K B, \he ^vihcooled wsiotis, vs

given by,

= (5 3 )
-

The tube surface temperature in region A, convective heat transfer to single-phase

liquid, is given by,
7W=r,(r)+Arr (5-4)

and
(5.5)

140
 Z

SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

where AT} is the temperature difference between the tube inside surface and the mean
bulk liquid temperature at a length 2 from the tube inlet, is the heat transfer co-

efficient to single phase liquid under forced convection. The liquid in the channel may
be in laminar or turbulent flow. The laws goverm’ng laminar or turbulent convective
heat transfer are well established. For laminar flow a variety of theoretical relation-
ships are available depending on the boundary conditions, i.e., constant surface heat
flux or surface temperature, developing velocity profile or fully developed flow. The
following empirical equation based on experimental data takes into account the
effect of varying physical properties across the flow stream and the influence of free
convection.

(5.6)
- _ _ Fr _ _ ^ . f J
This relationship is valid for heating in vertical upflow or cooling in vertical downflow
for z{D> 50 and [C7i)//if]<2000.
For turbulent flow the well-known Dittus-Boelter equation has been found satis-
factory.

= 0-023r—1° T (5.7)
_fcfj L^J L^jf
This relationship is valid for heating in vertical upflowfor z/i) > 50 and [GD/ni] > 10,000.
The heating surface temperature, is thus given by,

4z
+ (5.8)
GCpf D
Now, region B, the subcooled boiling region, is initiated when equals (7sy^T+

(A7’sy^T)oNB)- Thus the length of tube under non-boiling conditions, z^bi is given by

_ ^ ^pf -P -b (^Tsat)onb
^ (5.9)
4 _
<j>

or
G Cpf -P _1 (A^satOoot
^SC~^NB (5.10)
4 [jth <f>

(ATsijb)! is the inlet subcooling (TjAT-Tfi); (A7’sat)onb. the amount of superheat

required to initiate nucleation, is a function of the heat flux (j). This relationship
between (ArsAT)oNB ^nd is discussed in section 5.3. Region B will disappear
(f)
if

(zjc— nb) becomes zero. Examination of eq. (5.10) shows this will occur if ATf =
(^^at)onb- From eq. (5.2.)
4 ^ Znb
Tt (^nb) — Tti+ (5.11)
GCpfD
and Arsui,(zNB), the subcooling at the onset of subcooled boiling is given by

44>
^^ub(2nb) — (Zsc~ ^nb) (5.12)
GCj,tD

141
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

5.3 The Onset of Subcooled Nucleate Boiling

Consider now the conditions under which boiling will be initiated in the vertical heated
tube.No boiling can occur whilst the temperature of the heating surface remains
belowthe saturation temperature of thefiuidat that particularlocation, that is 7’sat>7w
and from eqs. (5.5) and (5.8) this minimum limiting condition for nucleation is given
by,

(5.13)

and

(5.14,

or since (7sAT“^ri) ~ and (7sAT~Tf (e) ) = ATjubC^^),

AT,^i2)^iPlh., (5.15)

(5.16)

In a plot of^, the surface beat against (ATsub)], tbe inlet subcooling (Fig. 5.2),
flux,

the inequality (5.16) is, in fact, obeyed in an area (‘subsaturation zone’) bounded by
the abscissa and a line of slope

Within this region there is no possibility whatsoever of nucleation. As the distance, z,

along the channel increases, so the slope decreases, while increases in the mass velocity,
G, the diameter, D, or the liquid phase heat transfer coefficient, ft[„, will yield an in-
creased slope. Usually in any problem the surface beat flux and inlet subcooling are
given together with the desired flow, and it is simple to calculate at what position
along the tube the surface temperature first exceeds the saturation value.
It should be realized that fully developed subcooled boiling does not exist immedi-
ately the surface exceeds the saturation temperature. A region of ’partial boiling’
existsbetween the subsaturation zone and fully developed subcooled boiling (Fig. 5.3).
This zone consists of comparatively few nucleation sites and, in this
‘partial boiling’
zone, a proportion of the heat would be transferred by normal single-phase processes
between patches of bubbles.
Consider the variation of the temperature of the tube inner surface at a point, z,
from the inlet as the heat flux is steadily increased at a given inlet subcooling and mass
velocity. Figure 5.4 shows the relationship in a qualitative form. The three regions
delineated in Fig. 5.3 are shown as the single-phase (subsaturation) region A6, the
‘partial boiling’ region BCDE and the fully developed subcooled boiling region EF.
It will be shown later that the heat flux/surface temperature relationship in the fully
developed region is, to a first approximation, independent of velocity and subcooling

142
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
and may be correlated by the equations of the type obtained from pool boiling experi-
ments. Many such correlations exist but in order to retain simplicity for the present
the following equation is written in the form of a power law relationship,

{T'w^SCB = ^AT+1^^” (5-17)

is a parameter usually containing physical property values and, in many cases, also
i/r

containing a further function characterizing the particular heating surface/fluid com-

bination. n is an exponent having a value in different correlations ranging from 0-25
to 0-5.
As the heat flux is increased at constant subcooling the relationship between the

143
 CONVECTIVE BOlUNC AND CONDENSATION
surface temperature, TV, and heat flux will follow the line ABD' until the fint bubbles
nucleate. This line of course, given by cq. (5.4). A higher degree of superheat is
is,

necessary to initiate the first bubble nudeation sites at a given heat flux than indicated
by the curve ABCDE. When nudeation first occurs the surface temperature drops*
from D' to D and for further increases in heat flux, follows the line DEF.

Rg.54.

The position of D' could be or after the intersection of ABD’ and

either before
C"EF; Bowling,® however, suggested that the condition for nudeation and thus the
onset of subcooled boiling is:

(^)srL ~ (^)scB
or

= (5.1S)

and thus Bownng’s expression for the local subcooling for onset of nucleate boiling is

= (5.19)

144
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Equation (5.19) is based on an arbitrary assumption and, as has been pointed out
earlier, nucleation is a statistical process, depending upon the surface characteristics,
so the relationship is only approximate.
A more refined treatment of the onset of nucleation can be derived by considering
the temperature profile in the region adjacent to the heated wall. This treatment was
originally proposed by Hsu for pool boiling (see chapter 4) and has been used to
predict both the onset of subcooled boiling and the suppression of saturated nucleate
boiling. If the liquid is at a uniform temperature T^, then bubble nuclei of radius
will grow if this temperature exceeds that given by

= In (1 + ^)+ Tsat (5.20)

where

In a heated system, there is a temperature gradient away from the wall which is

approximated in the linear form:

Tf(y) = Tw-(^^) (5.21)

The postulate of Hsu is that the bubble nuclei on cavities in the heated wall will only
grow if the lowest temperature on the bubble surface (i.e., that furthest away from the
wall) is greater than T^. Allowing for the distortion of the liquid temperature profile by
the bubble by plotting against nr^ and Tf against y on the same ordinates (see Fig.

4.8) it be seen that only that range of bubbles for which Tf>T^ (i.e., radii r^iN to
will

Fmax) can grow. If, over the whole field Tx<Tg, then no nuclei will grow. When eq.
(5.21) is just tangent to eq. (5.20) then nuclei of a critical radius, Tcrit will grow. Thus,
for nucleation of the critical nucleus (n = 1)

dTr(y)
5}(y) = Tg, and (5.22)
dy dr

Bergles and Rohsenow^ obtained a graphical solution of eqs. (5.20) and (5.21) for the
conditions set by eq. (5.22) for water over the pressure range 15-2000 psia. The results
were expressed by an empirical equation:

= 15-60p‘-‘^« (ATsat)onb‘"-"'’''°’””'* (5.23)

where ^qnb (Btu/hr.ft^) is the heat flux to cause nucleation at a wall superheat

(ArsAT)oNB (°F) ^ system pressure p (psia). Analytical solution of the equations

was carried out by Davis and Anderson^^ who proceeded as follows:

dT^y) __0 (5.24)

dy fef

ln(l + ^) (5.25)
dr Af/fgPtr^ (1 + ^)L Mi,,

]45
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Equation (5.25) can be simplified provided the wall superheat is not too high if it is
assumed that,

dr, B t

dr “ H(l+{)
(5.26)

(5.27)

Equating eqs. (5.24) and (5.26) and remembering that, at the point of tangency (y-r)
since n is taken as unity,
^ r/^\2 /nt.\n*
(5.28)

Substitution of /taiT fof ' snd eq. (5.21) for T*^) ( « 7*^ in eq. (5.20) yields the wall
superheat required to initiate nucleate boihog

.T. \ C(HTjAT*)MfitJin(l + {auT) ^’os'b'’out

(7-,-r,„w = .

*
P-(R^-)to(,T{au,j/«i,J ~kr~ ‘ ’

^carr -(—)
KPircur/

If {<1 then eq. (5.26) approximates to

(5.30)
dr
Equation (5.28) then becomes

^asT = 1^ (5.31)
V ^
and eq. (5.29) becomes
/T
(tw- ^sat/ow =
’T \ -—
® + ^os'B*'c«n'
r (532)

Substituting eq. (5.11) into eq. (5.12)

(5.33)

Equations (5.23) and (5.33) are in good agreement with each other and adequately
predict the onset of nudeation in the experiments carried out by Bergles and Rohsen-
ow* with water flowing at velocities up to 17-5 m/s at low pressures and temperatures
and also in the experiments of Rohsenow and Oark’ at high pressure.
Frost and Dzakowic’* have extended this treatment to cover other liquids. In their

146
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Study nudeation was assumed to occur when the liquid temperature y.-zs matched
to the temperature for babble equilibiium at a distance nr^ where n = lc^ujk]r-
rather than as assumed in earlier works. No justification for this assumption was
presented. Thus eq. (5.33) becomes

(5.34)

This equation was compared wi± axperimental data for the onset of boiling for a
varietj- of difierent fluids. Rearranging (5.34) a parameter X
was defined thus.

X- > [“]” (5.35)

Figure 5.5 shows values of plotted against reduced pressure. ^EXP was
calculated from reported values of (A 2 s;^t)on-b 2nd ^o.vbJ -^ref evaluated from

T2ile 5J RefsrcDCS values of [4B,'ifF ' evaluated at a reduced pressure of 005

Thnd Hnfd
[rT 1

0-013S Owssa 00162

Carfcce dioxidi 00379 Ber.rgze OOJ2S
Caiboe Utracilorid; 0-&i3S Watir 00141
Msrser 00127 Frsca 12 00453
Nsoe 00077 Etharol 0O2S5
r-Vsitzn: 0O3SS Acetoz* 00358
Pzis-ivdrDita OOlOS Kercsdi OB-4) 00405
00166 HiInr=-4 00074
Propazs 00307 Arroa 00192

fluid phvsical properties at a constant reduced pressure of 0-05. Values of X^i^^ for the
various fluids are given in Table 5.1.
Equation lower bound of the e.vperimental results shown in
(5.35) represents the
most instances was not initiated until higher values of surface
Fig. 5.5; Le., boiling in
temperature than estimated from eq. (5.35). This is due mainly to the fact that this
treatment assumes a complete range of active cavitj’ sizes which most surfaces do not
have.
Davis and Anderson^^ point out that the above treatments can only predict the on-
set of nucleate boiling accurately if there is a sufficiently uide range of ‘active’ cavitj-
sizes available. At low fluxes and low pressures the values of rcj^n- predicted from eqs.
(5.28) and (5.31) may be so large that no ‘activu’ sites of this size are present on the
heating surface. In this case an estimate of the largest ‘active’ cavitv- size available on
the heatrng surface must be made (see chapter 4) and substituted into eq. (5.29) or
eq. (5.32). Davis and Anderson^^ found reasonable agreement with experimental data
for water and benzene when a maximum ‘active’ cavitv- size of I fim radius was used.
147
 CONVECTIVE BOILING A.ND CONDENSATION

For the subcooled boiling region eq. <5.33) must be solved simultaneously with the

heat transfer equation:

^ = Ar,(Ar,„+Arsi,8(2)) (5.36)

to give the heat flux </>onb and (A7'mt)onb required for the onset of boiling. The

Fig. 5.5. Expcnmcntal Data for the Onset of Boiling Compared witheq. (5.35) (Frost and
Dzakowk)

boundary between region A and region B shown on Fig. 4.15 can be derived from such
a simultaneous solution and it is noted that at the condition ATsuefe) ~ 0

(^ON8)aT<t) - 0 — (5.37)

For heat fluxes below that given by eq. (5.37) the bulk liquid must be superheated
before vapour generation can take place at the surface, i.e there is no subcooled
,

148
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
boiling region. The conditions present in the tube under these circumstances are
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 5.6. Once a vapour bubble forms in the superheated
liquid its growth rate is very rapid and it quickly fills the tube cross-section. This
explosive formation of vapour is often a source of instability since
it is accompanied

by a sharp local increase in static pressure which may reduce, stop, or even reverse the
flow in the upstream section of the tube. A liquid film initially remains between the
vapour bubble and the heated wall. If the conditions are severe this film may be
completely evaporated and a form of ‘dryout’ with consequent overheating of the tube
wall, will occur.^’ Superheating is particularly common with the liquid alkali metals

Uniform heat flux 0

Fig. 5.6. Onset of Boiling when Bulk Liquid is Superheated

such as sodium and potassium and also occurs in glass apparatus^® where the range of
active cavity sizes is severely restricted.
The nucleation model discussed in the preceding paragraphs has been applied by
Fiore and Ricque®® to the prediction of the onset of nucleation under forced convec-
tion conditions of high boiling point multi-component organic liquids. The analysis
was extended to cover the condition of degassing where the liquid contains appreciable
amounts of dissolved gases. In this case the relationship (5.20) is modified to allow for
the partial pressure of the gas in the bubble nucleus. The term f is then given by

where is the partial pressure of gas in the bubble nucleus in equilibrium with the
a temperature T^.
liquid at
The nucleation models discussed so far ignore the convective effect of the local flow

149
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
patlern around the nucleus on the bubble surface temperature. Kenning and Cooper®®
have reported an investigation in which the flow patterns near vapour bubble nuclei
in forced convection boiling heat transfer were modelled on a large scale by the flow
past an air bubble. The experimental observations were used to deduce the surface
temperature of the bubble nuclei when the local heat transfer was predominantly by
convection. The bubble surface temperature was taken to correspond to that of the
dividing streamline. The position of the dividing streamline was determined experi-

mentally and expressed as a function of the bubble Reynolds number (Fig. 5.7). The
resulting criterion for the inception of boiling was given by the equation

(5.39)

over the range

where u* is the ‘friction’ velocity ( « V(WPt) and B is given by cq. (5.27).

This expression is more complex than eq. (5.33) and on the present evidence there is no
reason to recommend the use of eq (5 39) in preference to cq (5.33).
A photographic study of incipient subcooled boiling for forced convection flow
of pressurized water past a healed plate, has been presented by Jiji and Clark.* This

work suggests that a considerably higher surface heat flux (two and one half times) is
required to permit visual detection of bubbles than to cause an improvement in heat
transfer coefficient at the same point.

J50
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

5.4 Partial Subcooled Bolling

In the ‘partial boiling’ region, once boiling has been initiated, only comparatively few
nucleation sites are operating so that a proportion of the heat will be transferred by
normal single-phase processes between patches of bubbles. As the surface temperature
increases, so the number of bubble sites also increases and thus the area for single-
phase heat transfer decreases.
As the surface temperature is increased further, the whole surface is covered by
bubble sites, boiling is ‘fully developed’ and the single-phase component reduces to
zero. In the ‘fully developed’ boiling region, velocity and subcooling, both of which
have a strong influence on single-phase heat transfer, have little or no effect on the
surface temperature as observed experimentally. Throughout the partial boiling
region Bowring® suggests that

4> = ^SPL+^SCB (5.40)

where (j) is the total average surface heat flux, (pspL is the average surface heat flux
transferred by single-phase convection, and ^scb is the average surface heat flux
transferred by bubble nucleation.
Consider first the case of constant inlet subcooling and velocity, but decreasing heat
flux, so that the line FEDCB in Fig. 5.4 is followed. In saturated pool boiling, with

zero subcooling and velocity, a very small single-phase heat transfer component
i.e.,

(4>spl-*0), the line FED'C" would

be followed. The difierence between the two curves
therefore represents the single-phase component. For example, at a surface tempera-
ture corresponding to C'"

^SCB = C'" C"

(pSBL = C" C
If the two heat flux components, ^jcb and <}>spl fro™ Fig. 5.4 are plotted separately the
curves shown in Fig. 5.8 are obtained. The shape of the (ps?L curve is not known quan-
titatively,hence, it is necessary to approximate its form.
Three different empirical solutions will now be discussed. In the first method, that
suggested by Griffith et al? and elaborated by Bowring,® the single-phase component
of the total heat flux, ^spl is given by curve (i) of Fig. 5.8, thus for

^AT < 7w < Tfdb

<^SPL = ^ho(^AT~^f(^)) (5.41)

and for <^>spl

= 0 (5-42)

To summarize this method then, for the various regions shown in Fig. 5.1

(a) Where ATjubC^) is greater than the value for the onset of subcooled boiling (given
by eq. (5.19) ). In this region heat transfer is entirely by single-phase convection

even though may be greater than Tsat-

(b) Where ArsuB(z) is less than the value for the onset of subcooled boiling but

151
 CONVECTIVE BOILING ANP CONDENSATION
greater than the value for faHy developed subcooled boiling Arsy^(r)pjjj. In this
component of the heat flux is given by eq. (5.41).
region the single-phase
(c) Where ATsubIs) is less than the value for fully developed subcooled boiling,
A^subWfdb- Jn this case the single-phase component of the heat flux is zero.
It is necessary to define ATsuaWfui. value of the local subcooling at which fully

developed subcooled boiling can be said to start.

Bowring® notes that Forster and Grief/ after examining experimental data covering

Fig. S.8. Bowling Model

a wide range of conditions and fluids, correlated the heat flux at which boiling becomes
fully developed (at point E, Fig. 5.4), by the relation

^=I-4^p (5.43)

where corresponds to the point of intersection of the line ABD' single-phase line
(f>D

with the curve FEC". Hence, from Fig. 5.4 and remembering that Bowring® assumed
that this intersection corresponded to the onset of boiling (rw)oNB

(5-44)

and also from eq. (5.17)

JS2
 SUDCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Now at the point of onset of fully developed boiling (j>= <I>e and Ts^r-Tfiz) =
^^sun(")rDn> iJ’us on subtracting eq. (5.45) from eq. (5.44)

(5.46)

An alternative c.vpression due to Griffith ei al.^ is discussed in chapter 6.

Figure 5-9 shows the variation of the single-phase heat flux component,
(^spL as the
local subcooling is reduced. The Bowring procedure is illustrated by an example at the
end of the chapter.

Fig. 5.9. Bowring Model

The second empirical solution is that presented by Rohsenow.® This method again
involves the superposition of a single-phase forced convection component and a sub-
coolcd boiling component (eq. (5.40) ). However, in this method the single-phase
component (fispi. of the total heat flux is given by

<^srL = /'ro(7’w-7',(z)) (5.47)

This differs considerably from that suggested by Bowring (eq. (5.41)). Experimental
data examined by Rohsenow were reduced by subtracting the component <j>sPL from
153
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
the total heat flux
<f>
imposed during the experiment. The residual term ^spl) '"as
assumed to be the subcooled boiling component, and was successfully correlated
using the equation suggested earlier by Rohsenow’ for the saturated nucleate poo!
boiling of various liquids (see section 4.3)

where C,t is a constant described by the liquid-surface combination. The data of

Rohsenow and Clark’ for subcooled boiling of water at 138 bar (2000 psia) in a 4-56
mml.D. tube were correlated with a value of C,, ** 0006. The value offi|»used ineq.
(5.47) for the reduction of these data is given by the usual Dittus-Boeltcr equation (5."^

Table 5.2V9lunarC,t ineq. (4 3S)obuioed in (he reductionof the forced (and oaturaOcon-
vectiOD subcooled boiling data of various investigaton

R«fer«nc« Surfuoc C„ nuid-eurface

Rohuso'N^aik* V«nic»t tube oeoe WattT-niclitl

(4 36 mm1 <J.)

Krietb-SumrntrfieM' Horizontal tube Waier-fUioles* iteel

(14 9 mmi.d)

Pir«-Iibin‘* Verticil tube 001) Witer-ecpper

CM mm Id.)
1
OOlS Carbea letnehloride-eoppef
00022 laopropyl ileobol-copper
00030
1

aJeehol-eopper
000275 50 a KiCO»-eopper
00054 35% KiCOj-copper
Bersles-Rohienow* Honaontal tube oo» Water-etainlns tteel
(2 39 mm J.d >

where the be 0 023. However, for non-boiling

cocfiicient is ordinarily suggested to
heat transfer data at 138 bar (20{X) psia) Rohsenow and Clark’ found a better cor-
relation with 3 coeflicientof 0 01 9. Rohsenow similarly correlated the data of Krietb
and Sumraerfleld* ° arvd Pkel and Isbiw.' ’ Table 5.2 gives a summary of the values of
C,{ obtained using this superposition method of correlation.
The third empirical solution is that ijresented by Bergles and Rohsenow.’ The sug-
gested procedure is summarized by reference to Fig. 5.10. The fully developed sub-
cooled boiling curve, ^scd< FED'C" iseslablished from experimental data at high values
of ATs^t Of constructed using an empirical equation of the form of eq. (5.17). The
single-phase forced convection curve ABCD' is constructed from eq. (5.47).
The flux ^oNB C on Fig. 5.10) can be calculated
for the onset of nucleation (point
using the Bergles and Rohsenow method (empirically expressed by eq. (5.23) for water
or eq. (5.33) for other liquids).

/J4
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
The fixing of the point C enables a point C" to be found on the extrapolated fully
developed subcooled boiling curve at the same surface temperature
as the point C
(Fig. 5.10). A simple interpolation formula was given^ which satisfies the characteris-
tics of the boiling curve between C and E — thus,

(p
— ^SPL (5.48)

Equation (5.48) is then applied by picking off values of ^scb <Pspl at various values
of Ty,' to fill in the section CE.
This latter method is recommended for rapid calculations of the complete forced
convective subcooled boiling curve when a limited amount of data is available. The
method of Bowring is, however, recommended for detailed calculations, particularly
if other properties of the subcooled boiling system are required, such as void fraction
and pressure drop.
A further method based on that suggested by Chen for saturated forced convection
boiling heat transfer will be discussed in chapter 7.

155
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

5.5 Fully Developed Subcooled Boiling

Subcooled boiling is characterized by the formation of vapour at the healing surface

in the form of vapour bubbles at preferred nuclcation points. These bubbles condense
in the cold liquid away from the heating surface with the result that no net vapour is

produced. At high heat fluxes the onset of subcooled boiling is encountered at high
degrees of subcooUng, and the vapour bubbles may grow and collapse whilst still

attached to, or even sliding along, the heating surface. These processes are sometimes
accompanied by noise and vibration of the heating surface.
Probably the first investigators of subcooled boiling were Moseiki and Broder”
who, in 1926, studied the heat transfer from an electrically heated vertical platinum
wire, submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. They found that the wire tempera-
ture at the highest obtainable heat flux was essentially independent of the water tem-
perature. Local heat transfer coeflicienis considerably greater than the values predicted
for non-boiling conditions were found by both McAdams e/o/.'* (preheating sections
of a horizontal lube evaporator), and Davidson el al (preheating parts of his experi-
mental boiler tubes). Both sets of workers suggested the occurrence of subcooled
boiling as the cause of the disetepaw^.
Knowles” studied subcoolcd boiling of river water on an electrically heated
stainless steel tube centrally located in an outer glass tube. His experiments, alibougb.
plagued by deposition of scale on the heating element, gave the first quantitative data
on the subcooled boiling curve and showed that high heat fluxes (up to 7-25 MW/m^
(2*3 X 10* Btu/h ft*) ) could be transferred by the subcoolcd boiling mechanism under
conditions of forced convection. Experiments with similar geometry (but purer water)
are reported by McAdams et
Typical of the results obtained by McAdams et at. ’ * is Fig. 5. 1 J . The various aspects
of the forced convective subcoolcd boiling curve discussed earlier are clearly visible.

An alternativemethod of plotting the same data is to use logarithmic co-ordinates as

illustrated in Fig 5.12 and Fig 5.13 where the combined effects of inlet subcooling
and velocity arc shown. The data obtained by McAdams for fully developed sub-
cooled boiling of H'ofer were represented by tq (5.17) with n = 0-259. With the heat
flux <l>
expressed in MW/m*, ^ varied from 22-62 to 28 92 as the concentration of
dissolved gas decreased from 300 to 60 cm* of air at standard conditions per m* of
water. Equation (5.17) represented the data satisfactorily over the following range
of variables —velocity 0-3 to 1 1 m/s, subcooling 11 ® to BS'C, pressure 2 to 6 bar, and
equivalent diameter 4-3 mm mm. The value of quoted for the data ofMc-
to 12-2
Adams water and over the range quoted above. As mentioned
et at is only valid for
earlier, is a function of the physical properties of the fluid and of the liquid-surface

combination.
Krieth and Summerfield'® studied subcooled boiling of water in both horizontal and
and also found that the surface temperature in sub-
vertical electrically heated tubes
cooled boiling was constant and independent of the subcooling. Their experiments
coveted the following range of conations—velocity I-B to 4 m/s, pressure 1-4 bar to
14 bar, tube diameters 13-6 and 14*9 mm, and beat flux from 1-14 to 4-575 MW/m*.
156
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Over the pressure range studied it was observed that A
7’s^-p decreased with pressure
at a given heat flux following approximately the relationship,

ATsat cc p"®’*
(5.49)

The data obtained from this study were later satisfactorily correlated using the

Surface temperature, °F
200 250 300 350

Surface temperature,

Fig. 5.11. Typical Curve for Subcooled Boiling

superposition method of Rohsenow.** Krieth and Summerfield^'' also reported a study

of subcooled boiling for aniline and /z-butyl alcohol in the same experiment. The data
in the fully developed subcooled boiling region are similar in form to the results for
water. Figure 5. 14 (p. 1 60) illustrates data obtained by Rohsenow and Clark^ for water
flowing in an electrically heated nickel tube 4-57 mmi.d. and 23-8 cm long and

157
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
demonstrates very clearly that the governing temperature difTerence in fully developed
subcooled boiling is AT^sati the wall ‘superheat* rather than the overall temperature
difference (r* Tfiz) ). These data were also correlated using the superposition model
’
of Rohsenow.**
Jens and Lottes** summarized experiments on subcooled boiling of water flowing
upwards in vertical electrically heated stainless steel or nickel tubes, having inside

Fig. 5.12. Typical Curve for Subcooled Boiling

diameters ranging from 3 63 to 5-74 mm. System pressures ranged from 7 bar to 172
bar, water temperatures from 115”to 340®C mass velocities from 11 to 1-05x10*
kg/m* s, and heat fluxes up to 1 2-5 MW/m* Thesedata were correlated by a dimensional
equation valid for water only

AT5„ = 25<fr® (5.50)

where p is the absolute pressure in bar, AT^j is in ®C, and <f>

Is in MW/m*. In British
Engineering Units the equation becomes:

= 1-9^* (5.50a)

755
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

T^-T, (z) - at; (z), t

Fig. 5.13. Effect of Velocity and Subcooling on Degassed Distilled Water, 4-13 bar (60 psia),
= 145‘'C(293''F)

where p is the absolute pressure in psia, AT^at is in °F, and 4> is in Btu/hr.ft.^ This

equation holds for degassed water only and also correlates the data of McAdams et
al}^
More Thom et al.^^ reported that the values of ATs^t estimated from eqs.
recently,
were consistently low over the range of their experiments. A modified
(5.50) or (5.50a)
equation of the same form and valid only for water was suggested:

159
 20 30 40 Goeono 150200
Ar, rz;,'c

Fig. 5.14. Effect of Subcooling on Forced Convection Boiling Data (Rohsenow and Clark)

that vapour bubbles do. McAdams et o/,“ demonstrated the cfTect of dissolved gases
in forced convective subcoolcd boiling (Fig. 5.15), It can be seen that the presence of
gas has a considerable effect on the position where the first evolution of bubbles is seen
and also on the curve for the boiling process at the lower heat fluxes. However, the
effect dies out at the higher heat fluxes near the critical heat flux point. An exactly
similar observation was made by Pike, Miller, and Beatty^’ for subcooled pool boiling
on nickel wire in degassed
and tap water.
It has generally been assumed that the fully developed region of the boiling curve
in forced convection coincides with the extrapolation of the pool boiling curve. This

i60
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

Ty,-T, (z) - Ar,fz;. “F

15 20 30 40 60 80 KM

MW/m^

flux,

heat

Surface

Fig. 5.15. Effect of Dissolved Air

161
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
suggestion would appear reasonable, at least, for low velocities. Experiments carried
out by Bergles and Robsenow* were designed with the object of directly comparing
data for pool boiling and forced convection boiling. Data for both boiling processes
—
were taken for the same surface this was accomplished by using an annular geometry
for the forced convection boiling tests. Stainless steel tubing, 1-64 mmo.d. was used as
the heater in the The data obtained are shown in Fig. 5. 6. The forced convection
tests. 1

boiling data appear to merge into an asymptote which can be represented by a dotted
line. It is apparent that forced convection boiling cannot be considered an extrapolation

4 -u - 1 37m/s (d 5ft/s) ATiuaM - 103-40'C 086-72‘F)

D -u -4-6 mts nS1 ft/s) - 109-72*C (197-129T)
0 -u-265mte <fi7tt/s) W-68*C0e3-122*F) z/O,.20

6789n 20 30 40 90
/w 'hu ’Afsa , *C

Fig. Forced Convection Subcooled Boiling Data and Pool Boiling Data fora Stainless
Steel Tube (Rohsenow and Bergles)

of pool boiling for these data, at least. However, it would appear that tht form of lb«
equations found suitable for the correlation of pool boiling data is also suitable for

the representation of forced convective, fully developed, subcooled boiling data. The
values of the slope and Intercept (nand ^ ofcq.(5,I7) ) will, of course, need to be altered
from the values obtained for pool boiling.
An early attempt to establish the mechanisms of heat transfer in subcoolcd forced
convection boiling was the excellent photographic study carried out by Gunther.^
The test section was a transparent channel of rectangular cross-section, with an elec-
heated ribbon 3'17 ram wide suspended lengthwise to divide the channel into
trically
two flow passages. The fluid used was water at atmospheric pressure with a linear
velocity between 1-5 and 12 m/s. The study showed that at high subcooHngs (~ 50°C)
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
the vapour bubbles grow and collapse whilst still attached to the heating surface. The
attached bubbles, whilst growing and collapsing, simultaneously slide downstream on
the heater surface with a velocity approximately 80 per cent of that of the free stream,
increasing somewhat for larger bubbles.
The bubble growth and collapse process was photographed at a rate of 20,000
frames per second, using a Kerr cell shutter. Radius versus time curves were determined
for selected bubbles, the radius at fuU growth of an ‘average’ bubble, was de-
fined and evaluated as a function of the conditions. A lifetime, 6, of the ‘average’
bubble was also defined and evaluated. A typical set of curves for bubble radius versus
0035

0-030

0-025
£gU
0-020
3
%
Cc
0-015

0-010

0-005

1
1 T t I I I 1 I
“
0 100 200300/100 500 600 700 800

Time, microseconds

0 = 4-5 MV//m* (1-43x10' Btu/hrft^)

u =3 05 m/s (lOft/s)
p =0-98 bar {14-2 psia)
(60'F)

Fig. 5.17. Bubble Radius vs Time —^Data of Gunther

time is shown in Fig. 5.17. The particular value of 9, designated for this set of

conditions, is also shown. The number of new bubbles of ‘average’ size appearing per
unit area per unit time (AQ was also evaluated and finally the time average percentage
(F) of the heating surface covered by bubbles calculated. The variation of the four
bubble parameters i?MAx. ^^ system subcooling is shown in Fig. 5,18
for a constant heat flux and velocity. Bubble size, fifetime, population, and coverage
decrease as the subcooling is increased. However, at high subcoolings very large
populations of minute bubbles were observed. All four parameters also decrease as
the velocity is increased at constant heat flux and subcooling. Figure 5.19 shows the
influence of heat flux at constant velocity and subcooling. Bubble size and lifetime

decrease moderately while bubble population and coverage increase sharply as the heat
flux is increased at constant velocity and subcooling.

J63
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The mechanisms of subcooled nucleate boiling ha>e been the subject of much debate.
Gunther and Kreilh,^ using measurements from their photographic study, and also
'

Clark and Rohsenow,*^ found that the rate of visible vapour evolution in subcooled
forced con\ecti\e boiling could only account for a ver>’ small fraction (1-2 percent)
of the total heat flow. Latent heat transport within the bubble by simultaneous
evaporation at the base and condensation at the roof of the bubble was also shown^‘
to be \ery small if it is assumed that the bubble is surrounded by a stagnant liquid
layer. However, BankolT and Mikcscll*^ point out that if turbulent and convective

6 0 Bubble lifetime
N * Population
R 0 Average maximum bubble radius
F O Average fraction of surface covered by bubbles
^Sua U)

0-4 5MW/mJ (143x105 Blu/bfrt

u - 305m/s (lOft/s)

Fig. 5.18. Effect of Subcooling on Bubble Population, Lifetune, Radius, and Average
Fraction of Surface Covered by Bubbles (Constant Heal Flux)

heat transport dominates in the flow of heat from the condensing bubble surfaces, the
picture is considerably changed and latent heat transport might, indeed, be significant
Ellion^* also reported a study of subcooled boiling using high-speed photographic
methods. The influences of velocity, pressure, and temperature were studied and
measurements were made of bubble radii and radial velocities in subcoolcd water and
carbon tetrachloride.
In a study of the mechanism of subcooled nucleate boiling Bankoff** proposed a
so-called ‘sequential rate process model’. The mode! postulates three steps for the
transfer of heat. First, heat flows from the surface to the adjacent two-phase boundary
layer. Second, the heat flows through the two-phase layer and, finally, passes into the
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
main subcooled single-phase core. Simple expressions for the first and last stages are
in reasonable agreement with Gunther’s data.^° Bankoff^^ was able to derive an ap-
proximate relation giving the temperature at the edge of the two-phase region which
was applied to Gunther’s data. The relationship predicted a steep rise in the tempera-
ture at the edge of the single-phase core as the heat flux increased, approaching the
saturation temperature at the critical heat flux.
Measurements of the bubble boundary layer thickness and the temperature profiles
associated with forced convective subcooled boiling of water in a rectangular channel,

0 0 - Bubble lifetime
A/ A = Population
ff D = Average maximum bubble radius
F o = Average fraction of surface covered by bubbles
Heat flux. MW/m2

Heat transfer rale, Btu/s.in^

u - 3 05 m/s (10 ft/s)
ATsusW » 86‘C 055‘F)
p - 1-7bar(25psia)

Fig. 5.19. Effect of Heat Transfer Rate on Bubble Population, Lifetime, Radius, and Average
Fraction of Surface Covered by Bubbles (Constant Subcooling)

at pressures between 14 and 70 bar have been reported by Jiji and Clark. The bubble
boundary layer increased with distance from the start of subcooled boiling due to
increases in bubble size. A correlation of boundary layer thickness in
terms of the
dimensional and dimensionless forms.
independent variables was given, both in

Temperature measurements showed that contrary to Bankoff s prediction the mean

temperature at the interface between the single-phase core and the bubble
boundary
layer approached the inlet temperature as the heat flux is increased
and is always well
below the saturation temperature.
It has recently been noted by Brown^* that a vapour
bubble in a temperature gradient

165
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
is subjected to a variation of surface tension which tends to move the interfacial liquid
film. This, in turn, drags with it adjacent wann liquid so as to produce a net flow around
the bubble from the hot to the cold region which is released as a jet in the wake of the
bubble {see Fig. 5.20). Brown suggests that this mechanism, known as thermo-
can transfer a considerable fraction of the heat flux. Moreover, it would
capillarity,
appear to explain a number of observations about the bubble boundary layer made by
various workers. Semcria^* has reported seeing jels of the type described. Other obser-
vations which can be explained include the fact that bubbles are attracted to heated
walls, despite inertial effects appearing small, the temperature fluctuations in the
bubble boundary layer** and the fact that the mean temperature in the boundary layer
is lower than saturation.** The observation that the temperature at the interface
between the single-phase core and the bubble boundary layer falls with increased
is attributed to the increased circulation caused by thermocapillarity.
heat flux

Other experimental studies of subcoolcd forced con\ecti\e boiling base been pub-
lished by Hsu and Ing,*’ by Jicha and Frank,** and by Bcmath and Bcgell.**

References

1. Bertolefti, S , Lombardi, C., and Silvesiri, M. ’Heat transfer to steam-water mixtures’.

CISE— Report R 78 (Jan. 1964).
2. Bergles, A. E. and Rohsenow. W, M. ‘The determination of forced cons-ection surface
boiling heat transfer*. Paper 63-HT-22 Paper pre«nted at thc6lh National Heat Transfer
Conference of the ASME-AfChE held at Boston. (1 1-J4 Aug. 1963).
3. Rohsenow, W. M. and Clark, J. A. ‘Heat transfer and pressure drop data for high heat
flu.x densities to water at high subcntica) pressure*. 195! Heal Transfer and Fluid Mtehan-

ics Imtiiuie. Stanford Oniv. Press, Stanford, Calif. (1951).

4. Jiji, L. M. and Clark, J. A. 'Incipient boiling In forced convection channel flow*. Paper
62-WA-202, presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, New York, of the ASME, (25-30
Nov. 1962)
5. Griffith, P., Clark, J. A and Rohsenow, W. M. ’Void volumes in subcooled boiling
,

systems’. Paper 58-HT-J9, ASME-AIChE Heal Transfer Conference, Chicago (Aug.

1958), also Technical Report No. 12 (M.I.T.).
6. Bowrmg, R. W. ‘Physical model based on bubble detachment and calculation of steam

m
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
voidage in the subcooled region of a heated channel’. OECD Halden Reactor Proiect
Report HPR-10 (1962).
7.
correlations’. J. of Heat Transfer Trans. ASME Senes C, 81, 43-53
—
Engel berg-Eorster, K. and Grief, R. Heat transfer to a boiling liQuid mechanisni and
(1959).
8. Rohsenow, W. M. ‘Heat transfer with evaporation’. Heat Transfer—A Symposium held
at the University of Michigan during the summer of 1952. Published by University of
Michigan Press, pp. 101-150 (1953).
9. Rohsenow, W. M. ‘A method of correlating heat transfer data for surface boiling of
liquids’. Trans. ASME, 74, 969 (1952).
10. Krieth, F. and Summerfield, M. 'Heat
transfer to water at high flux densities svith and
without surface boiling’. Trans. ASME, 71, (7), 805-815 (1949).
11. Piret, E. L. and Isbin, H. S. ‘Two-phase heat transfer in natural circulation evaporators’.
A.l.Ch.E. Heat Transfer Symposium, St. Louis, Chemical Engineering Symposium Series,
Vol. 50, No. 6, p. 305. (December 1953).
12. Mosciki, I. and Broder, J. ‘Discussion of heat transfer from a platinum wire submerged in
water’. Recznicki Chemje, 6, 329-354 (1926).
13. McAdams, W. H., Woods, W. K., and Bryan, R. L. ‘Vaporization inside horizontal
tubes’. Trans. ASME, 63 (6), 545-552 (1941).
14. Davidson, W. F., Hardie, P. H., Humphreys, C. G. R., Markson, A. A., Mumford, A. R.,
and Raverse, T. ‘Studies of heat transmission through boiler tubing at pressures from
500 to 3000 pounds’. Trans. ASME, 65 (6), 553-591 (1943).
15. Knowles, J. W. ‘Heat transfer with surface boiling’. Canadian Journal of Research, 26,
(1948).
16. McAdams, W. H., Kennel, W. E., Minden, C. S. L., Carl, R., Picomell, P. M., and Dew,
E. ‘Heat transfer at high rates to water with surface boiling’. Ind. Engng. Chem., 41,
J.
No. 9, 1945-1953 (1949).
17. Krieth, F. and Summerfield, M. ‘Pressure drop and convective heat transfer with surface
boiUng at high heat flux; data for aniline and w-butyl alcohol’. Trans. ASME, 72, 869-879
(1950).
18. Jens, W. H. and Lottes,
P. A. ‘Analysis of heat transfer burnout, pressure drop and den-
high pressure water’. ANL-4627, May 1951.
sity data for
19. Pike, F. P., Miller, P. D., and Beatty, K. O., Jr. ‘The effect of gas evolution on surface
—
boiling at wire coils’. Heat Transfer St. Louis; Chemical Engineering Progress Sym-
posium Series No. 17, Vol. 51 pp. 13-19 (1955).
20. Gunther, F. C. ‘Photographic study of surface-boiling heat transfer to water with
forced convection’. Trans. ASME, Feb., 115-123 (1951).
21. Gunther, F. C. and Krieth, F. ‘Photographic study of bubble formation in heat transfer
to subcooled water’. Prog. Rept. No. 4-120. J.P.L. Cal. Inst. Tech., Pasa. Cal. (1950).
22. Qark, J. H. and Rohsenow, W. M. ‘A study of the mechanism of boiling heat transfer’.
Trans ASME, 73, 609 (1951).
23. Bankoff, S. G. and Mikesell, R. D. ‘Bubble growth rates in highly subcooled nucleate
boiling’. AIChE-ASME. Heat Transfer Conference 1958, Preprint 5, Chemical Eng. Prog.
Symp. Series No. 29, pp. 95-109 (1959).
24. Ellion, M. E. ‘Study of mechanism of boiling heat transfer’. Jet. Prop. Lab. Memo. 20-88,
(March 1955).
25. Bankoff, S. G. ‘On the mechanism of subcooled nucleate boiling’. Parts I and H. Heat
Transfer, Buffalo, Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Series,Vo\. 57, No. 32, pp. 156-163, 164, 172.
(I960.)
26. L. M. and Qark, J. A. ‘Bubble boundary layer and temperature profiles for forced
Jiji,

convection boiling in channel flow’. Journal of Heat Transfer, pp. 50—58 (Feb. 1964).
27. Hsu, S. T. and Ing. P. W., ‘Experiments in forced convection subcooled nucleate boiling
heat transfer’. 62-HT-38’ Paper presented at the 5th National Heat Transfer Conf.,
Houston, (5-8 Aug. 1962).
28. Jicha, J. J. and Frank, S. ‘An experimental local boiling heat transfer and pressure drop

167
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Study of a round tube’. 62-HT-48. I^per presented at the 5th National Heat Transfer
Conf., Houston. (5-8 Aug, 1962).
29. Bemath, L. and Begell. W. ‘Forced convection local boiling heat transfer in narrow
annuli’. Heat Transfer —
Chicago, Chemical Eng. Prog. Symp. Series, Vol. 55, No. 25
pp. 59-65 (1959).
30. Kenning, D. B. R. and Cooper, M. G. ‘Flow patterns near nuclei and the initiation of
boiling during forced convection heat transfer*. Paper 1 1 presented at the Symposium on
Boiling Heal Transfer in Steam Generating Units and Heat Exchangers held in Manchester,
15-16 Sept. 1965 by Inst, of Mech. Engrs. (London).
31. Thom, J, R.S., Walker, W. M., Fallon, T. A., and Raising, G. F. S. ‘Boiling in subcooled
water during flow up heated lubes or annuli*. Paper 6 presented at the Symposium on
Boiling Heat Transfer in Steam Generating Units and Heat Exchangers held in Man-
chester, 15-16 Sept. 1965 by Inst, of Mech. Engrs. (London).
32. Davis, E. J. and Anderson, G. H. The Incipience of Nucleate Boiling in Forced Con-
AIChEJounol, 12, (4). J74-780 (July 1966).
vection Flow’.
33. Fiore, A., and Rtcquc, R. "Piopridt^ (hermtqucs dcs Polyphdnyles—determination d«
ddbut de du terphenyl OMZen convection forces’. EUR 2442 f. (1964).
I'ebullition nuclfe
34. Frost, W. and Dzakowic, G. S. ‘An extension of the method of predicting incipient boiling
on commercially finished surfaces*. Paper presented at ASME-AIChE Heat Transfer
Conf. Paper 67-HT-61. Seattle, (Aug. 1967)
35. Brown, W. T. ‘A study of flow surface boiling*. Ph.D. Thesis, M.l.T. Mech. Engng
Dept. (/an. 1967).
36. Semeria, R. ‘Analyse fine de I'dbulliilon a I’dchelle locale’. C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris, pp.
471-476(1964).
37. Collier, J. G. 'Boiling of Liquid Alkali Metals', Chemical Process Engineering Heat
Transfer Surety (1968).
38. Hewitt, Q. F. «t al. ‘Burnout and film flow in evaporation of water in tubes’ AERE-R
4364 p. 3 (1965).

Example 1
A vertical tubular test section is to be installed in an experimental high-pressure water
loop. TTie tube is 10-16 mm i.d. and 3-66 m long, heated uniformly over its length. An
estimate of the inside surface temperature distribution along the tube is required for a
flow of water of 8 USGPM. The temperature of the water entering the test section is
204'C and the test section exit pressure is 68-9 bar. The total power applied to the
tube is 200 kW.

Solution
The given conditions are:

Tube bore (Z>) « 10,16 mro i.d. Tube length (Z.) = 3 66 m

Power applied » 200 kW Water flow = 8 USGPM
= 0432 kg/s
Pressure at exit = 68 9 bar Inlet temp. = 203®C
200
Enthalpy rise « = 0 4625 MJ/kg.

(a) Length of tube required to preheat water to the saturation temperature

AW An n-479
Mass velocity G= v ^<71
—*ir * ~ 5540 kg/m*
^ s
ttZ)* nxl*016*xl0
168
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
200
Heat ^
Tx
flux (P
^ = == 172o kW/m^
7:x1-016x]0 ^x3-66

Inlet enthalpy = 0-872 MJ/kg. Enthalpy of saturated liquid = 1-261 MJ/kg.

5340x 10-16x10'^
^SC — ^'.'.'f7sAT~'fJ — (1-261 -0-872) X 10® = 3-06 m
4x1720x10^

(b) Length of tube at which Ty, =

_Gc^fD (ATsub), n
^NB
4 . ^ i
U
Trf) K AT, T’w

'c k\V/m^ ’C “C °C

203 44-0 39-1 242-1

260 47-8 36-0 296 0
271 48-4 35-5 306-5

(AT^ub), = 80-5°C

^NB
5340 x 4-94x 10^ X 10-16 X 10'^ f 80-5 1 I. 7 ’
,
^
4 L1^20x 10^ 47-8xl0’J”

(c) The relationship between ATjat ond <j>

Use the Jens and Lottes relationship (eq. (5.50) ) (alternatively the Thom relation-

ship (eq. (5.51) ) could have been used).

ATsAT = 25^'’=®e''’/®^
= 25x^° =

(d) The value of ATjub (z)onb

A7sub(^)onb = (5-19)

= -8-2(l-72)® = 36-0-9-4 = 26-6°C

47-8

(e) Construction of diagram of ATjub versus {(psfJ’P] cf. Fig. 5.9

From the diagram ^spl ^I'svb If) — 26-6°C)
= 0-74 (p

(Pscs
= 0-26 <p = 0-26 X 1720 = 0-446 MW/m^

From Jens and Lottes relationship

ArsAT = 8-2 (0-446)'’’^® = 6-7'’C

(f) Evaluation of ATsub (z)fdb

169
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

“ [l^] “ [l^J ( 5 . 46)

«25-7-8-65 = 170S°C
From the diagram ^spl (at ATju# (2) ** 1?-05®C) “ 0-46 4>
4>scb •= 0-54 4> « 0-54 X 1720 « 0-93 MW/m’
From the Jens and Lottes reiattonship

ATsat «= 8-2 (0 93)®-^* « 8 05°C

The complete temperature distribution is shown in the sketch.

Channel length, It

Temperature,

J70
 SUBCOOLED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Example 2

Liquid nitrogen flows through a 0-5 in. i.d. pipe at a rate of 1 Ib/s. The pressure at the
exit of the heated pipe is 60 psia and the fluid temperature is 140°R. Calculate the
tube wall temperature and the heat flux required to initiate boiling.

Solution

This example uses British Engineering Units. The following equations must be
solved simultaneously to obtain both tbe viall temperature and tbe beat Sux to
initiate boiling.

(ATsat) onb = ^ Pff ‘^oNB° ^ (5.35)

and
d’ONB = /'fo( (^^sat)onb + ‘^^sub(^) ) (5.30)

Jsat = 164°R ATsub (2) = 24“R

The heat transfer coefficient /i(o is given by

/coy-® /Cp/rN
= 0023 1 (5.7)
(1] \Pt J \ ^ /f
Values of physical properties at bulk temperature 140°R

= 0-08 Btu/h.ft^ °R/ft.

Pt = 0-4 Ib/ft.h. Pff = 1-25, Pr,®"* = 1-093

= 0-25 Btu/lb °R
D = 0-0416 ft

G = 2-64x10® lb/h.ft.=*

Vizr\
\jU
1
= 2-74x10® = 2-239x10'’
Lt ] [-]
hfo = W15 Btu/b.ft"

From Table 5.1, Xref for a reduced pressure of 0-05

= 0-0166 “R/ptu/h.ft^]®'*

The critical pressure of nitrogen is 493 psia.

Pr = iP/Pcn) - 60/493 = 0-122

From Fig. 5.5 for a reduced pressure of 0122-X/X^p = 0-66

X= 0-0166x0-66 = 0-011 ‘’R/[Btu/h.ft^f’®

Eqs. (5.35) and (5.36) become

*
(ArsAT)0NB = 0-011 X 1-25
*
and = 0-0137 d’oNB®

171
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

^ONB = 1025 { (A7's^T)onB-f 24)

Simultaneous solution of these equations yields

as 2*3 ®R (2 w)onb “ 166*3 “R <^onb ~ 27,000 Btu/h.fl*.

PROBLEMS
1. Liquid oxygen passes through a 0-5 i.d. pipe at a rate of 1 Ib/s. The pressure at the
end of the heated pipe is 100 psia and boiling is initiated at a wall temperature of
210°R. Calculate the heat flux and liquid subcooling at this point.

2. Calculate the superheat required to initiate boiling in example I using the method
of Davis and Anderson (eq. (5.33) ) rather than that of Bowring (cq. (5.19) ). No
active cavities larger than 10 pm radius exist on the tube heated surface—does this
influence the calculation?

3. Water is being heated up to saturation temperature and evaporated in a vertical

tube. The heat flux is 6 kW/m*. The single-phase heat transfer coefficient is 40
kW/m* *C. Is there any danger of instability due to the water superheating before
nucleation occurs?

172
 6

VOID FRACTION AND

PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING

6.1 Introdnction

In describing the process of subcooled boiling in forced convective flow of liquid in a

confined channel it has been noted that vapour in various amounts is generated at
the heated surfaces in the channel. A
knowledge of the amount of vapour present in
the channel is required to enable the accelerative and static head components of the
pressure gradient to be calculated. In the particular case of the design of liquid cooled
nuclear reactors information on the void fraction under subcooled conditions is often
required because of its influence upon the reactivity of the system. As a result of this
latter requirement the majority of experimental data is with water as the liquid.

6.2 Void Fraction in Subcooled Boiling

Consider, again, a tube to the wall of which is applied a uniform heat flux ^ (Fig.
6.1).Subcooled liquid is intoduced at a uniform rate, IF) at the inlet. As noted in the
previous chapter subcooled boiling starts after a length Zjjb and saturated nucleate
boiling after a length Zsc-
In the representation of subcooled boOing shown in Fig. 6.1 it will be seen that, at

for high degrees of subcooling (ArsusC^) jnst less than ArsuB('^)oNB)

first, vapour
generated remains as discrete bubbles attached to the surface whilst growing and
collapsing; voidage in this region is essentially a waU effect. At somewhat lower sub-
coolings, bubbles detach from the surface, condensing only slowly as they move
through the slightly subcooled liquid; voidage in this region is a bulk fluid effect. In
this latter region, the bubbles may be
very large and irregular^ particularly at high
heat fluxes and low pressures, and an appreciable fraction (30-50 per cent) of the chan-
nel may be occupied by vapour. The process at the lower subcoolings has been
described by Costello^ as ‘vapour clotting’ and by Griffith, Qark, and Rohsenow^ as
the surface being ‘covered by several layers of bubbles’. Thus, the ‘void fraction’ will
vary with length in a manner similar to curve ABODE in Fig. 6.1. The section AB
represents the wall effect in subcooled bofling; the section BCD the build-up of vapour
in the slightly subcooled region, and, finally, the section DE represents the void frac-
tion in saturated nucleate boiling; a subject already treated in chapter 2. The point C
173
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Region A ^ C
I

Convection to Subcooled Bulk

j

single-phase boiling boiling

j
liquid

4 Hn Hw M { I 1 1 ; nu 1 1 u

TTTTTTTrTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
L niform heat tlux , 0
‘
j

^
1

^sc * I

*FDa

^ 1 1
^NB

A tf
1

— — 'Jsawraluip i
Based on
^thermodynamic
equilibrium

^Actual
1 d^uofcippB
variation of
\ jordrsgefr^B
bulk liquid
temperature
! 1

1 1

1 t

Length iz)

Fig. 6.1. Void FractiOD in Subcooled Boiling

corresponds to the point at which saturated nucleate boiling is calculated to begin if

the thermodynamic equilibrium is assumed. However, as pointed out earlier, the fact
that bubbles are present in the bulk stream implies that the liquid must be below the
saturation temperature, to obtain a mean enthalpy equivalent to that of saturated

174
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING
liquid. D
Not until point is reached is the total enthalpy increase sufficient to raise all
the liquid to the saturation temperature and maintain a void fraction DD'.

6.2.1 The Highly Subcooled Region

In this region (AB) small bubbles grow and collapse whilst attached to the heated
surface and do not penetrate far into the bulk subcooled flow. The conditions are those
described earlier as ‘partial subcooled boiling’. The fraction of the heat used in the
formation of net vapour is insignificant. Griffith, Clark, and Rohsenow® developed
a model of this region as follows:

The total heat flux supplied to the surface was assumed to be, in part, removed by
single-phase forced convection and in part by subcooled nucleate boiling

4 ’ = ^SPL+<^’SCB (6-1)

The single-phase heat flux component was assumed to be given by

4>sfL — ^fo (Ts\r~ ^ 2) ) (6-2)

Since there is no net production of vapour, the boifing component of the total heat
flux, ^scB> must be equal to a condensing heat flux 4>c given by

<f>g
— Bo hi^ (Tsat-TKz)) (6.3)

in which (AJA) is the bubble-liquid interfacial area for condensation per unit heated
surface area and Bq is a dimensionless constant. (AJA) is clearly a function of the
volume of vapour at the surface which, from the photographs taken by Griffith et al.,
appears to be in the form of strands of bubbles. The height and width of the bubble
strand can be expected to be related to the thickness of the hydrodynamic boundary
layer which is, in turn, related to the thickness of the thermal boundary layer (kj/fifo).

Evaluating the ratio (AJA) in terms of the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
and the void volume per unit heated surface area, a, and substituting this relationship
into eq. (6.3) leads to,

Bi a h[J(Tgf^j—TfJz)) ^

Substituting ^scb for <j)^ and evaluating Bj, from experimental data Griffith et al.

arrived at

(6.5)
l-07h,„^(TsAT-2Kz))

There are limitations to this analysis; at low pressures (below 20 bar (300 psia) for

water) the relationship becomes incorrect* since the bubble diameter becomes a
function of the pressure as well as the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness. The
assumption that no net vapour is produced in any section must be examined for each
condition considered.
Reasonable agreement was noted between eq. (6.5) and the data of Griffith et al.J

175
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Egen, Dingce, and Chastain,* and Maurer* for subcooled void fractions measured
for water flowing in a rectangular duct. The data of Jordan and Leppert® and also
Costello* show that, as suspected, the analysis does not hold at low pressures where
the assumptions are invalid. Under these conditions the analysis predicts too high a
subcooled void fraction by up to a factor of ten.
The value of a», the void fraction is given by

(6.6)

ifa is small compared with the dimensions of the channel. is the heated perimeter
of the channel and A is the channel flow area.
A simple expression for the void fraction at point B has been suggested by Levy*®
from a consideration of the forces exerted on a vapour bubble attached to the wall
and the temperature distribution in the single-phase liquid away from the heated
surface. The basis of this model is discussed in the following section. It is assumed
that at point B the bubbles of radius r are spherical (t.e., on the point of detachment)
and are spaced at a distance S apart. The number of bubbles around the heated
perimeter /*!, is then {Py,IS) and the volume of vapour in a section of channel S in length
is {PJS) (} It r*). The void fraction at point B is therefore given by

\ lA . /.NJ
(6.7)

where is the heated equivalent diameter.

If the bubbles are assumed to be packed in a square array and to interfere with each
other if r/S 0'25, then,

where Ts is the distance from the wall to the tip of the vapour bubble. It will be shown
that Tg is given by the following equation:

(6.9)
y,.0015[^:^J’
where is the wall shear stress given by eq. (6.21) and Z), is the hydraulic equivalent
diameter.
Typical values calculated by Levy from eq. (6.8) and (6.9) for water flowingin a 12-7
mm diameter tube at a heat flux of 790kW/ro* (2-5 x 10® Btu/h.fl*) are given in Table
6.1.

6.2.2 The Point of Departure of Vapour Bubbles from the Heated Surface {point B)
Griffith et al} suggest that the transition between the firet and second regions, point B,
Fig. 6.1, is associated with the onset of 'fully developed subcooled boiling’ (point E,
Fig. 5.4) Griffith et al. found that the heat flux at point E could be approximated by
the relationship,

^FDB “ S^sn. ( 6 . 10)

176
 :

VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING

where (psvv is the single-phase liquid heat flux given by equation (6.2). Thus, the sub-
cooUng at the onset of fully developed boiling is given by

(z)fdb — TT~ (6. 11 )

5 hr„

and the length from the tube inlet to the start of fully developed subcooled bo ilin g,
^FDB. (Fig- 6.1) is given as

^ ^pf -P (^^UB)i
^FDB — ( 6 . 12)
4 1_ <l>

Obviously, eqs. (6.11) and (6.12) relate only to the assumption made by GrifiBth
regarding the onset of fully developed boiling (eq. (6.10) ).
Bowring’’ applied the following criterion to the point where a rapid rise in void

Table 6.1 Values of a, for water in a 12-7 mm

(0-5 in.) diameter tube

Mass flow-rate kg/m^ s (Ib/h. ft^)

Pressure
bar 136 680 1360
(psia) (0-1 xI0‘) (0-5xl0‘) (l-0xI0«)

4(60) 0055 0-013 0-007

20 (300) 0047 0-0 11 0-006
40(600) 0 040 O-OIO 0-005
69 (1000) 0033 0008 0-004
138 (2000) 0019 0-005 0-002

fraction occurred (point B, Fig. 6.1). The subcooling at point B, A7’sub(^)b should be
the least of

(a) (ATsub); — subcooling

(b) ArsuB(z)oNB —the subcooling at the onset of subcooled boihng given
previously.
(c) A7’suB(z)d —the subcooling at which bubble detachment occurs,
where

ATsimWd (6.13)

t]is an empirical factor derived from experimental data for water and found to depend

only on the system pressure. The following relationship for water over the pressure
range 11 to 138 bar was found.

t; X 10® = 14-0 -fO- Ip where p is the system pressure in bar and G, 4>,

and Vf are expressed in SI units (6.14)

or
r] = 0-067 [14-0-}-0-0068p]wherepis the system pressure in psia
and G, and r, are expressed in British Engineering Units.

177
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The criterion given in cq. (6.1 1) (Griffith el a/.) and that ^vcn in eq. (6.13) (Bowring)
give similar values for the position of B (assuming B = EDB)’.
More recentlyhas been shown**' ** that the expression proposed by Bowring
it is
in reasonable agreement with experimental data at low velocities (--dSO kg/m* s;
0 5x10* only and appears to predict values of subcooling at bubble departure
lb/h.ft*)
considerably below those observed for higher mass velocities.
A force balance can be used to establish a criterion for the point of bubble depart-
ure. Once the size of the bubble at incipient departure is known it is possible to calcu-
late the local subcooling by assuming, firstly, the single-phase temperature profile

I
5
I
C

Fig. 6,2. Forces on a Departing Bubble (Levy)

in the liquid and, secondly, that the fluid temperature at a distance corresponding to
the departure bubble radius equals the saturation temperature The recent treat-
ments of subcooled void fraction by Levy** and Staub** both employ this line of
reasoning.
Four forces are usually taken into account when considering whether a bubble will
remain on or depart from the beating surface. Surface tension and inertia forces hold
the bubble to the surface while buoyancy and frictional drag forces attempt to remove
it. Inertia forces are usually assumed to be neglipble near the point of bubble depart-

ure. Following Levy’s treatment (Fig. 6.2), the force balance is:

CsSiPi^Pg) Tb ir = 0 (6.15)

Buoyancy Drag Surface

tension

Equation (6.15) can be rearranged and solved for the bubble radius r^. If it is assumed

178
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING
that the distance to the tip of the bubble, is proportional to the bubble radius r^,
then

(6.16)

This distance can be made dimensionless in the usual way in terms of the parameter
u* (= Thus
'
Tb »*Pf 1 _ ^ (o- Ptf
(6.17)
_ Pf j Pt

In chapter 5 (section 5.3) it has been shown that the liquid temperature adjacent to the
tip of the vapour bubble must exceed the saturation temperature by a finite amount if
the bubbleis either growing or in equilibrium. In order to simplify the present analysis

Levy assumed that the liquid temperature at the bubble tip was equal to the satura-
tion temperature Tsat-
The temperature at the position can also be specified in terms of the dimen-
sionless parameter

V=^^^^(Tw-rB) (6.18)
<P

where is the wall heat flux and Ty, is the wall temperature.
<f>

Using the universal temperature profile originally proposed by Martinelli^®

Tb+ = Pr, Fb^ for (0^ Fb^ ^ 5)

Tb+ = 5 [^Prf-Hn^l-i-Prr|-^ -ij^J for(5^FB^<30) [ (6.19)

Tb^ = j^Prr-hln (1+5 Pr,)+0-5 for (Fb+ >30)

5

Remembering that Tb = and that {T^-T[ (z)a) = on rearran^g eq.

(6.18),

(7sAT~^a)a) = ^Tsbb (a)d = ^[r ~

*1 (6.20)
L"fo Cpf Pi ^ A

Provided values of C and C

are known, eqs. (6.17) (6.19), and (6.20) may be solved
to determine the point at which vapour bubbles first leave the heated surface. The
heat transfer coefficient, may be calculated from the standard single-phase relation-
ship (chapter 5, eq. (5.7) ) and the wall shear stress from the relationship

Tw — ( 6 . 21 )

where is the single-phase Fanning friction factor corresponding to a relative

roughness of tjD^ == 10"^ (smooth drawn tubing).

Levy evaluated the constants C and C

in eq. (6.17) from experimental data. It was

179
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
found that buoyancy forces appear to playa negli^ble part even at lowmass velocities
and C' = 0. The best fit value of C was found to be 0 015 (see eq. (6.9)).
Figure 6.3 shows the prediction of liquid subcooling at the point of departure for
subcooled boiling of water in a 12 7 mm diameter tube at a heat flux of 790 kW/m*
(2-5 X 10^ Btu/h.ft^).
The values calculated from the expression proposed by Bowring
(eq. (6.13) ) are shown for comparison.
The predictions from the Levy model are in good agreement with the data of Egcn

Pressure, psia

A^ubl-rldi

departure,

bubble

at

Subcoobng

Pressure, bar

Fig. 6J. Prediction of Local Subcooling at Point B for Steam-Water Mixtures (Levy)

et ai* Maurer,* and Rouhani.*® The treatment proposed by Staub*’ is basically

similar in approach, although there are a number of different assumptions. For
example, in Staub’s model the expression for the drag term in the force balance (eq.
(6.15)) is based on the force on a bubble layer rather than an isolated bubble. The
increased friction factor, and heat transfer coefficient Af* induced by the presence
of the bubble layer having an equivalent roughness (re/T),) is also allowed for. In
contrast to the finding of Levy, Staub conclude that at low mass velocities (G<270
kg/m^ s) the drag term in the force balance was negligible and the departure of the
bubble was governed primarily by buoyancy for^s.
 —
VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING

6.2.3 The Low Subcooling Region

Now, consider the region BCD in Fig. 6.1, the region of low subcooling. In this region
bubbles grow and detach, condensing only slowly as they pass through the slightly
subcooled liquid. The void fraction in this region rises sharply with length from the
transition point, B.
Two models have been proposed for the estimation of void fraction in this region
those of Griffith el a!.^ and Bowring.^ In addition, simple empirical methods of

calculating the void fraction in the subcooled boiling of water have been suggested by
Thom et o/.,*® Kroeger and Zuber,^^ and Levy.^® The model proposed by Bowring

and the empirical methods of Thom, Zuber, and Levy will be described in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
BowringV model, taken in conjunction with the detailed heat transfer relationships
as set out in chapter 5, is recommended as the best available at present. Equation
(6.13) leads to a length for bubble detachment of:

G Cpf Z) (AT^ub); \
f ( 6 . 22)
“
4 L W.
Bowring shows that the fractional change in bubble volume due to recondensation
averaged over the slightly subcooled region is small (<7 per cent in all the experi-
mental cases he investigated and <2 per cent in most) and is neglected. Heat is
removed from the heated surface by several simultaneous mechanisms— as latent heat,
by convection caused by bubble agitation and by single-phase heat transfer between
patches of bubbles, thus,
= (6.23)

By comparison with eq. (6.1) it is seen that

0scB = ^c+'^’i (6.24)

Writing equations for (j)^ and Bowring defines the ratio (<^a/^e) as e, thus,

where r is an effective temperature rise of the water pulled in and pushed out by the
bubble. Bowring arrived at the following empirical relationships by analysing available
experimental void fraction data for water.
For the pressure range 1-9-5 bar (14-7-140 psia)

(6.26)

for the pressure range 9-5-50 bar (140-735 psia)

(l+e) = 2-3 (6.27)

and for rectangular channels 2.5 mm wide for pressures above 50 bar (735 psia)
(H-e) = 2-6 (6.28)

181
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Gregorio and Meriini** have suggested an alternative expression for e which overcomes
the discontinuity in this value at the point of bubble detachment

(6.29)
L ff, J
The calculation of the void profile involves the addition of the wall and free stream
void components

« = Ow+tfB (6.30)

The wall voidage, a#, may be calculated from either eq. (6.5) or (6.8) —the former
with the value of ArsuB(a) at the point B substituted (i.e., aw is constant beyond B).
The free stream voidage, eg, is given by direct analogy with the bulk boiling case
(chapter 2)

In the bulk boiling lepon all

tion giving the relationship between

Uf
M/ mm
of the heat flux
mass
is
fraction vapour, x{z), and heat
( 1 . 12)

converted into latent heat of vaporiza-

flux ^

X(!). (2-4!c) (4.53)

However, in subcooled boiling, oniy the lateot heat eempooeot of eq. (6.23) is used
to produce vapour, thus.

« (a) Ail. (r—-a) (6.31)

Substituting eqs. (6.24) and (6.25) this equation becomes

(r-e.) (6.32)
i>Ci,,L(l+t) J

where i* given by the equations derived previously in chapter 5 depending on

whether ArsuB(z) is greater or less than A7'sub(t)fdb- Substitution of eq. (6.32) into
eq. (1.12) and rearranging, gives

(l-x'(r)) (6.33)

(1— x'(2 ) ) may be calculated from eq. (6.32) if necessary but is usually close to unity
and can be taken as such.
It is now possible to evaluate the void fraction at the position Zso »•«•. point C, and
at point D (Fig. 6.1). For the value of * at the bulk boiling boundary »» *s neglected
and it is assumed that (1 —x'iz) ) is equal to oni^. It is also assumed that fully developed
boiling occurs so that is zero.
Therefore eq. (6.30) and (6.33) with z ~ Zge yield.
J82
 VOID FR.A.CTION -^XD PRESSURE DROP IX SUBCOOLED BOILIXG

(-SC~-d) (6.34)

SubstitutinE for r-jc and Zi respectively the following relationship is obtained;

gpt>r«?
(6.35)
ff.

the void fraction at the point D (Fig. 6.1) i.e.. DD’.

It is also possible to e\'aluate

By and (6.31) simultaneously for the intersection of the talues of

solving eqs. (4.53)
v(r) in the subcooled and bulk boiling regions, Bowring obtained

.T(r’) = (6.36)
G ipj E Tf
where .v(r*) is the weight fraction of tapour at the intersection t\ith the bulk boiling
void fraction cur^e, (point D). Thus

(l-.x(c*)) = (6.37)

Measurements made at the -Axgonne National Laboratoiy and reported by Marcha-

terre® were e-vcellently correlated by the Bowring model. Void fractions wre measured
for subcooled boiling of water in rectangular ducts 6-35 mm x 50-S mm and 12-7 x 50-S
mm cross-section for pressures up to 41 bar (600 psia). More recently, the model has
been compared with an extensive set of data obtained by Rouhani.*® The model
seriously overestimates the void fractions at low mass velocities probably due to the
fact that the assumption regarding negligible condensation of the bubbles is not \alid
under these conditions.
The empirical method of Thom et a!.^- relates the subcooled void fraction, to a
‘reduced’ steam qualiU’, x'- This relationship is similar to that proposed earlier by the
same author^ ‘ to relate void fractions in saturated forced convection boiling and is
of the form.
Afx’
(6.3S)
l-f.v'(M-l)

The ‘reduced’ steam quality, x\ is defined in terms of the fluid enthalpy at the start
of the second region (point B) thus

0(r)-/B)
(6.39)
(•t~*V)

where i(r) is the local fluid enthalpy, is the fluid enthalpy at the point B. and
is the enthalpy of the saturated vapour.
It was found that for the conditions of the e.xperimental programme (pressurired

water at 52 and 69 bar) the value of the fluid entlialpy at _the point B. I't,*. could be
related to the enthalpy of saturated water, /f, by the empirical relationship

IS3
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

(6.40)

The value of M in eq. (6.38) is a function of the system pressure, and has a value of
and 10 at 69 bar.
16 at 52 bar
Kroeger and Zuber^^ have recently proposed a more general empirical method for
the prediction of the void fraction in the subcooled boiling region. The method is
based on an assumed liquid temperature distnbution between an arbitrarily chosen
length To (associated with the start of void formation) and z* (Fig. 6.1). Two simple
relationships were arbitrarily chosen to represent the temperature profile

rrr(2)-r,(2^)'] (^o) ~ (e)~j

T-* p (6.41)
L7iAT-T,(ro)J L
where T* can be given by
•-l-exp[-2*] (6.42)
or by
T* =» UnhZ*^ (6.43)

where

(6.44)

The ‘true’ mass fraction vapour distribution is then given by

Z'-T> 1
(6.45)
PCI,, ii+[<-„An„.(z,)/i„](i-r)J

<'pt^7su»(^o)
(6.46)
I’n + Cpf (co) ( 1 — T*)
The void fraction a(r) is then given by

(6.47,

where Cq is a distribution parameter (see chapter 3), Uf, is the inlet liquid velocity and
is the drift velocity in the chum-turbulent region of bubbly flow and given by

( 3 . 10)

It was found that the best representations of experimental void fractions were
obtained with eq. (6.43) used for the variation of T* and with a value of Cq = M3
or 1-4 used for circular or rectangular geometries respectively. The main difficulty
found when applying this treatment is the estimation of Zg; it can be assumed to be
equal to Zonb or alternatively ZniB or The criteria of Bowring and Griffith (eqs.
(6.11)and (6. 1 3) ), whilst giving a reasonable prediction in some cases, were not found
to be generally satisfactory, particularly for annular geometries.

184
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING
The basis of the empirical method suggested by Levy^® is very similar to that pro-
posed by Kroeger and Zuber. It is assumed that the ‘true’ mass fraction vapour x'{z) is
related to the ‘thermodynamic’ mass fraction vapour x{z) by the relationship

x'(z) = x(z)-x(z)iexp (6.48)

where ^(z)^ is the (negative) thermodynamic quality at the point of bubble detachment
given by

^(z)d =- (^)d
(6.49)

Equation (6.48) is a simple relationship which satisfies the following necessary

boundary conditions,
(a) at x(z) = x(z)i then x'{z) = 0
d
(b) —
dz
(x'(z) ) at point B must be zero

(c) x'(z) x(z) for x(z)> |x(z)d |

Substitution of the value of ‘true’ mass fraction vapour from eq. (6.48) into eq. (6.47)
yields the void fraction versus length profile. Levy chose a value for Cq 1T3 and =
used the expression for the drift velocity given by

(6.50)

Levy also points out that the use of a value of Q

= M3 is questionable in a develop-
ing flow where the major fraction of the vapour is close to the wall.
The treatments of both Kroeger and Zuber^^ and Levy^® fit the experimental data
acceptably well. Both methods can be applied to fluids other than water. Levy’s
method is recommended as being the simpler to use.
Further studies of subcooled void fraction have been reported by Bartolemei and
Chanturiya^® who present measurements for water in the pressure range 14 to 41 bar
in tubes 15-4 mm and 24 mm i.d. In addition to the void fraction both surface and fluid
temperature distributions were recorded. Their findings agree qualitatively with the
analyses of Bowring and Levy.

6.3 Pressure Drop in Subcooled Boiling

The present state of knowledge relating to pressure drop in the subcooled boiling
region is very unsatisfactory indeed. It might have been expected that, using the

variation of void fraction in the subcooled region as a guide (Fig. 6.1) efforts would
have been made to correlate pressure drop in at least two regions, the high subcooling
and low subcooling areas. No such attempt has been published to date. However, by
using the correlations of Griffith et al. and Bowring to obtain the void fraction profile
as a function of length it is possible to present a satisfactory and logical procedure at
least for the low subcooling region. This method was first suggested by Sher"*.

185
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The total pressure gradient for a separated flow model is given by cq. (2.53). To
evaluate this equation it is necessary to know the local vapour fraction, a:(z) (defined
on a flow-rate basis), the local void fraction, a, and the local value of the two-phase
friction multiplier,

6.3.1 The Slightly Subcooled Region

Consider first the slightly subcooled region BCD (Figs.6.1 and 6.4). It has been noted

that there is no essential physical diflerence between subcooled boiling and saturated
nucleate boiling and that no discontinuity any characterizing parameter at
exists in
the bulk boiling boundary. Therefore, it may be postulated that cq. (2.53) could be
used to evaluate the local total pressure gradient. Figure 6.4 depicts the variation
of the local mass fraction of vapour, y{r), and the local value of The true local
vapour mass fraction is given as VVVXYZ (in the region VW, the existence of a quality
as defined would depend on the bubbles sliding along the wall) For the sake of
simplification, with little loss of accuracy, it is assumed that the variation is VW'X'YZ
which may be represented as follows;

(a) for 2 < am B (or 2d). x'(2 ) =* 0

This may also be expressed as

For A7 sub(2) > ATsuB(2)fOB (or A7 jub(2)j), a:'(^) = 0

(b) For 2 d (or z^t) < r < z*, (or ArsoB(r)n,B or ArsuB(r)d) > ATsubCz) > 0)

(6.51)

where

(6.52)
4 1_ ^ CeJ
(c) For z > g*, X is the normal 'thermodynamic quality’ given by

(6.31)

The value of x{z) at z* is given by eq. (6.36)

(6.36)

The value ofniay be evaluated as a function of length since the quality distribu-
now known. Alternatively, the value of
tion, x( 2) is may be calculated directly

from a knowledge of the void fraction, using the Levy equation,

, , (l-*(r))"”
(6.53)

6.3.2 The Highly Subcooled Region

The procedure outlined above is not satisfactory for the highly subcooled region

186
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING

heated surface. Hirata

(le^on AB) where the vapour bubbles grow and collapse at the
of the boundary layer flow over a porous
and Nishiwaki” have attempted an analysis
bubbled. The wall shear stress for a rough plate, given
plate through which gas is being
by Schlichting, is

187
 CONVECTIVE BOILING ANO CONDENSATION

Xw = i/>rUt»’[2-87+l-5Sln^0J (6.54)

where the surface roughness e was originally introduced by Nikuradse as the grain
size of the sand glued to the plate. For simplicity it was assumed that the time-averaged

diameter of the growing bubble could replace e. It was shown that this was 0-75 times
the diameter of the bubble at departure. If use is made of Levy's** model this, in turn,
is given approximately by eq. (6.9). Hirata and Nishiwaki*® show that the increase

in wall shear stress is likely to be much more sensitive to the nucleation site density
and the bubble departure diameter than to the heat flux.

6.3.3 Experimental Studies of Subcooted Boiling Pressure Drop

Only a limited amount of experimental work has been carried out on the study of
pressure gradients in the subcooled region. The higher pressure gradients associated
with subcoolcd boiling, as compared with single-phase liquid flow, were noted by
Buchberg et al.,^' and others in the early studies of subcooled boiling. No attempts
at correlation were made but observations concerning the qualitative influence of the
independent variables were given. It was observed that the relative increase in pressure

gradient in the subcoolcd boiling region over that with no boiling was largest at the
lowest pressures. It was also noted that the pressure gradient increased as the sub-
cooling was reduced and the heat flux was increased.
The flrst published work devoted to the measurement of local pressure gradients in
the subcooled boiling region was that of Reynolds.** Since no measurements of the
subcooled void fraction profile were obtained, correlation of the total pressure gradient
only was possible. It was observed that soon after subcooled boiling was initiated
there was a region where the pressure gradient was tower than that for single-phase
liquid flow and that after this pomt the gradient increased rapidly.
Reynolds expressed the ratio of the total subcooled boiling pressure gradient
(dp/dr)scB 10 single-phase isothermal pressure gradient (dp/d 2 )(, (at the same bulk
temperature and mass velocity) as a function of

thus.

Itwas found that, by plotting the data in the form suggested by eq. (6.55), a curve was
obtained which was practically independent of mass velocity and absolute pressure
and a function of only the heat flux; this could be fitted with the hyperbolic cosine,
as follows:

where o' is an empirical term which is a function of heat flux only, thus,

188
 + —
VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING

(6.57)

where (f)
is in Btu/h.ft^
or

“' = l-2 + l-46(^^j (6.57)

where (p is in kW/m^.
In order to evaluate the pressure loss from the start of the subcooled boiling region,
Znb> to a point, z, it is necessary to integrate eq. (6.56). Reynolds*^ attempted to extend
the range of the correlation by comparing its predictions with the data of Buchberg.“

Satisfactory agreement was achieved over a wide range of conditions provided the
surface heat flux was lower than 1-58 MW/m^ (5x 10^ Btu/h.ft^).
Lottes et report a correlation developed by Rohde at Argonne National
Laboratory. Rohde evaluated the local pressure gradients in the work by Buchberg
et al}^ Lottes et al. point out that the method of measurement of the pressure loss

was such that the reported values will include only the frictional and static head terms
complete condensation having occurred by the time the fluid arrived at the down-
stream pressure tap.
The Rohde correlation was expressed as

(6.58)

where (dp/dz)fo' is the single-phase liquid pressure gradient* at the same heat flux,
velocity, and temperature, p is the system pressure in bar and is the maximum
heat flux which could be sustained at that point without subcooled boiling. This flux
is given by,

(^2^ub)i
(6.59)
[4z/(GCprZ))+l//,fJ

This equation can be solved iteratively using the Jens and Lottes equation for the
value of ATsxt-
Sher‘° reported local values of the subcooled boiling frictional pressure gradient
for water flow at 138 bar (2000 psia) in rectangular channels (2.5 mm
(and I -25 mm) x
25-4 mm x 68-5 cm). Void fraction profiles were taken and the total gradients corrected
for acceleration and static head components. In addition to the earlier noted eSects
of heat flux, pressure, and subcooling on the value of [(d/7/dz)scB/(dp/dz)fo]. Sher

noted that the ratio was also increased by decreased mass velocities. Sher suggests
that, when the subcooled void fraction profile is available, a method of evaluating the
pressure gradient should be used which is essentially identical with that discussed in
section 6.3.1.
Tarasova et have derived a form of equation for subcooled boiling pressure
drop similar to that used by Reynolds. The proposed relationship is

* N.B. will be less than the isothermal gradient

189
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

(6.60)

•where

^-'-1 . r,_
z=r (6.61)
L*SC~^NbJ L ATsi:b(2nb)J
^7iuB(2^NB)J

The function fn(Z) may be represented by the following equation,

fn(Z) = 20Z/(I*3I5-Z) (6.62)

Pressure drop data for subcooled boiling in forced convective flow of water in
internally heated annuli and at pressures close to atmospheric have been reported by
Costello* and Jordan and Leppert.® In the latter study local friction factors were
evaluated for the heated wall from overall pressure gradient measurements corrected
for acceleration and static head effects. These friction factors were plotted, following
Sabenky and Mulligan’®, as a function of the Stanton number (hJG Cp) in an attempt
to examine the Reynolds’ analogy in the subcooled boiling regime.

2/sc,-p2
Gcp
(6,63)

Jordan and Leppert showed that their own data together with those of Reynolds’*
and Owens and Schrock,” wcee in qualitative agreement wvth eq. (6.63). However,
‘apparent’ friction factors evaluated from the total pressure gradients observed in
these experiments increased at a rate greater than that predicted by eq (6.63). In all
probability this effect is due to the inclusion of the acceleration term in the ‘apparent*
friction factor. However, it is impossible to verify this because no void fraction data
were taken for the expenments lo question.
Experimental data on subcooled boiling pressure gradients for water at pressures
Wgher than atmospheric have been reported by Owens and Schrock** and by Jicha
and Frank.’® The experiments of Owens and Schrock were earned out in vertical
stainless steel tubes having internal diameters of 3 nun and 4 6 mm and lengths of
38 cm and 40 6 cm respectively. The results appeared to be insensitive to pressure over
the range of variables investigated in contrast to the findings of most other investiga-
tions. The total pressure gradients were correlated in terms of the ratio of the length
from inception of subcooled boiling (r— cnd) to the total subcooled boiling length
(zsc— nb) ^tcr the manner of Reynolds

where (dp/dz)f/ is the single-phase liquid pressure gradient at the same heat flux,
velocity, and temperature.
Jicha and Frank’® report data in the pressure range 55 to 103 bar (800-1500 psia)
taken from a vertical stainless steel tube 10 6 mm
i.d. and 76 cm in length for heat

fluxes up to 4-1 MW/m* (1-3 x 10® Btu/h.ft*). Again no void fraction data were taken
and an empirical correlation of the combtoed frictional and accelcraUonal pressure
190
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING
gradient terms was presented. Further studies of subcooled boiling pressure
drop for
water have been given b\ Miller’^ and by Poletavkin.^® For liquids other than
water
and Freon there appears to be a dearth of information.
An investigation of pressure drop for subcooled boiling of water in small diameter
Dormer and Bergles.^^ A satisfactory correlation of a large
tubes has been reported by
amount of data was obtained by plotting the results in the manner shown in Fig. 6.5.
The parameters chosen were (^Pscz! ratio of the subcooled boiling pressure
drop across the test section to the pressure drop obtained in a similar unheated tube

Fig. 6S. Pressure Drop Correlation for Subcooled Boiling of Low Pressure Water (Dormer
and Bergles)

at the same velocity and inlet temperature, and the ratio of the actual heat
flux to that required to produce just saturated water at the exit of the tube. The use of
these parameters eliminated all effects except geometry. The diameter is seen to have
a small but measurable effect, whereas the length-to-diameter ratio is of prime import-
ance. The correlation was found to be suspect when the velocities and heat flaxes
covered by Dormer were greatly exceeded.
It will be observ'ed from Fig. 6.5 that the rapid increase in subcooled pressure drop
occurs at a particular value of 4>I4>skt depending on the length-to-diameter ratio (z/D)
of the test section. It might be expected that the sharp increase in pressure drop above
that experienced for single-phase isothermal flow, would be caused by the transition
from the highly subcooled region where the bubbles remain attached to the heating
surface to the slightly subcooled region where the bubbles detach from the wall.^* In

191
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
a uniformly heated channel this transition wll occur first at the exit of the test section.
For a fixed geometry and mass velocity

J_ ^ (r,(2)-Tn)
^ r(A7ij2V-A7^)1
^SAT (7sAT~^i) L J
The value of {^/<^sat) corresponding to the point of bubble detachment occurring
just at the end of the test section (^/^sat)* ** gi'cn by

'J_Y r(^^«n.)-Ar,,.B(r);
( 6 . 66)
.^sat/ L
Using the Bowring model of bubble detachment the value of AT^ub i^)i is given by
eq. (6.13). The value of (A7^ub)i related by cq. (5J) which rewritten
becomes

^SAT =— (6.67)

Substituting for (ATsub)! ^nd AT'stiBfz)^ from eq. (6.67) and (6.13) into eq. (6.66) and
rearranging, gives

For water at atmospheric pressure (c,,/tv) «» 4 x 10* 3/m’ deg, and the Bowring value
of 1] for the same conditions (given by eq. (6.14)) is I4 0x I0‘* (m’ deg/J). Poor
agreement is observed between the calculated and experimental values of (^/^sat)*
when these values are used in eq. (6.6S). Better agreement with the value of (^/^$at)
corresponding to a constant value of (Apset/^psn.) 6 S) is obtained when
t] is taken as 25 x 10"* (m* deg/J).

References

1. Kirby, G. "Film of subcoolcd boiling at atmospheric pressure at high heal fluxes'.

Private communication, A.E.E. Winfritb (1963).
2. Costello, C. P 'Aspects of local boiling effects on density and pressure drop'. Paper
59-HT-18. Paper presented to 3rd National Heat Transfer Conference at Storrs. (9-12
Aug. 1959.)
3. Griffith, P., Clark, J. A.,and Rohsenow, W. M. 'Void volumes in subcooled boiling
. Papes si-WT-W. ASME-MCbE HeaX TtBiSvsSts CetJesewes,

1958; also Technical Report No. 12 (M.I.T.).

4. Egen, R, A., Dingee, D. A., and Ch^tain, J. W. 'Vapour formation and behaviour in
boiling heat transfer'. ASME
Paper No. 37.A-74: also BMM163. (Feb. 1957).
5. Maurer, G. W. *A method of predicting steady state boiling vapour fractions in reactor
coolant channels'. BelHs TechnieoIKeriev WAPD*BT-19 (I960).
6. Jordan, D. P. and Leppert, G. ‘Pressure drop and vapour volume with subcooled nucleate
Heat Masj Transfer, 5, 751-761 (1962).
boiling’. Ini. J.
7. Bowring, R. W. ‘Physical model b^ed on bubble detachment and calculation of steam
voidage in the subcooled region of a heated channel'. OECD Halden Reactor Project
Report HPR-IO (1962).

m
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING
8. Marchaterre, J. F. et al. ‘Natural and forced-convection boiling studies’. ANL 5735
(1958).
9. Christensen, H. ‘Po\ver-to-void transfer functions’. ANL 6385 (1961).
10. Sher, N. C. ‘Estimation of boiling and non-boiling pressure drop in rectangular channels
at 2000 psia’ WAPD-TH-300 (1957).
11. Buchberg, H., Romie, and Greenfield, M. ‘Heat transfer, pressure drop
F., Lipkis, R.,
and burnout and without surface boiling for de-aerated and gassed water at
studies with
elevated pressures in a forced flow system’. 1951 Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics
Institute, pp. 171-191, Stanford University (20-22 June 1951).
12. Reynolds, J. B. ‘Local boiling pressure drop’. ANL 5178 (1954).
13. Rohde, R. R. Reference 50 of Boiling water reactor technology, status of the art report —
—
Volume I Heat transfer and hydraulics. By P. A. Lottes et al. ANL 6561 (1962).
14. Sabersky, R. H. and Mulligan, H. E. ‘On the relationship between fluid friction and heat
transfer in nucleate boiling’. Jet Propulsion, 25, (1), 9-12 (1955).
15. Owens, W. L. and Schrock, V. E. ‘Local pressure gradients for subcooled boiling of water
in vertical tubes’. ASME Paper No. 60-WA-249 (1960).
16. Jicha, J. J. and Frank, S. ‘An e.xperimental local boiling heat transfer and pressure drop
study of a round tube’. Paper 62-HT-48. Paper presented at the 5th National Heat
Transfer Conf., Houston (Aug. 1962).
17. Miller, M. S. ‘Pressure in forced circulation flow of subcooled water with and without
surface boiling’. A.M. Thesis, M.I.T. (Aug. 1954).
18. Poletavkin, P. G. ‘Hydraulic resistance with surface boiling of water’. Teploenergetika,
12, 13-18 (1959), Trans. RTS-1513.
19. Thom, J. R. S., Walker, W. W., Fallon, T. A., and Reising, G. F. S. ‘Boiling in subcooled
water during flow up heated tubes or annuli’. Paper 6 presented at the Symposium on
Boiling Heat Transfer in Steam Generating Units and Heat Exchangers held by Inst.
Mech. Engrs. Manchester (England) 15-16 (Sept. 1965).
20. Rouhani, S. Z. ‘Void measurements in the region of subcooled and low quality boiling’.
Paper E5 presented at Symposium on Two-phase flow held at Exeter University, 21-23
June 1965.
21. Thom, J, R. S. ‘Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation boiling of water’.
Int. J.Heat Mass Transfer, 7, 709-724 (19M).
22. Dormer, J. Jr. and Bergles, A. E. ‘Pressure drop with surface boiling in small diameter
tubes’. Report No. M.I.T. 8767-31 Dept, of Mech. Engrg. M.I.T. I Sept. (1964).
23. Kroeger, P. G. and Zuber N. ‘An analysis of the effects of various parameters on the
average void fractions in subcooled boiling’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 11, 211-233
(1968).
24. Gregorio, P. and Merlini, C. ‘Voids, friction and vibrations associated with localized
boiling’. A.E.R.E. Trans. 1114 (1968).
25. Tarasova, N. V., Leontiev, A. I., Hlopushin, V. I., and Orlov, V. M. ‘Pressure drop of
boiling subcooled water and steam-water mixture flowing in heated channels’. Proc. of
3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conf, Vol. 4, Paper 1 13 (1966).
26. Levy, S. ‘Forced convection subcooled boiling prediction of vapour volumetric fraction’.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 10, 951-965 (.1967).
27. Staub, F. W. ‘The void fraction in subcooled boiling— prediction of the initial point of
net vapour generation’. Paper presented at the 9th National Heat Transfer Conference,
Seattle, preprint, ASME 67-HT-36. (Aug. 1967).
28. Martinelli, R. C. ‘Heat transfer to molten metals’. Trans. ASME, 69, 947 (1947).
29. Hirata, M. and Nishiwaki, N. ‘Skin friction and heat transfer for liquid flow over a porous
wall with gas injection’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 6, 941-949 (1963).
30. Bartolomei, C. C. and Chanturiya, V. M. ‘Experimental study of true void fraction when
boiling subcooled water in vertical tubes’. Thermal Engineering, 14, No. 2,
123-128
(1967).
31. Whittle, R. H. and Forgan, R. ‘A correlation for the minuna
... in the pressure drop versus

193
CONVECTIVE SOILING AND CONDENSATION
 VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING
Equation (1.12) can be used to provide values of void fraction from thermodynamic
quality with Uj/Uf = 1-69.

-r 0005 001 0-047

a 0058 01 00 0-378

The void profiles given by Bowring’s method are also shown on the adjacent figure.

Example 2
Using Dormer’s correlation calculate the subcooled boiling pressure drop across a
vertical heated test section 2-39 mm i.d. LID = 50 for flows of up to 204 kg/h and
heat fluxes of 0, 3-15, 6-30, 9-45, and 12-60 MW/m^. The water temperature is 21°C
and the exit pressure from the channel is 2-06 bar.

Solution

Calculate the single-phase pressure drop for no heat applied.

APfo = 2/f„TG^
D P(

n D
Flow area = = - X (2-39 X 10"^)^ = 4-49 x 10"® m^
4 4

Flow-rate = —204
— = 0-0566 kg/s
36CX)

Mass velocity = ~^ ~ 12630 kg/m^ s

4 49 ^ i 6

Viscosity /if for water at 2t°C = 0-98 x 10“^ Ns/m^

GD 12630x2-39x10'
= 3-08 X 10'"
Reynolds number

Assume zjD = 0-0006

/f„
= 0-006

2x0-006x50x12-63^x10®
APfo = = 9-63 X 10'" N/m^
997-5

The on page 199 gives the pressure drop values between 0 and 204 kg/h. The
table
pressure drop versus flow characteristic is plotted in the figure. ^sat> the heat flux
to cause a saturated condition at the test section exit is given by eq. (6.67).

<PsKT = (ATsuB)i

Tsat at 2-06 bar = 121-0°C (ATsub)! = 100°C

197
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Flowrate, Ib/h

psi
N/m^

drop. dr^,

Pressure
Pressure

tip. tp,

Flow rale, kg/h

 s

VOID FRACTION AND PRESSURE DROP IN SUBCOOLED BOILING

(j) 3-15 „
- ~
26-5

From Fig. 6.5 = 0-78

APspl
Therefore Apsco = 9-63 x 10“^ x 0-78 = 75-Q kN/m^
The table gives the pressure drop values for the various flow-rates at heat flux values
of 3-15, 6-30, 9-45, and 12-6 MW/m^. The figure shows the pressure drop/flow
characteristics for each heat flux together with experimental results obtained by
Maulbetsch.

IV C Mass Reynolds Friction C^SAT 4l ?^SAT

Flow velocity number factor t^Pt„ (} = 3-15 (5 = 6-30 ^ = 9-45
kg/h kg/m’ ReIxlO-*) fu kN/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’
22-7 1,405 0-343 0-0109 2-29 2-94 1-070 __
45-4 2,810 0-685 0-0087 6-89 5-89 0-534 1-069
68 4,220 1-028 0-0078 13-85 8-8 0-356 0-713 1-069
90-6 5,620 1-370 0-0072 22-8 11-8 0-267 0-534 0-802
113 7,020 1-713 0-0069 34-1 14-7 0-214 0-428 0-641
136 8,440 2-056 0-0066 47-0 17-7 0-178 0-534
159 9,850 2-398 0-0064 62-1 20-6 0-153 0-305 0-458
181'5 11,300 2,741 0-0062 78-6 23-6 0-1336 0-2673
204 12,630 3-084 0-0060 96-3 26-5 0-1188 0-238 0'356

<5/ (3sat AplApi, Ap/Ap,. Ap/Apfo Ap/Apfo 1

Ap kN/m’ Ap kN/m’ Ap kN/m’ Ap kN/m’
<5 - 12-6 (5 - 3-15 <5 - 6-30 ^ - 9-45 4 - 12-60: - 3-15 ^ - 6-30 = 9-45 (5 = 12-60
</>

MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’ MW/m’

— 10 — — 22-9
— —
0-93 10 6-40
0-70 1-64 10 — 9-70 138-5 —
1-069 0-64 2-6 10 14-60 21-2 59-2 228
0-855 0-67 1-3 3-5 22-85 25-6 44-3 119-4
0-713 0-69 0-70 0-93 1-64 32-4 32-9 43-7 77.0
0-611 0-71 0-65 0-80 1-18 44-1 40-4 49-7 73-4
0-5346 0-74 0-64 0-71 0-93 58-1 50-3 55-8 73-1
0-475 0-78 0-65 ’
0-70 0-84 75-0 62-5 67-3 80-8
1
1
!

PROBLEMS
1. For the conditions given in Example 1 (chapters 5 and 6) calculate the pressure
gradient profile over the region of subcooled and saturated boiling, i.e., last 1-83 m.
Calculate the overall pressure drop across the tube accounting for the increased
pressure gradient in the subcooled boiling region and compare the result with that
given in Example 1 of chapter 2.
2. Tabulate the friction factor to account for subcooled boiling at the wall of a heated
tube corresponding to the conditions used in Table 6.1. Assume that the bubble
layer acts as a sand roughness equivalent to 0-75 times of the diameter of the
bubble at departure. Use the model developed by Levy to provide this departure
diameter.

199
 7

SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

7.1 Introduction

In this chapter the present state of knowledge regarding the heat transfer characteristics
of saturated forced convective boiling and evaporation will be discussed. Returning
to Fig. 4.13, chapter 4, it can be seen that this covers the regions C and D, where
nucleate boiling is occurring at the wall and where the flow pattern would be typically
bubbly, slug, or low vapour velocity annular and regions E and F where there is no
nucleation at the wall; this latter region is normally associated with annular flow.
For the regions under consideration, would appear that, for most practical
it

purposes, the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium between the phases of a

single component fluid is acceptable. However, there ate some areas, notably at small
values of the reduced pressure, P„ where significant non-equilibrium between the
phases does occur. This has been observed with refrigerants**’ ** and liquid metals.**
The methods outlined in chapter 2 for evaluating pressure drop and void fraction may
be employed, provided the effects of possible changes in phase distribution due to the
presence of a heat flux are allowed for. These effects, at present, are very poorly
understood.
Research work from many fields of engineering has contributed to the knowledge
of forced convective boiling inside tubes and other shaped conduits. Notably, work
has been published in the technical journals covering mechanical, chemical, refrigera-
tion, petroleum, boiler plant, and nuclear engineering amongst others. Studies in some
of these fields date back into the nineteenth century. However, it is only in the last

ten years that important contributions have been made towards understanding the
processes involved in progressive vaporitalion along a tube. The lack of progress in
the earlier work arises, in pan, from the large number of experimental variables which
are present but, in the main, it is the consequence of the fact that early workers in the
field reported only effects on the performance of the evaporator resulting from inde-
pendent variables altered by the operator. It is clear from a brief inspection of the
complex flow patterns which exist when progressive evaporation takes place along a
tube that it is essential to study the local or point conditions in the evaporator. No

such study was published prior to 1952.

In the early experiments on evaporators condensing steam was used as the heating
medium. In this case the heat flux along the length of the evaporator is a dependent

200
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
vflriable, the magnitude of which, at any point, is set by the local overaU heat transfer
coefficient and overall temperature difference at that point. In addition, the mass
quality, x(z), or weight fraction vaporized at any point is a function of the total heat
added to the fluid up to that point. It has been established that the heat transfer
coefficient in forced convective boiling may be strongly dependent upon either the heat
flux or the mass quality, x(z), in certain regions. Obviously the case of a long evapora-
tor tube heated by condensing steam is a complex one to analyse fully.
Two experimental approaches have been used which considerably simplify the
situation. Firstly, the use of electrically heated tubular test sections has allowed a
uniform heat flux distribution and level to be specified as an independently controlled
variable resulting in a linear variation of the mass quality, x(z), along the tube length.
Secondly, by considering only a very short section of the evaporator, it may be assumed
that conditions are approximately constant.Methods of measuring the rate of con-
densate production over a number of short lengths along a steam-heated evaporator
have been introduced.
The following sections do not attempt to review all the available literature on this
subject.The intention is rather to provide a brief account of the present state of
knowledge. A review giving details of a large part of the literature published in the
period 1935-57 has been prepared previously by the present author.^ In contrast to
the situation for subcooled boiling there are a considerable number of published
studies for liquids other than water.

7.2 Saturated Forced Convective Boiling in a Round Tube

As noted earlier, one of the prime variables in saturated forced convective boiling is

x(z), the‘mass quality’ or the ‘weight fraction vaporized’. This variable replaces the
subcooling, ATsuBi^). used in the subcooled region. The mass quality at any point for
a tube with a uniform heat flux is given by

= 44
>
x(z) (z-zsc) (7.1)
DGi[g

Should a region of subcooled boiling precede the saturated forced convective

boiling region then for values of z <z*

4 ^
x'iz) = (z-Zd) (7.2)
DGi[g (1 + e)
The realization that at least two different mechanisms of heat transfer could occur
when liquid is evaporated in a tube came with the first measurements of local heat
transfer coefficients by Dengler and Addoms;^ many other studies have since con-
firmed their conclusions.
Consider the ‘saturated nucleate boiling regime’ (Fig. 7.1). Here, the mechanism
of heat transfer is essentially identical to that in the subcooled regions. A
thin layer

of liquid near to the heated surface is superheated to a sufficient degree to allow

nucleation. Just as with all other characterizing variables such as coolant temperature,
void fraction, pressure gradient, etc., the heat transfer coefficient and heater surface

20J
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
temperature variation is smooth and continuous through the thermodynamic bound-
ary AD marking the onset of saturated boiling. All the methods and equations used

in this region with the provision that 7',(z)

in the subcooled region is
= w
to correlate experimental data in the subcooled regions (see chapter 5) remain valid
Just as the heat transfer
independent of the subcooling and, to a large degree, the
mechanism

mass velocity, so it may be inferred that the heat transfer process in this region is

independent of the ‘mass quality' jrfz) and the mass velocity. This indeed is found to
be experimentally correct*- * for the case of ‘fully developed nucleate boiling’. Thus,

Quality % by wt
(or enthalpy equivalent)

Fig. 7.1. Boundaries of Saturated Forced Convective Boiling and Evaporation

because the bulk temperature is constant in this region the heat transfer coefficient is

also constant since ATjat is hxed.

7.3 Suppression of Saturated Nucleate Boiling

To maintain nucleate boiling on the surface, it is necessary that the wall temperature
exceeds a critical value for a specified beat flux. The stability of nucleate boiling in the
presence of a temperature gradient was discussed in detail in chapter 5 and the argu-
ments given in that section are equally valid in application to the suppression of
nucleate boiling with decreasing wall superheat in the two-phase region If the wall
superheat is less than that given by eq (S.23) or (5.33) of chapter 5 for the imposed
surface heat flux, then nucleation does not take place (Fig. 7.2); the value of
for comparison with these equations is calculated from the ratio (^/Atp)» where hxp
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
is the two-phase heat transfer coefficient in the absence of nucleation. As will be seen
in the following section, h-[p increases with increasing quality and with increasing mass
velocity. Thus decreases, for a given flux, with increasing values of x{z) or G
and, when its value falls below that required to cause nucleation at the imposed flux,
nucleate boiling ceases.
The complex inter-relationship between heat flux, quality, and mass velocity at the

point of suppression was discussed earlier in chapter 4 and can be deduced quantita-
tively if the equations for hyp and ^onb suitably combined. Early studies of this
type are reported by Collier and Pulling'^ who used the criterion derived by Hsu’ and
assumed all the temperature drop occurred across the boundary sublayer. It is, for
example, possible to combine the relationship given in eq. (5.33), chapter 5, for ^onb
with the Dengler and Addoms’ equation for hyp'.

(7.3)

203
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
where is the heat transfer coefficient for the total flow, assumed to be liquid, and
A',, is the Martinelli parameter defined previously in chapter 2 in terms of the pressure
drop ratio.

The relationship obtained by this combination is

Equation (7.5) represents an equation for the boundary between the saturated
nucleate boiling and the two-phase forced convection regions (Fig. 7.1). As for the
case of subcooled nucleate boiling (his relationship was derived on the basis of a
complete range of ‘active* cavities on the heating surface. The treatment by Davis and
Anderson (chapter 5, section 5.3) should be employed when the ‘active* cavity size
spectrum is limited. Methods of estimating the largest ‘active’ cavity size have been
discussed is chapter 4.
In subcooled boiling, a region of partial boiling occurs between the point of onset
of nucleation and the region of fully-developed boiling. There is a similar ‘partial
boiling’ region between fully develop^ saturated nucleate boiling and the two-phase
forced convective region. In this transition region, both the forced convective and
nucleate boiling mechanisms are significant. The gradual suppression of the latter as.

say, quality is increased along the boiling channel can, in some cases, lead to a tem-
porary reduction of the heat transfer coefficient with increasing quality. However,
once the forced convective mechanism becomes dominant, the heat transfer coefficient
increases with increasing quality. In (he absence of a cntical heat flux condition, the
forced convective heat transfer coefficient may
be regarded as a minimum value for
any given quality. Results obtained by Collier and Pulling* typify the variation of
heat transfer coefficient with quality. The ratio ArrMr was plotted against I/AT,,. This
type of plot is preferable, for these particular results, to a straight plot of Ajp against
AT, because of the large pressure variations in these experiments both along the channel

and from test to test.

Although results such as those of Collier and Pulling* show qualitative agreement
with the Hsu’ type models for the suppression of nucleation, it is difficult to identify
the precise point from heat transfer data. Direct observations of nucleation in annular
flow have been reported by Hewitt et al.^ The geometry used was an internally heated
annulus with a climbing film on the inner surface only. The results obtained are
illustrated in Fig. 7.3and qualitatively confirm the expected trends; increases
with increasing G and x(r). Unfortunately it was not possible to make wall temperature
measurements in these experiments nor was it possible to infer reliable values of kxp
for use in the calculation of ATsat- As a first approximation eq. (7.5) can be used.

204
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
However, the calculated values of ^qnb are very much lower than those measured
and shown in Fig. 7.3, This discrepancy is consistent with the findings of Davis and
Anderson (chapter 5, ref. 32) mentioned above. Equation (7.5) predicts that nucleation
will persist at wall superheats down to 3°C but it is very unlikely that the large sizes
of cavity required to be down to this superheat were present on the stainless
‘acti\'e’

steel heating surface. For this case, a maximum size of ‘active’ cavity present might
be ~ pm 1 (0-4 X 10““* in.) radius as discussed in chapter
5.

1-2

1-0

ro
0-4

Xo
0-2

Quality at nucleation point, % by weight

Fig. 13 Comparison
. of Nucleation Bands and Film Breakdown Curves

7.4 The Two-Phase Forced Convection Region

In principle, this region could be associated with any of the flow patterns described
in chapter 1. In practice, however, in boiling channels, in the absence of very high
mass velocities, the two-phase forced convective region is most likely to be associated

with the annular flow pattern. Heat is transferred by conduction and convection
through the liquid film and vapour is generated continuously at the interface. The
bulk vapour in the core region is normally assumed to be at the saturation temperature
appropriate to the local pressure though this may not be true if there is a very large
pressure gradient along the channel. A small temperature drop between the interface
and the bulk vapour is a necessary consequence of a vapour flux away from the
interface. This temperature drop is, again, normally, ignored but it may be
important
in some cases, particularly at low reduced pressures (P, <0-001). The calculation of
is discussed in detail in the context of condensation in chapter
10.
this interface drop
If the interfacial temperature drop is ignored the total temperature drop in the system

(ATsat = Tw-Tsat) occurs across the liquid film and is smaller the thinner
the film

205
 CONVECTIVE BOILING ANO CONDENSATION
and the higher the degree of turbulence within it Extremely high beat transfer coeffi-
dents are possible in this region ; valuescan be so high as to make accurate assessment
difficult. Typical figures for water of up to 200 kW/m* *C (35,000 Btu/h.fl* "F) have
been reported.
Following the suggestion of Martinelli, many workers have correlated their experi-
mental results of heat transfer rates in the two-phase forced convective region in the
form

where App ** li’* value of the two-phase heat transfer cocfiident, and (and hj) are
values of the single-phase liquid heat transfer coefficient based on the total (or liquid
component) flow.
It is of interest to examine briefly why a relationship of this type might be successful
to correlating data in this re^on. Consider a vertical heated tube, inside diameter D,
when (a) the L'quid flow completely flits the tube (as for upward flow), (b) the same
liquid flow-rate occurs entirely as a liquid film flowing turbulently on the heated surface
(as for downward flow). In both cases it is assumed that the mechanism of heat transfer
is convection and that no nuclcation occurs at the hearing surface. Using the treatment
of McAdams* it is possible to relate, by dynamic similarity, the beat transfer coeSdent
obtained under the above two conditions to the physical dimensions of the tube and
the L'quid film. McAdams showed that for a fixed flow-rate the Reynolds number will
be the same whether the fluid partially or completely fills the channel (see section
3.5.1). Since the liquid physical properties are approximately equal for the two cases,
the heat transfer coefficient should vary inversely as the equivalent diameter for each
type of flow. For the case of thin film flow, it is assumed that the film is unrippled and
has a thickness, 6, very much less than D. It is now possible to evaluate the equivalent
diameter, D,, for each condition.

For condition (a) 0,^=0

For condition (b) i7, = 4 x hydraulic mean radius = 45

Therefore the ratio of the heat transfer coeffidents in the two cases may be given as

A,,, h, 45

Now^ when 5 is very small compared with D the liquid hold-up, (1— a) may be
approximately given by

(l-a)-5 (7.8)

It has been noted in chapter 2 that Lockhart and Martinelli successfully correlated
the liquid hold-up (1— a) using the parameter, X. Thus it might be expected that an
206
 :

SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

approach such as that implied by eq. (7.6) might be successful. However, using eq.
(7.9) together with actual or predicted void fraction data yields estimates of /i^p which
are about 50 per cent higher than measured values.
Equation (7.9) is similar in form to eq. (3.27) for the pressure gradient in annular
flow and can similarly be shown to be related to the theoretical analysis outlined in
section 3.5.1. It implicitly contains, therefore, all the assumptions made in these
analyses with all their deficiencies. It may sometimes be more appropriate, when there
is considerable entrainment occurring, to put hjplltip = 1/(1— a), hfp is the full pipe
heat transfer coelficient for the liquid film flow where E is the fraction of
JVf{\ —E)
the liquid flow entrained. For further details reference should be made to section 3.5.
The heat transfer within the liquid film can be calculated from the theoretical models
for annular flow which are briefly described in chapter 3. By analogy with the equation
for turbulent momentum transfer r = (/i+sp) diijdy the relationship for turbulent
heat transfer can be written as:
dT
4> = —(k[+EuCp[P[)— (7.10)

where Eh is the eddy diffusivity for heat. Integrating eq. (7.10) from y = d (T = T-, x
^sat) to j = possible to evaluate 7\v and hence AT’s^t and hjp for a given value
0, it is
of It is convenient to express eq. (7.10) in a dimensionless form as follows:

dr+
(7.11)
Pff Pt/Ptj

where Prj is the liquid Prandtl number, p[ and P( are estimated at some suitable mean
temperature and

= ^2^(Tw-T) (7.12)

(7.13)
V Pt
y
+ = «*ypc ..
(7.14)

Assuming eddy diffusivities of heat and momentum are equal (eh = e) and
that the
inserting appropriate well-known expressions for e in the various ranges of y*, eq.
(7.11) can be integrated from T'^ = 0 atjy'^
= 0 to obtain values of aty+ = yj*.
The two-phase heat transfer coefficient can then be computed from the relationship
“*
^prPf
hjp (7.15)

and the liquid film Nusselt number is given by

S yj-^
= kjp
Pff
NUf (7.16)
k{

Extensive tables of T* as a function of film Reynolds number, RCf, and Prandtl

207
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
number, Pr^, are given for various shear stress distributions by Hewitt*® for upflow
and by Dukler** for downflow. For the case of aconstant shear stress across the film
(r *= Tw) the friction velocity, «•, and the film Reynolds number are known and a
value of Ajp (or Nuf) is readily obtained. Hewitt and Hall-Taylor** have provided
values of NUf as a function of Rep and Prp for this particular case- Table 7.1 presents
these values in tabular form. As might be expected at low film Reynolds numbers the
—
value of Nuf approaches unity the laminar flow solution.
In general, the heat transfer coefficient predicted from eq. (7.9) or from Table 7.1
is somewhat higher than the observed one; this might be attributable to the existence

of a significant interfacial temperature drop. An alternative explanation is that there

is a reduction in eddy diffusivily in the repon adjaant to the interface. A further

Table 7.1 Values of the liquid film Nusselt number Nu, as a function of the
liquid film Reynolds number and the Prandtl number {Hewiit and Mall
Taylor**)

-m.
explanation may be found in the transient nature of the flow. The existence of the
large disturbance waves opensup the possibility that the average shear stress calculated
from the mean pressure gradient is not the one which should be used in calculating u*.
In the intervals between the disturbances the shear stress may be much lower.
A number of relationships of the form of eq. (7.3) have been proposed and in some
cases these have been extended to cover the saturated nucleate boiling region also.
Table T.l summarizes some of the correlaVions proposed.
Chen*’ has carried out a comparison of the correlations of Dengler and Addoms,
of Guerrieri and Tally, of Bennett et ah, and of Schrock and Grossman using a
representative selection of 594 experimental data points. The range of experimental
conditions covered by this comparison arc summarized in Table 7.3 and the results
are given in Table 7.4. The of Dengler and Addoms represents their own
correlation
when compared with data
data fairly well but predicts coefficients which are too high
from other sources. The equation proposed by Guerrieri and Tally correlates the data
of those authors well but predicts coefficients lower than those measured by Dengler
and Addoms, and by Sani.** It docs, however, predict coefficients of the same order

208
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

regions

boiling

nucleate

and

convection

forced

two-phase

the

in

transfer

heat

for

corrcialions

Various

7.2

Tnblo

209
 CONVECTIVE DOILINO AND CONDENSATION
of magnitude as those measured by Schrock and Grossman. The correlation of
Bennett el al. appears to predict reasonable values for the majority of the water data
albeit with a wide scatter. However, the predicted coclTicicnts are approximately 50 per
cent too low when compared with the organic data. The correlation of Schrock and
Grossman is some improvement on the other relationships, although it too predicts

too low for the organic data by approximately 30 per cent. None of the correlations
examined by Chen can be considered satisfactory. Chen,*^ Ihcrcfotc, proposed a new

Table 7.3 Range of conditions for data used in testing correlations

Pressure. Liquid inlet Quality Heal flux

Reference Fluid Geometry Flow bar velocity (m/s)

(2) tube Oii-2 16 OO^J-45 15-71 8S-630

OO) water tube 29-J4* 0 2V-t5 3-50 205-2400
(14) water tube down 1 1-21 0 24-4) S2 2-t4 44-158
urof^r annulus 1-24 006-0 27 1-59 100-500
(3)
(9)
(9)
methanol
cyclohexane
tube
lube up 1
1 0 3-0 76
04-0 8S
M
2-10
22-54
95-41
(9) pentane tube 1 0 27-0 67 2-12 9 5-38
(9) heptane tube 1 0 3-0 73 2-10 6 2-28
(9) benzene tube up 1 0 3-0 73 2-9 12 5-41

Table 7.4 Comparuon of correlations

Average Percentage deviations for eomtations

Dengler Cuemen Dennett Schrock and

Data and Addoms and Tally *1 el Grossman Cheo

Dengler and Addoma (water) 30 5 62 3 200 20 3 147

Schrock: and Grossinan (water) 89 5 1640 24 9 200 15 1

Sam (water) 26 9 703 26 5 48 6 85

Bennett et nl. (water) 17 9 618 1) 9 146 108
Gueaieri and Tally (methanol) 42 5 648 62 5 n 3
Guemeri and Tally (cyclohexane) 39 8 65 9 50 7 136
Guemeri and Tally (benzene) 65 1 364 40 63

BB
1

Guerrien and Tally (heptane) 61 2 580 31 8 11 0

Gutnien and Tally (pentane) 66 6 59 2 35 8 119

Combined average for all data 38 1 42 6 32 6 317 no

correlation,which proved very successful in correlating all the forced convective

boiling heat transfer data for water and organic systems listed in Table 7.3.
The proposed correlation covers both the ‘saturated nucleate boiling region’ and
the ‘two-phase forced convection region’. If was assumed that both mechanisms occur
to some degree over the entire range of the correlation and that the contributions made
by the two mechanisms are additive. This assumption of superposition is similar to
that used by Rohsenow in the ‘partial boiling' region for subcooled conditions
(chapter 5).

/iTP = ^KeB+^c (7-17)

210
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
where hjf is the local heat transfer coefficient, is the contribution due to nucleate
boiling and is the contribution due to convection.

It was assumed that the convective component,

he, could be represented by a
Dittus-Boelter type equation,

= 0 023 Re„° «
he Pr^o-^
^ (7.18)

where the thermal conductivity and the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers are
(^tp)
effective values associated with the two-phase fluid. However, heat is transferred to a
liquid film in ‘annular’ and ‘dispersed’ flow so Chen argued that it is reasonable to
use the liquid thermal conductivity in eq. (7.18). Similarly, the values of the Prandtl
modulus for liquid and vapour are normally of the same magnitude and it may be
expected that the ‘two-phase value’ will be close to this value. A parameter Fis defined,
such that.

Rerpl"'* r Rctp T®
(7.19)
ReJ '\Ga-x)Dltit_

Equation (7.17) may now be rewritten as

(7,20)

The sole unknown function in eq. (7.20) is the expression for F. However, since this
ratio is a flow parameter only, it may be expected that it can be expressed as a function
of the Martinelli factor, found to be the case. The analysis of Forster and
This is

Zuber*^ was taken as a basis for the evaluation of the ‘nucleate boiling’ component,
/incb- As discussed in section 4.3 this analysis for pool boiling relates a bubble Nusselt
number with a bubble Reynolds number (based on the premise that this is governed
by the bubble growth rate) and the liquid Prandtl number. The bubble growth rate is
described by eq. (4.25) which can be solved to show that the product of the growth
rate and radius is a constant for a given superheat, ATsat- However, in both pool
boilingand forced convective boiling the actual superheat is not constant across the
boundary layer but falls (Fig. 7.4). Thus, the mean superheat of the fluid in which the
bubble grows is lower than the wall superheat AFs^t. The difference between this
lower mean superheat (ATJ and the wall superheat is small for the case of pool boiling
and was neglected by Forster and Zuber but is significant in the forced convection case
and cannot be neglected (Fig. 7.4) since the boundary layer is much thinner and the
temperature gradients much steeper.
Writing the equation for //pjcB using the Forster and Zuber analysis with effective

values of the superheat and vapour pressure difference.

0-79 . 0-45 0-49 -|
r,
„
= 0-00122 at Ap (7 21)
'fs Pg J
Chen then defines a suppression factor, S, the ratio of the mean superheat (ATJ to

the wall superheat (ATsat)

211
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(7.22)

The exponent 0 99 allows S to appear to the first power in the final equation. Using
the Clausius-CIapeyron equation, eq. (7.22) can be written

S^CAT./AT;.,)”" (7.23)

which allows eq, (7.21) to be expressed as

= 0 00122 r ” (S) (724)

Lo fit hi Pg J
U might be expected that the suppression factor, S, would approach unity at low flows

Fig. 7.4. Tctnpcralure Profiles for Pool Boilmg and for Convective Boiling with Same
Superheat (Chen)

and zero at high flows. Chen suggests that S can be represented as a function of the
local two-phase Reynolds number, Rexp. The functions f and S were determined
empirically from experimental data using an iterative procedure to obtain the best
solutions. These functions are shown in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6 for f and S respectively. The
shaded areas on these plots indicate the scatter of data round the two functions.
This correlation developed by Chen was tested against the data listed in Table 7.3.
The result of the comparison is shown in Table 7.4 and it will be seen that the
correlation fits all the data remarkably well including the data of Bennett el aU for an
internally heated annulus. In the latter case an equivalent diameter of four limes the
cross-sectional area divided by the Aeofed perimeter was employed.
To calculate the heat transfer coefficient (Arr)! ^ known heat flux (^i), mass
velocity, and quality, the steps are as follows:

(a) calculate 1/A',, (eq. (7.4))

212
 )

SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

(b) evaluate F horn Fig. 7.5
(c) calculate from eq. (7.20)
(d) calculate Rctp from Ref (= G (1 - x) I>//if)
and F(eq. (7.19), Rcrp = “ Ref)
(e) evaluate S from Fig. 7.6 using the calculated value of Rcpp

Fig, 7.5. Reynolds Number Factor, F (Chen)

Fig. 7.6. Suppression Factor, S (Chen)

(f) calculate /jn^b for a range of AFsat values (eq. (7.24)

(g) calculate V from eq. (7.17) for the range of AFsat values
(h) Plot (^ (= Axp AFsat) for the AFsat range against //„ and interpolate (/ifp), at (/if.

The correlation developed by Chen is at present the best available for the saturated
forced convective boiling regions and is recommended for use with all single compo-
nent non-metallic fluids. The correlation is satisfactory’ ” for horizontal conduits
provided all the surfaces of the channel remain wetted and provided stratification is

275
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
not severe. Since the correlation predicts coeflicients somewhat lower than measured
with boiling refrigerants, Gouse and Dickson** have suggested that the correlation
be reoptimized for horizontal conduits.
A detailed study of heat transfer and pressure drop in horizontal evaporator tubes,
6, 14, and 25 mm
j.d, using Freon 11 has been reported by Chawla.** The variables

studied included the mass flow-rate, the heat flux, the vapour quality, and the satura-
tion temperature. The experimental data were correlated with good accuracy by means
of dimensionless equations for the nucleate boiling and Iwo-phase forced convective
regions respectively.
Whilst it is assumed that the Chen correlation will be satisfactory for cryogenic
liquids'® —
again, provided the heat transfer surface is wetted— modifications must be
expected for the case of boiling liquid metals'* although the same mechanisms of heat
transfer would be expected to apply. Suggested modifications have been given by
Chen'* in a later paper. The convective component, h* of eq. (7.17) is now calculated
from a modified form of the Lyon-Martinelli equation for convective single-phase
liquid metal heat transfer. The Forster-Zuber equation is assumed to remain valid
for the nucleate boiling component, Comparison with available experimental
data'*' gives encouraging results.
The Chen correlation may be extended for use in the subcooled boiling region.*®
As discussed previously In chapter 5 it can be assumed that the total surface heat flux
is made up of a nucleate boiling coniribuiion and a single-phase forced convective

contribution

C7*w-r„T)+h.(rw-r,(2)) (7,25)

For subcoolcd boiling the value of may be obtained from eq. (7.20) with f set equal
to unity. The nucleate boiling coefBcieni is evaluated from eq. (7.24) with the
value of S obtained from the single-phase liquid Reynolds number Re{
using Fig. 7.6. Since is itself a function of the wall superheat
it is necessary to assume values of TV in eq. (7.25) and produce curves of TV versus ^
for the various values of T) (z). This extension of the Chen correlation has been
tested*® against experimental information for the subcooled boiling of water, n-butyl
alcohol, and ammonia with satisfactory results.
The problem of predicting the rates of heat transfer to evaporating binary or multi-
component systems is extremely difficult and is strictly outside the terms of reference
of this book. However, it is felt that some guidance should be given on this problem
since even small amounts of a second component result in considerable reductions in
the heat transfer rate under nucleate boiling conditions from that measured for the
pure liquid. The cause of this reduction can be traced back to the influence of the
second component on the bubble growth rate. The rate of bubble growth in a single
component liquid depends on the heat flow tow^s the interface to satisfy the latent
heat of vaporization. In binary systems, the dlRtision of heat is linked to the diffusion
of the more component which is rapidly exhausted in the liquid immediately
volatile
adjacent to the interface. The bubble growth rate reduces sharply since the diffusivity
of the more volatile component is an order of magnitude lower than the thermal
diffusivity,

214
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
It has been found that the minimum bubble growth rate,
the ininimuni heat transfer
and the occurrence of a maximum critical heat flux all occur at the same liquid com-
position. Stephan and Korner*® have suggested a simple method whereby heat
transfer coefficients in binary systems may be computed from data for the pure

Fig. 7.7. The Evaluation of Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficients for Binary Systems
(Stephan and Korner)

components. The method is illustrated in Fig. 7.7. The upper part of this figure
represents an equilibrium diagram for the system A-B and shows the mol fraction of
component B in the vapour phase (y) plotted against the mol fraction of component
B in the liquid phase (x) for a constant pressure. The lower diagram shows the difference
in temperature between the heating surface Tyy and the boiling point TjatW corres-
ponding to a liquid composition of x. The curve of [T^— T^at W] passes through a
215
 CONVECTIVE BOIUNC AND CONDENSATION
maximum corresponding to the maximum value of (y—x). The value of f7w— Wl
may be expressed as
[Tw~Ts^t(x)} = AT,+ATe = AT.(1+G) (7.26)

A7*| is the ‘ideal* value of the temperature diffeience and is evaluated from the values
of ATs^t for the two pure components A and B calculated for the same pressure and
heat flux as the mixture. These wall superheat values will be denoted A7*j^ and AT^
respectively. Then AT*! is given by

AT, = (1 -x) ATa +x:ATb (7.27)

Table 7.5 Values of for me In etj. (7.29)

for the estimation of aucleate botlins heat
tramfer coeflideots for binary munires

SyWem Aa
Acttone-cthtnol 0 75
Acetone'buunol 1 18
Aoeioae-waicr t-40
E(haiiol-b«nAae
Ethano^<ycIi3bc]uiK m
0-42

1-21
144
H«pun«-ni«thyl<yc}ohmfle 195
lMpropaaoI-w«i«r 2-M

M<(bsaol-«myt ticobel 08
bt<tbyt*«tbyl kwooe-toluene 152
M«thyUibsrl t:i
Propafta(-«»ter 379
W«t«f-gIycol 147
Wn«r-8lyeenne 1 50
W»ter-pyndia 3 5S

Stephan and Korner found that O in cq. (7.26) could be correlated against the value
of ly-xrj. Thus
©= (7.28)

A was found to vary with pressure and over the pressure range 1-10 bar the following
expression was used,

A = /lo(0 88 +0-12p) (7.29)

where p is the system pressure in bar, Ao a constant dependent on the particular

is

binary system studied. Values of Aq are given in Table 7.5 for seventeen common
systems. This method is not reliable if one of the components is strongly surface
active.

7.5 Heat Transfer in Areas where the Critical Heat Flux has been Exceeded
7.5.1 Introduction

The processes of heat transfer m those areas where the critical heat flux has been

216
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
exceeded -Rill now be discnssed. The critical heat flux cur\-e represents a condition at
a more or less sudden decrease in the heat transfer coeScienL
R-hicIi there is

Referring to Fig. 7.8 (cf Fig. 4.15), it will be noted that such a condition
can
occur for both the subcooled and saturated liquid states. Three diflerent areas have
been indicated. It is convenient to consider the heat transfer mechanisms in terms of
these three regions—subcooled film boiling, saturated film boiling, and the liquid
deficient remon—although there would appear to be no well-defined boundaries
between the regions.

Ksat

Fig. 7.8. Regions of Heat Transfer Rhere the Critical Heat Flux has been Exceeded

The critical heat flux condition results in a drop of one or two orders of magm'tude
in the value of heat transfer coeScient as compared v.ith the values obtained in the
nucleate boiling and wo-phase forced convective areas. This decrease is a consequence
of the fact that the heat transfer surface is no longer completelj’ wetted by the liquid

phase. Vapour now completely or partially blanhets the surface and heat transfer is

no longer to a highly conducting liquid but to a poorlj’ conducting gas.

Knowledge of the conditions and heat transfer rates in these areas is required in a
variety of engmeering fields. The design of once-through steam generators (where
complete evaporation of the water feed is carried out) and of very-high-pressure
recirculation boilers (where the critical heat fiux levels are low) requires the tube wall
operating temperature to be known to insure against overheating. The safe cesicn

217
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
and operation of nuclear power reactors cooled by pressurized or boiling liquid
coolants often requires a knowledge of heat transfer rates beyond the critical heal
flux point for transient and accident analysis. Other fields using such information
include those of refrigeration and cryogenic engineering and also the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries (involving the design of high performance evaporators).
Film boiling can also occur in the heat transfer from very hot bodies present in
effectively unbounded liquid flow systems. Examples of such systems are transverse
flow over tube banks and boundary layer flows. These sj-stems are amenable to basic
theoretical analysis.

7.5.2 Film Boiling in Forced Coneectice Flow Over Unbounded Surfaces

One of the first studies of forced convective saturated film boiling was that reported
by Bromley, LeRoy, and Robbers'** —an extension of earlier work in natural convec-
tion pool boiling (chapter 4, eq. (4.46) ). Experimental and analytical studies were
reported for film boiling from a horizontal graphite tube heated electrically for a
variety of liquids including n-hexane, carbon tetrachloride, benzene, and ethyl alcohol.
Observations of the heater during operation showed that it was surrounded by a
vapour film which, at low tube surface temperature, was very smooth. As the flow-rate
was increased so the vapour film thickness decreased and the separation point moved
from the top of the tube to the horizontal diameter. Bromley et ol. suggest the following
relationship, composed of two terms, due to conduction and radiation, for upward
flow over a horizontal tube.
For

(4.49)

where h, is the radiation heal transfer cocflicicnt, h, is that value suggested by Bromley
for natural convection (eq. (4.46)), D the outside diameter, and u the free stream
velocity.
For higher velocities where

h « h,+0 875 A, (7.30)

where is now given by

(7J1)

where is defined by eq. (4.47). The heat transfer coeflScient increases with higher

and decreased tube diameters. Typical values of A, for n-hexane, benzene,

velocities
and from 230 W/m* ”C (40 Btu/h ft* "F) for no flow to 625-SOO
ethyl alcohol vary
W/m* °C (110-140 Btu/h.ft* "F) at 4 m/s (12 ft/s) velocity. The values for carbon
tetrachloride were approximately one-half these figures.

218
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
In an extension of this work with saturated fluids, Motte and Bromley^*^ studied
film boiling from a horizontal tube for a subcooled liquid with forced convection. For
the case of the liquid being subcooled, some heat will be transferred from the vapour-
liquid interface, which is close to the saturation temperature, into the bulk of the
liquid. Since this heat is not available for vaporization of the liquid, the vapour film
thickness will be less and the heat transfer rate across the vapour film will be increased.
The experimental results reported by Motte and Bromley show that at velocities («)
above about 2-5 m/s (8 ft/s), the heat transfer coefficients (/;,,) are increased approxi-
mately fourfold by subcooling the liquid approximately 45°C (80°F). These values,
thus, numerically approach the values expected for nucleate boiling of these organic
fluids.

A study of the characteristics of the vapour layer produced by film boiling on the
surface of hydrodynamic bodies has been reported by Bradfield et al^~ It would
appear that, in certain circumstances, the vapour film can sers’e as a lubricating sheet
to reduce drag as well as act as an insulating layer. An analyTical method for evaluating
the velodty and temperature boundary layer profiles for a hemisphere-cylinder in
axial flow is detailed. This study confirms the great influence that liquid subcooling

has on the vapour film thickness. Hot graphite cylinders were driven horizontally into
a water tank at velocities up to 6-1 m/s (20 ft/s). Comparison of the observations made
under free and forced convection conditions showed that relative motion between the
heating surface and the liquid had a stabilizing effect on the vapour-liquid interface
at velocities up to 6 m/s. Transition to turbulence in the liquid boundary' layer over-
laying the vapour film caused a breakdown of the flow pattern to a ‘froth’ flow condi-
tion above this velocity. Subcooling greatly affected the vapour layer stability. At
temperatures close to saturation, the large amounts of vapour formed caused the
interface to be rough and irregular. However, as the water temperature fell to 65-80°C
(15(>-180°F) very' stable vapour layers were obtained. Further increases in the sub-
cooling resulted in what are termed by the authors as ‘ripping’ and ‘bumping’ instabili-
ties which are attributed to vapour films whose thickness is of the same order of

magnitude as the surface roughness.

Cess and Sparrow‘s*' have presented analytical solutions for the problem of
film boih'ng from a constant temperature surface under conditions of forced convec-
tion and with the liquid both saturated'^^ and subcooled.^® Exact solutions to the
two-phase flow problem were obtained using laminar boundary layer theory. An ideal
model was assumed for study in which all the vapour generated was retained in a
laminar vapour layer haring a smooth interface with the liquid phase. Nishikawa and
110“^® have revised the boundary layer treatment of film boiling, presented by Sparrow

and Cess, to remove the limitation of zero interfacial velocity imposed in the earlier
work. The removal of this restriction results in significant differences between the
solutions obtained by the tw'o sets of authors.

7.5.3 Forced Convection Film Boiling Inside a Circular Tube

The —
destruction of the heat transfer surface— physical burnout represents an upper
heat flux boundary in each of the three regions shown in Fig. 7.8. For many' fluids the
large reduction of the heat transfer coefficient coupled with the high heat flux required

219
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
to initiate film boiling for the subcoolcd or low quality region, results in extremely high
temperature differences. In these cases the heat flux for the failure of the heat transfer
— —
surface the physical burnout heat flux will be very close to or identical to the
critical heat flux and stable subcooled or saturated forced convective film boiling may

not be possible. For example, with water in the pressure range up to approximately
100 bar (1500 psia), the critical beat flux values arc in excess of 3 MW/m’ (1 x 10*
Btu/h.ft’) for subcooled boiling while typical values of the heat transfer coeflidents in
the film boiling area are 150-1500 W/m’ “C (25-250 Btu/h.ft’ “F). Surface tempera-
tures in excess of lOOO’C (SSOO^F) would result and would cause failure of most
common metal surfaces.
A recent study’® of forced convective film boiling inside vertical lubes has included
visual observations of the flow structure. At low qualities and mass flow-rates, the
flow regime would appear to be an ‘inverted annular’ one with liquid in the centre and
a thin vapour film adjacent to the heating surface. The vapour-liquid interface is not
smooth but irregular. These irregularities occur at random locations but appear to
retain their identity to some degree as they pass up the tube with velocities of the same
order as that of the liquid core. The vapour in the film adjacent to the heating surface
would appear to travel at much greater speeds.
Dougall’® has developed a simplified analytical model for the ‘inverted annular*
flow pattern on a similar basis to the annular flow theories outlined in section 3.5. In
order to examine the theory, experimental measurcmcnls of the local heat transfer
coefficient were made for forced convective film boiling of Freon 113 inside vertical
stainless steel tubes. Measured heat transfer coefficients varied between 136 and 497
W/m’ *C (24 0 and 87-5 Btu/h.ft’ ‘F). Whilst an increase in mass velocity caused a
slight increase In the heat transfer coefficient, variations in heat flux produced little
or no effect. The annular flow theory would appear to be satisfactory up to 10 per cent
by weight quality for the particular experimental conditions examined. Transition to
a more dispersed flow pattern occurs at higher values of the mass quality x{z).
A parallel study of forced convection film boiling in a horizontal tube has been
completed by Kruger and Rohsenow.'’ This work was also carried out with Freon 113
and showed that, at low qualities, severe stratification occurred with the vapour flowing
along the top segment of the lube and also as a thin film insulating the liquid in the
lower half of the tube from the wall. An analysis of this stratified flow pattern was
carried out and the predicted axial and radial temperature distribution in the tube
wall agreed satisfactorily with the experimental heat transfer data.
Other studies of forced convective film boiling have been reported by Ellion** and
Rankin.” Ellion studied subcoolcd forced convective film boiling of water in an
annular space at pressure of 1-4 bar (15-60 psia). An electrically healed tube 6-35 mm
o.d. and 7-6 cm long (i in. o.d. and 3 in. long) located inside a 6-35 cm (2*5 in ) i.d.
Pyrex jacket, formed the heating surface. Physical burnout was avoided by passing a
secondary stabilizing fluid (water at 32 bar (460 psia) and 1 2-2 m/s (40 ft/s)) through the
inside of the heated lube. Velocities in the annular spacewere 0-33-l'5 m/s (M and
5 and heat transfer coefficients varied between 249 and 295 W/m’ ®C (43 and 52
ft/s)

Btu/h ft’ *F). High speed motion pictures indicated that the vapour film breaks away

from the wall in large globular voids. The rates of heat transfer in forced convective

220
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
film boiling appeared to be essentially independent of subcooling,
velocity, and
pressure.
Rankin^^ has given data for subcooled forced convective film boiling of Freon 113
and methanol in upward flow through a steam-heated 2-7 cm i.d. x 1-2 m (1-06 in. i.d.
X 4 ft) tube at atmospheric pressure. The liquid velocity varied from 0-3 to 2-6 m/s
(1 to 8-5 ft/s) and the beat transfer coefficients varied in the range 280-340 W/m^
°C
(50-60 Btu/h.ft^ °F). The influence of liquid velocity on the heat transfer rate was
small. Experimental heat transfer coefficients were approximately a factor of two
greater than those predicted from an on laminar flow in
analytical equation based
thevapour film. This conclusion is in agreement with the findings of Dougall and
Rohsenow.
The sharp reduction in the critical heat flux for water at very high sub-critical pres-
sures (greater than 138 bar (2000 psia)) often means that stable forced convective
saturated or subcooled film boiling (with resultant overheating) can occur in high
pressure boiler plant, and knowledge of film boiling coefficients in this regime is

necessary. Typical of a number of papers on this subject from the U.S.S.R. is the work
presented by Chakrygin and Lokshrin.^^ This experimental study reports details of
the operating temperature characteristics of a heated vertical tube 2-92 cm i.d. (1-15 in.
i.d.)cooled by water flowing downwards at pressures from 138 to 250 bar (2000
psia to 3600 psia). In the subcooled forced convective film boiling region, the heat
transfer coefficient is increased by increased velocity but shows little dependence on
heat flux.

Useful information on the forced convective boiling characteristics of various

hydrocarbons beyond the critical heat flux is given in a recent paper by Glickstein and
Whitesides.®’ Heat transfer coefficients were reported for the subcooled and saturated
film boiling regions and for the liquid-deficient region. The fluids examined were
methane, propane, propylene, butene-1, and certain eutectic mixtures.

7.5.4 J/ea/ Transfer in the Liquid Deficient Region

In the ‘saturated film boiling region’ the flow pattern was that of an annular vapour
film with a central liquid core. As the vapour quality is increased so the flow pattern
changes to one in which liquid droplets are dispersed in a high velocity vapour core.
This latter ‘drop’ flow pattern is characteristic of the ‘liquid deficient regime’. The
fact that the liquid film on the heat transfer surface in the ‘two-phase forced convec-
tive region’ has been partly or wholly removed results in the manifestation of the
criticalheat flux condition. Depending upon the particular conditions, the liquid
droplets may or may not ‘wet’ the heat transfer surface. Heat transfer coefficients in
this region are considerably higher than in the ‘saturated film boiling’ region. This
fact coupled with the reduced critical heat flux values in the higher quality regions
means that the liquid deficient region is often quite extensive and that the physical
burnout heat flux may be considerably higher than the critical heat flux value.
In order to obtain some understanding of the processes which occur in the ‘liquid
it is, perhaps, appropriate to consider what happens as the
critical
deficient region’
heat flux reached and exceeded in this area. Consider Figs. 7.8, 7.9, and 7.10; Fig.
is

7.10 shows actual temperature recordings taken during such an experiment using a

221
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

FSg. 75. Htatitig Surface Twpentuie at and AboNX the Critical Heat Fiirc (after Ix%y
and Bray**)

'.'Cl

Umptritur'

Fig. 7.10. Typical Heater Surface Temperature Plot Obtained During a Diyout Test

222
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Steam-water mixture at 69 bar (1000 psia). Initially, the heat flux (A) is below the
criticalheat flux value and the wall surface temperature is steady (Fig. 7.10) and close
to the saturation temperature (Fig. 7.9). As the critical heat flux value is reached
(point B), small oscillations in the surface temperature are observed (Fig. 7.10). These
small temperature oscillations denote the onset of the ‘dryout’ condition where the
liquid film covering the surface starts to break up into rivulets. A
further increase in
the heat flux (to point C) results in temperature oscillations of considerably increased
magnitude (Figs. 7.9 and 7.10). These oscillations would appear to be the result of a
given area of the heating surface being alternatively in contact with steam or rewetted
by the random passage of a rivulet.® Finally, a further increase still in heat flux (to
point D) results in a temperature of the heating surface considerably above the
saturation temperature but one which is steady (Figs. 7.9 and 7.10). The rivulets have
dried out and the heating surface would now appear to be totally ‘dry’.
The above description perhaps suggests an analogy with the critical heat flux
occurrence in pool boiling. Indeed, the terms ‘transition boiling’ and ‘film boiling’
have been used by other workers to describe the above transient.^’^ However, it would
appear that there are certain fundamental differences. In particular, available experi-
mental evidence^®’ suggests that there is little or no hysteresis associated with the
curve given in Fig. 7.9 when the heat flux is being increased or decreased. This is in
contrast to the situation for pool boiling where the return from film boiling conditions
to nucleate boiling does not occur until a considerably lower heat flux than the critical
heat flux value.
Parker and Grosh^® have qualitatively explained many of the above observations.
They postulate two distinct mechanisms by which heat transfer can occur depending
on the level of the surface temperature. In the first case, liquid droplets carried in the
vapour stream are able to ‘wet’ the heating surface when striking it (the liquid film
has now been removed). They may be totally evaporated and deposit any solids dis-
solved in the liquid on to the heating surface.^’ Heat transfer coefficients will be many
times the value expected for dry saturated vapour flowing under the same conditions.
In the second condition, the liquid droplets can no longer ‘wet’ the heater surface
and heat transfer coefficients are similar to those for dry saturated vapour even though
a considerable amount of liquid remains entrained in the vapour stream. The dividing
point between the two processes is characterized by the condition known as ‘spheroidal
state’ or the Leidenfrost point (after the investigator in the mid-eighteenth century who
firstreported the ‘dancing’ of water droplets on very hot surfaces). When the ‘spheroid-
al state’ is initiated it appears that a superheated boundary layer of vapour is built up
near to the heating surface and small droplets entering this boundary layer evaporate
rapidly and may never reach the surface while larger droplets break up on a cushion of
vapour. The entrained droplets in the saturated vapour core evaporate relatively
slowly and the outlet vapour may be considerably superheated before the last droplets
disappear. Thus, just as with the case of subcooled boiling at the ‘zero quality bound-
ary’ so non-equilibrium effects are also important in the vicinity of the dry-saturated-
vapour (x = 100 per cent) boundary. Definite superheating of the vapour phase in the
liquid deficient region has been confirmed experimentally.^®’
Liquid deficient heat transfer rates are important in the design of very high pressure

223
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
once-through and recircutalion boilers. Experimental data for steam-water mixtures
in the pressure range 138-250 bar (2000-3500 psia) have been published by Schmidt,**
Swenson eM/.,** and Herkcnrath er«/.*®Tjpical results from these studies are shown
in Figs. 7.11 and 7.12. These diagrams show dearly the characteristic sharp increase
in wall temperature at the critical point followrd by decreasing wall temperatures as
the vapour \cIodty increases with increasing vapour quality. Wall temperatures
increase once again in the superheat region as a result of the increase in bulk fluid
temperature. As the heat flux is increased so the critical point moves to lower vapour
qualities and the wall temperatures in (he liquid defirient region are increased.

Pressure, p s 207 bar (3000 psia)

Mass velocity^ s950kp/m*s |07x10*lb/hft )

Inside diameter, C* 10 3 mm (0-408 m}

Heat input rate (id)
A # = 300kW/m’ (095x10* Btu/hft*)
0 # . t95 WHIm' n ST »10’ Blu/htl* )

,
-L ..,1- —^ —— —
L,
L,
— 1
- M r
—'
'
I
* j-*
—2(S —25
r*

16 165 1-9 195 20 21 215 22 225 29 235 24

Enthalpy, MJ/kg
Fig. 7.11, Tube Wall Temperatures in the Liquid deficient Region (Swenson ft a/“)

In a once-through boiler the temperature rise of the surface at dryout is more

important than the precise location of the dryout point. Analysis of the extensive
programme of experimental work carried out by Herkcnrath** et ah together with
that of other workers has shown that the temperature rise at do out (ATm*x =
(7w)max-'7”sat) for a uniformly heated vertical tube can be expressed by the simple
relationship:

(7.31)

The influence of tube diameter on ATmax relatively small in the range 5-20 mm.
Equation (7.31) is plotted in Fig. 7.13 and this shows the very strong dependence on

274
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
system pressure. Por example, with a constant mass velocity and heat
flux the value
^^MAx (slid therefore C) decreases by a factor of 4' 5 as the pressure is increased
in the range 140 to 190 bar. It might be expected that this decrease would
extend all
the way up to the critical pressure. This, in fact, is not the case and above 210 bar
the value of AT^ax rises sharply. This singularity in the temperature rise at the critical
heat flux has been investigated in detail by Bahr et al.^^ The explanation of the effect
stems from the fact that as the pressure rises above 210 bar the mass quality corres-
ponding to the critical heat flux falls with increasing speed from a positive value to a

Fig. 7.12. Tube Wall Temperatures in the Liquid deficient Region (Schmidt^

negative value; the mechanism of the critical heat flux changes from dryout to
departure from subcooled nucleate boiling and the increase in ATmax results from the
substitution of the relatively high heat transfer coefficients in the liquid deficient
region by the much lower coefficients in the subcooled film boiling zone. Studies on
liquid deficient heat transfer rates for cryogenic fluids flowing under forced convection
in circular ducts are reported by Walters,^® von Glahn and Lewis,^” Lewis ei and
Laverty and Rohsenow.^®
A number of empirical equations have been presented by various investigators for
the estimation of heat transfer rates in the liquid deficient region. Almost all of these
equations are modifications of the well-known Dittus-Boelter type relationship for

225
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
The term Y is given by

y=i_oi(^-l (7.33)
\P^
A satisfactory' representation of the data is achieved by eq. (7.32) within ±25 per cent
for values of the ‘two-phase Reynolds number’ from 10^ to 10®.
More recently, methods have been devised which take into account the non-
equilibrium effects. The first attempts along these lines consisted simply of neglecting

the presence of the liquid droplets and calculating the wall temperature on the basis
that all the heat added to the fluid went into superheating the vapour. This procedure
gave reasonable agreement with experimental results at low mass velocities (G<600
kg/m^ s) but considerably over-estimated the wall temperatures at high mass velocities
(G>2500 kg/m^ s) where conditions were much closer to thermodynamic equilibrium.
Clearly, the presence of the evaporating droplets must be taken into account in any
general method.
Bennett el al}^ have proposed a semi-theoretical method for estimating surface
temperature in the liquid deficient region starting with known boundary conditions
at the dryout point. It is assumed that there is negligible pressure drop along the chan-
nel, that the wall surface temperature increases to such an extent that the droplets
no longer wet the surface and that the heat transfer coefficient between the wall and
the fluid is given by one of the well-known single-phase relationships. The position of
the dryout point must be known or calculated. At that point it is assumed that the
liquid and vapour are in equilibrium, and therefore the quality x(Zcr) is known and
the vapour is at the saturation temperature. To obtain the bulk vapour temperature
downstream of the dryout point, four simultaneous differential equations are solved
using the Runga-Kutta method. The first of these equations is a mass balance which
assumes that the number of droplets passing through unit cross section per unit time
(N) does not change.
dx Nitpf dd
_ ^ _
(7.34)
dz 2 G dz

Where 77 = (7-35)
71 flcR Pc

and X — vapour quality (vapour mass flow/total mass flow)

d= droplet diameter.

The second equation is a heat balance giving the bulk vapour temperature,

dTg 4>tcD- {AG ifg dx/dz}

(7.36)
dz AGxc„
The third equation describes the acceleration of the droplets in the vapour stream
using Ingebo’s^® drag coefficient.

duj
Ki (u,-«d)‘ ‘®-g (7.37)
dz
227
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
where Wj is the droplet velocity and is the vapour velocity

0-84 016-1
20-25 ^
r„
-
J.l (7.38)
L Pf^ J
The last equation describes the evaporation of the droplets using Ryley’s method.^'^

(7.39)
dr
dr^ _ 2FMK,(p,-p^)
(7.40)
dt p,RT^ Pi ’fg

where Pg = pressure in droplet

= saturation temperature at pressure Pg
R= um’versal gas constant
Kg = self diffusion coeffident in the vapour = Mkg(y — l)/pgR
r = dil

F = ‘ventilation’ factor = |^1 +0-276^^^^^

J
Bennett et have compared estimates of surface temperature made using this
al.^^
method with experiniental data taken in the liquid deficient region for water evaporat-
ing at 69 bar (1000 psia) in a vertical 5-8 longx 12-6m mm
i.d. (19 ft long x 0-497 in.

i.d.) shows this comparison for three different values of mass velocity.
tube. Figure 7. 14
The equations proposed by Heineman^® were taken for the heat transfer coefficient
to superheated steam. It was found that a reasonable fit was obtained with an assumed
droplet size at the drj'out point (doJ of about 0-3 mm.
Similar but entirely independent approaches have been published by Quinn®^
and Laverty' and Rohsenow.®® Las-erty used many of the above concepts to interpret
the experimental wall temperature profiles he obtained when liquid nitrogen was
boiled in a vertical stainless steel tube 8-1 mm
i.d. (0-319 in. i.d.).

Eeferences

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(1958).
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Aerodirakika, Trudy UKll 21, Mashiga (1951).

229
 CONVECTIVE EOILIHC AND CONDENSATION
6. Hcwiit, G. F., Kcarsey, H. A., Lacey. P. M. C., and Pulling, D. J. ‘Burnout and nuclea-
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9. Guenieri, S. A. and Tally, R. D. *A study of heat transfer to organic liquids in single
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—
vection Vaporization Project Final Report 73J08 —
UCX2I82, 1 Nov., 1959, University
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18. Hoffman, H. W. and Krakoviak, A. I ‘Forced convection boiling of potassium at near
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24. Levy, S. and Bray, A. P. ‘Reliability of burnout calculations in nuclear reactors’. Nuclear
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25. Smolin, V. N., Polyakov, V. K., and Esikov, V. I. 'On the heat transfer crisis in steam-
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with constant heal flux*. Paper presented at the 5lh National Heal Transfer Conf.
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27. Pulling, D. J. ‘The deposition of sidi^ in a vertical tube evaporator’. AERE-R 3807
(1961).
28. Bertoletti, S. and Lombardi, C. 'Heat transfer of steam/water mixtures at 70 kg/cm’ in

230
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
round tubes’. Paper presented at the EAES Symposium on Two-Phase Flow,
Steady
State Burnout and Hydrodynamic Instability, Studsvik, Sweden, 1-3
Oct. 1963’
29. Walters, H. H. ‘Single tube heat transfer tests with liquid hydrogen’.
Advances in Cryo-
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30. Von Glahn, U. H. and Lewis, J. P. ‘Nucleate and film boiling studies with liquid hydro-
gen’. Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, edited by K. D. Timmerhaus, Vol. 5, pp. 262-
269, Plenum Press, N.Y. (1960).
31. Lewis, J. P ., Goodykoontz, J. H. and Kline, J. F. ‘Boiling heat transfer to liquid hydrogen
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32. Schmidt, K. R. ‘Warmetechnische Untersuchungen an hoch belasteten Kesselheiz-
fiachen’. Mitteihmgen der Vereinigung der Grosskessel-bezitzer, pp. 391-401 (Dec.
1959).
33. Swenson, H. S., Carver, J. and Szoeke, G. ‘The effects of nucleate boiling versus film
R.,
boiling on heat transfer in power boiler tubes’. Paper presented at Winter Annual
Meeting of ASME, New York, 26 Nov.-l Dec. 1961. Paper No. 61-W-201.
34. Miropolskii, Z. L. ‘Heat transfer for film type boiling of water-steam mixtures inside
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steam-water mixtures flowing in uniformly heated tubes in which the critical heat flux
has been exceeded’. Paper 27 presented to Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics
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37. Ryley, D. J. ‘The evaporation of small liquid drops with special reference to water drops
in steam’. Journal of the Liverpool Engineering Society, 7, No. 1, 1 (1961/62).
38. Heineman, J. B. ‘An experimental investigation of heat transfer to superheated steam in
round and rectangular channels’. ANL-6213 (1960).
39. Laverty, W. F. and Rohsenow, W. M. ‘Film boiling of saturated liquid nitrogen flowing
upward through a heated tube; High vapour quality range’. M.I.T. 9857-32 Dept, of—
Mech. Engrg. M.I.T. (1964).
40. Hewitt, G. F. ‘Analysis of annular two-phase flow: application of the Dukler analysis to
vertical upwards flow in a tube’. AERE-R 3680 (1961).
41. Dukler, A. E. ‘Fluid mechanics and heat transfer in vertical falling film systems’. Chem.
Eng. Progress Symp. Series 56, No. 30, pp. 1-10 (1960).
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boiling’. Ind. and Engng Chem., 45 (12), 2639-2646 (1953).
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Engng Chem., 49 (11), 1921-1928 (1957).
44. Bradfield, W. S., Barkdoll, R. O. and Byrne, J. T. ‘Some effects of boiling on hydro-
dynamic drag’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 5, 615-622 (1962).
45. Cess, R. D. and Sparrow, E. M. ‘Film boiling in a forced convection boundary layer
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J. of Heat Transfer, 83, Series C, No. 3, 377-379 (1961).
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flux’. J. of Heat Transfer, 84, Series C, No. 4, 395 (1962).
48. Nishikawa, K. and Ito, T. ‘Two-phase boundary-layer treatment of free convection film
boiling’ Int. J. Heat Mass Transjer, 9, 103-115 (1966).
49. Kruger, R. A. and Rohsenow, W. M. ‘Film boiling inside horizontal tubes’. Paper
delivered to 3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conference, Chicago, Aug. 1966, Proc. Vol. 5,
Paper 157, pp. 60-68 (1966).
50. Herkenrath, H., Mork-Morkenstein, P., Jung, U., and Weckermann, F. J. ‘Heat Transfer
in water with forced circulation in 140-250 bar pressure range’. EUR
3658d (1967).

231
 CONVECTIVE SOILING AND CONDENSATION
51. Quinn, E. P. ‘Forced flow heat transfer to hish pressure water beyond the critical heat
flux’. Paper presented at the A.SME Winter Annual Meeting 66WA/HT»36 (1966).
52. Gouse, S. W. and Dickson, A. J. ‘Heat transfer and fluid flow inside a horizontal tube
evaporator Phase IP. Paper presented AJ»,H.R.A.E. Conf., Houston, Jan. 1966.
53. Gouse, S. W. and Coumou, K. G. ‘Heat transfer and fluid flow inside a horizontal tube
evaporator Phase I’. Tram. A.SJI.R.AS. Part 11. 7J, 152-161 (1965).
54. Chen, J. G. ‘Non-equiIibrium inverse temperature profile in boiling liquid metal two
phase flow’. AIChE. J. 11, No. 6. 1145-4S (1965).
—
55. Gouse, S. W. and Dickson, A. J. *The evaporator tube stale of the art’. M.I.T. Report
D.S.R. 8734-7 (1965).
56. Chawla, J. M. ‘Heat transfer and pressure dr<^ for refrigerants evaporating in horizontal
tubes’. yDl Farschungseha/t 523 (1967).
57. Glickstein, M. R. and Whitesides, R. H. ‘Forced convection nucleate and film boiling
of several aliphatic hydrocarbons’. Presented at 9th ASME-AIChE Heat Transfer Conf.,
Seattle, Aug. 1967. Paper 67-HT-7.
58. Hewitt, G. F. and Halt-Taylor, N. Annular T^o-phase Flow, published by Pergamon
Press (1970).
59. Butterworih, D. private communication (1970).
60. Stephan, K. and Komer, M. Chem. Ing. Tech., 41 (7). 407 (1969).
61. Bahr, A. Hcikenrath, H., and Moik-Morkenstcin, P. ‘Anomalc Druckabhangigkeit der
Warmeubertragung jm Zweiphasengcbcit be» Annaherung an der Vritischen Druck'.
Brennsloff‘\Varme-Krofi, 21 (12), 631-33 (1969).

Example 1

Water at a pressure of M86 bar is to be evaporated in a J2’7 mm

i.d. tube. The

water flow.rale is 136 kg/h. Prepare a table of values of heat flux against temperature
difference for steam qualities of 1, 5, and 20 per cent by weight using Chen's correla*
tiOD.

Ttx(12-7)^xl0~

Mass velocity C * = 29$ kg/m* s.

1-267 xlO'^x 3600

he = 0-023 Rer° * Pr/

Rcr = DG (1-x) /if « 2-725 xlO-* N.s/m*

Uc

12-7xl0-*x298(l-x)
1*389 X 10* (I -x)
2-725x10'*

Forx = 0-05, RCf = l*319x 10* Re,® * « I-97x 10*

Pr, = ^ = l-69 Prr‘’* = 1-234

232
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
0-683
= 53-8
D 12-7xl0~3

Fis a function of the term \/X„

0-9 0-5,
X 1-448 ,'’Vl-365xlO-5\o-i
1—x 1-048 X 10' 2-725x10"“
0-9
X
= 27-54
l-x
1
For X = 0-5, /0-05V-®

From Fig. 7.5 F= 4-25

= 0-023 X 1-978 X 10^ X 1-234 X 53-8x4-25 = 12-85 kW/m^ °C

For X = 0-01, /i, = 5-46 kW/m^ °C
a: = 0-20, = 29-0 kW/m^ °C
2
0-19 0-45 0-49 -|
^

[^ Pi he Pe J
kf = 0-683 W/m °C ko.79 ^ 0.740
Cpf = 4-21 X 10^ J/kg °C CpfO-*® = 42-65
Pi = 955 kg/m^ = 28-84
ff = 0-058 N/m ffO-s ,=,0-241

Pf = 2-725x10"“ N.s/m^ //f®-” = 9-259x10"='

jfj
= 2-245 X 10® J/kg ,-^^0.24 ^ 33.35

= p0.2A ^
Pe 0-691 kg/m^ 0-9152

0-00122 X 0-740 x 42-65 x 28-84 0-75

^ \^0-241 X 9-259 x 10"^ x 33-35 x 0-9152 S{ATs^T)°'^^{APs^ry .

= l-63x(AF)° ''“x(A/;)'’-‘’® 5
S' is a function of Rctp, Re^p = RCf x F^'^®

For X = 0^03
Rbtp = 1-319 X 10“ X (4-25)^-='® = 1-319 x 10“ x 6-102 = 8-048x10“

From Figure 7.6 S= 0-435

Evaluate /j^^b therefore values of 4> at temperature differences ATs^y of 2-lS°C,
11-rC, and 22-2°C

For AFsat = 2-78°C

Fsat at 104-5°C = 1-186 x 10’ N/m=^

233
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

PsAT At I07-28"C = I-3(Mx 10’ N/m’

l-MxlO‘Nlm‘
Therefore
li„„ = l-63xO'43Sx(2-78)" ”x(l-184x 10’)"'”
=. 1-0} tW/m’ "C.
(iT, = 1185+ l OJ = 1 J K kW/m’ "C.
= 2-78 X 1388 = 38-6 kW/m’

for ATsa, = II I'C

at 104 SX = M86x!0’N/m’
Ps„ at 1 15-6“C - 1-721x 10’ N/m’
lifsAr - 5-355 X 10’ N/m’
Therefore
Va = 1-63x 0-435x(11-1)"-”x(5-35Sx10’)’ ”
= 4-46kW/m’ "C
hjr = 12-85+4-46 - 17-31 kW/m’ ’C
r5
= 17-31x11-1 = 192 kW/m’

for ifsAT = 22-2’C

fsA, at 1(H-5’C > 1-186 X 10’ N/m’
fjA, at 126-7’C = 2-444 x 10’ N/m'
AfjAT- 1-258x 10’ N/m’
Therefore
/i„,e = 1-63 X 0-435 X (22-2)" ”x(l-258x 10’)’ ”
= 9-94 kW/m’ ’C
htr = 12-85+9-94 = 22-79 kW/m’ ’C
^ - 22-79 X 22-2 = 506 kW/m’.

The table below gives Ihe values of Ihe surface heat flux ^ (kW/m') for superheats
AT of 2-78, 1 1 1 and 22-2“C and steam qualities of 1 5, and 20 per cent by weight.
-
, ,

Ste«m
quality
>s^by wt.
Superheat
•c 20

2 78 199 1
81 S
ll’I 142 3 i
192 1
342
TXT A86S 506 735

PROBLEMS
1. Repeat the calculation illustrated in Example 1 of chapter 5 using the Chen
correlation (eq. 7.25) ) to estimate the surface temperature distribution.

2. Examine the influence of liquid entrainment upon the value of the two-phase heat

234
 SATURATED BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
transfer coefficient for the case where a steam-water mixture at a pressure of 6-9 bar
flows through a 5 mm tube. The mass velocity of the flow is 1 36 kg/m^ s. and the
steam quality is 20 per cent. Compute the heat transfer coefficient for values of E
of 0, 0-5, and 0-95.

3. Examine the basis of the Chen correlation in relation to the prediction of heat
transfer coefficients for vaporizing binary mixtures. The Forster-Zuber correlation
for the nucleate boiling component uses a bubble radius and bubble growth velocity
in its formulation. How is this to be modified for a binary system?

4. In an electrically heated cryogenic vaporizer, liquid nitrogen passes through the

once-through vaporizer tube 0-5 in. i.d. at a flow of 1 Ib/s. The pressure at the exit
of the tube is 60 psia. Dryout occurs at a mass quality of 20 per cent. The heat flux
supplied through the tube wall is 27,000 Btu/hr.ft^. Calculate the wall temperature
distribution downstream of the dryout point assuming (a) complete thermodynamic
equilibrium and (b) complete lack of equilibrium between the vapour and liquid
phases in the liquid-deficient region.

235
 8

htical heat flux in forced convective

)W— VERTICAL UNIFORMLY HEATED TUBES
I.

itroduction

ature of the critical heat flux condition in forced convection was briefly discussed
ipter 4 in the context of the boiling map. Critical heal flux in pool boiling was
iscussed in chapter 4. This limiting condition forms a most important boundary
considering the performance of heat exchange equipment in which evaporation
urring. The critical heat flux condition is characleriaed by a sharp reduction of
cal heat transfer cocfhcient which results from the replacement of liquid by
ir adjacent to the heat transfer surface. For the case where the surface heat flux
independent variable, the condition manifests itself as a sharp increase in surface
rature as the critical heat flux value is reached. Likewise, a considerably reduced
lux will result when the condition is reached using a temperature-controlled
ig surface.
irc is considerable disparity in nomenclature for the critical heat flux condition,
nost common name is ‘burnout* but this implies a physical destruction of the
1 surface. Most measurements of the 'burnout heat flux’ are, in fact, measurc-
of the heat flux at which a sharp rise in surface temperature takes place and, as
:en noted earlier, melting of the heated surface would not necessarily be expected
ur at the same flux level. The alternative forms ‘DNB* (Departure from Nucleate
g) and ‘dryout’ are equally unsatisfactory for a general description of the pheno-
n since they imply definite mechanisms The term ‘critical heat flux condition’
lerefore been chosen to denote the stale of the system when the characteristic
lion in heal transfer coefficient has just occurred and the term ‘critical heat flux’
j to describe the value of heat flux at which and local to the point at which, this
of the system first occurs. Some authors have used the term ‘boiling crisis’ to
be the critical heat flux condition, and m some ways this term is preferable,

h not as commonly acceptable. The main using the chosen nomen-

difficulty in
c IS that It implies condition by increasing the heat
an approach to the critical

vhereas, in fact, the critical condition may also be approached for a given system
rymg any of the other independent variables; pressure, inlet temperature (or
quality), and mass velocity However, it is hoped that the reader will appreciate
ifficulty and will be sympathetic to the choice of terms.

236
 I

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

In chapter 4 the various regimes of heat transfer were discussed and it has been
noted that the critical heat flux condition can occur both for subcooled liquids and
for saturated liquid-vapour mixtures. Indeed, for a uniformly heated tube the critical
heat flux (CHF) may be shown as a continuous function of the fluid enthalpy (Fig.
4.15). On examining diagram it will be seen that the critical heat flux curve is
this
divided into three regions depending mainly on the enthalpy and on the mechanism
of heat transfer prior to the critical condition. When the bulk fluid is subcooled at the
location where the critical heat flux is exceeded, the critical condition is termed ‘DNB’
(subcooled) —departure from subcooled nucleate boiling. Similarly, where saturated
nucleate boiling occurs just prior to the critical condition, the term is ‘DNB’ (saturated)
—departure from saturated nucleate boiling. For higher fluid enthalpies where
nucleation is suppressed and where the flow pattern is likely to be annular, the term
‘dryout’ is used to imply that drying out of the liquid film is the cause of the critical
heat flux condition. The corresponding regions of heat transfer where the critical heat
flux has been exceeded are discussed in chapter 7.
Practically all of the experimental studies of the onset of the critical heat flux condi-
tion have been carried out using heated surfaces for which the heat flux rather than
the surface temperature is independently controlled. In this instance the severity of
the temperature transient, as the critical heat flux value is exceeded, differs markedly
in the three regions, decreasing considerably at the higher fluid enthalpies. Indeed,
whereas in the subcooled region the transient is often sufficient to melt or rupture the
heating surface (physical burnout), under particular conditions it may become very
difficult or even impossible to clearly distinguish a temperature discontinuity as a
result of dryout of the liquid film.
Considerable differences are also found to exist in the practical methods used to
define and measure the critical condition. Thus, before attempting tocompare data from
different sources it is always necessary to ensure that the definition and methods used

in the different works are the same or, at least, are likely to give similar results.
The various methods by which the critical heat flux condition is initiated in forced
convection are still rather poorly understood. No satisfactory analytical treatments

are available and the majority of the present literature on this subject is confined to
the reporting of experimental data for different geometrical systems and coolant
conditions including those specific to high performance heat exchange equipment such
as nuclear power reactors and to empirical correlations of these data which are invari-
ably very limited in their areas of satisfactory application.
The following sections attempt a review of the current status of knowledge of the
critical heat flux for forced convective flow of the coolant inside conduits of various
shape and orientation.

8.2 Critical Heat Flux for Forced Convective Flow of Water in Circular Conduits
with Uniform Heat Flux
8.2.1 Introduction

In many fields of engineering heat is removed from a piece of equipment by means of

an evaporating liquid fed by natural or forced convection through tubular channels.

237
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Despite this fact, it is only during the past twenty or so years that studies of the critical
heat flux condition have been made.
This section cover the case for water evaporating in vertical, uniformly heated
will
tubes. For the present the discussion is restricted to conditions where the fluid fed to
the channel is subcooled and contains no entrained vapour or non-condensible gases.
The critical heat flux condition with vapour-liquid mixtures at the tube inlet is
discussed in chapter 9.The discussion is also restricted to the case where the flow is
stable and oscillations do not occur. The presence of flow oscillations may considerably
reduce the critical heat flux relative to its value for steady flow.

Tube

Inlet flow-rate, tv*!

Inlet temperature, Tf\

( System pressure,
p
Fig. 8.1. Independent Variables AfTecling the Critical Heal Flux for Uniformly Heated
Vertical Round Duds

In general, for uniformly heated channels, it can be assumed that the onset of the
criticalheat flux condition occurs first at the exit end of the channel. For non-uniform
axial heat flux distributions, overheating may occur first either at the exit or upstream
of the exit. There have been reports’’ of upstream overheating for uniformly heated

tubes but, whilst there is no reason to doubt the validity of such observations, it must

be staled that they are unusual and, for the vast majority of cases, overheating occurs
initially at the channel exit. Under unstable hydrodynamic conditions, overheating

may occur at the tube exit or entrance or any location between.

8.2.2 Some Initial Considerations

Consider first the possible independent variables which can influence the critical heat
flux. There are certainly five major variables (Fig. 8.1); the inlet flow-rate, the inlet

238
 1

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

temperature, the system pressure, the tube internal diameter, and the tube length. For
the present discussion it will be assumed that the channel pressure drop is small
compared with the imposed static pressure and that a single pressure,
p, can be
ascribed to the entire system. Other variables which might have been listed are such
items as the material and surface finish of the tube and perhaps the method of heating.
The influence of these variables is obscure and they are therefore omitted for the
present.
It is instructive to consider very briefly the limits inside which the critical heat flux
must lie. It has been stated earlier that the critical heat flux condition cannot exist if

Fig. 8.2. Defining the Limits of the Critical Heat Flux Condition

the heater surface temperature lies below the saturation temperature. Thus the
minimum possible critical heat flux is given by

(8. 1 )

The critical heat flux condition must occur at or before all the liquid fed to the channel

is evaporated (x(z) = 1) leading to

WcritImax — (8 . 2)
;
^2 L 'fg J
The possible range of conditions for the critical heat flux can be shown diagram-
matically (Fig. 8.2). These limits are derived from very simple self-evident considera-
tions but when correlations are applied to any particular problem it is prudent to
check that the estimated critical heat flux does, in fact, lie within the specified limits

239
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
particularly if the values of the independent variables are outside the range covered
by the original correlation.

8.2.3 Availability of Experimental Information

Experiments to determine the critical heat flux for water in vertical uniformly heated
round tubes have been carried out in many countries over the past twenty years or so.
It would be very tedious to review, or even to list, the very many publications and

papers which contain relevant experimental data. Fortunately a compilation of much

of this data was published by Thompson and Macbeth* in 1964. A total of 4389
separate experimental results are recorded covering a very wide range of independent
variables—Table 8.1 lists the ranges of the independent variables covered by the
compilation. This listing of data supersedes that issued in 1958 by De Bortoli ei al?
None of the xvide range of experimental data from the USSR Is included in this com-
pilation. The main reason is the lack of detailed information in the published sources;
however the USSR data (for 'non-pulsating* flow) are generally in good agreement
with the data in the compilation.

8.2.4 General Relationships between Independent Variables and Methods of Display of

Experimental Data
Earlier it was postulated that the critical heat flux for water in a vertical uniformly
heated tube is a function of five independent variables, thus,

^CRir “ ffi
(^^ub)i> Pt (8-3)

Since overheating of the tube surface at the critical condition almost invariably begins
at the exit of the heated section, it can be argued that display and correlation should
be terms of the exit conditions. The thermodynamic state at the tube exit may be such
that the fluid is either subcooled or saturated Either the fluid enthalpy i(z) or the
thermodynamic mass quality x(2) may be chosen to characterize the exit conditions.
Each of these dependent variables is related to the inlet subcooling via the heat
balance equation thus,
Adfz
|(Z) = lV+ “(ATiys)} Cpf (8.4)

(8.5)

Thus, as alternatives to cq. (8.3) it is possible to write

^CRiT = fn (C, i(z), P. D, z) (8.6)

or
^CRIT'=f“(C.»(z).P.P.2) (8.7)

It is instructive to examine briefly the nmnner in which the critical heat flux varies
with some of the independent variables. Examples of such relationships are as follows:

(a) The relationship between ^crit» (A7sub)i As an example of the variation

of critical heat flux with inlet subcooling for fixed tube length and diameter, the data

240
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —
O V)

O S' ^ *0
ZH 4389

Macbeth)

<s
«n ^ ^ 0\ ji.
\b v©
and Btu/lb 2:
7
180-8-650-7 198-4-681-6 215-2-713-2
20-9-170-7
r5

of ^
Tj*
T
00
subcooling
fo •-<

(Aisud)i
(Thompson

Range 00074-0-77S

v>

inlet
os
093-0-58

inlet
MJ/kg

0-0-364
0-075-0-426
0-080-1-32 0-117-1-40
0-42-1-51 0-46-1-58
0049-0-39

0-50-1-66 7
OO
S
^
0-0-35

0
0-0-94
0-1-1
0-1-45

o o
at
© 6
water

1 r*
o ^ r*
VD OO
X fS O Cv 27- n
28- Ov rj-

liquid M T?-F-.SA<?'r<pF-g'7c:)<r
c: |«^tnr^l l.tsirj
of
velocity
f^oslooool lOoorfvc^jvsi 0-074-1-85 0-037-5-05

£ OOOOOOl7*OOO»n^Npf0
with
Range
(G)
o6oooooooo»^«Ov^
mass

t/i
heated

18600
9900
1020-4080 2040-3890 1950-3670 1850-3790
54-15800 38-10600 31-10600 860-2900 100-2510
10-5750 38-8150 79-4120 50-6860

feO
M 13-92

uniformly

eo

a 74-fi-Cn
1-38-5-91

1-33-84
tubes 4-5-6-0 6-27-4 6-27-4 6-27-4
3-144
3-68 6-68 6-60 6-36 3-72
of 9-4 1

lengths <S
(z)
round Range
VO
<S m m
inmcnvOfStSi—•moso\ir»c\
»r» vn w-s
CN
tube
OO --M r- VO VT Os OO so VO V— VO v©

B ? ‘i’t 7 3 -T 7 7 7 7
for
»no\TJvoc^'0«o^^c^v6r4c^^n^^
<Nm*-*t^»nr'n'nv>r>‘V^«oro«n
5 2
OCN —
— O-:' — O — O'© si o
variables
oooooooooooooo 6 6

d 004-0-94
0045-0-12
0-12-0-426
0-12-0-22
0-12-1-475
0-226-0-451
0-075-0-78 0-075-0-78
0-075-0-436 0-155-0-395
0-12-0-226

of
diameters
0-075 0-075 0-118 0-075
0-18
independent

(U)
Range

tn *7«
tube — o O •— 00 vn
of mm fO 1
O • 1
1 1 1

fjl
SO >7
’T *? 7 ^^^ ^ p 3-9-10
3-5-7

range

eo
lO lO M VO <N
O p 'O p p
«r> u
cs ^a
s
0
»- p — o
Experimental
Actual
pressure

range
z 1 1 773(75iAA
Cv ov v6 OO VO
i 1 1 M 3
Tf
^
OO
00 OO ov 9v Os o\ ^
Ti*
Si.
p p
66ooooo

8.1
psia
JnoOOOOOOOOOOOO
— O 00 s©<NOO«OOO»nOV-jvi
or
•-r'l'or«-0»n«nooor^v^sor^
Table
pressure
nominal

Actual

p ovob©sosot«“^eorommo
M V©
*0
Swedish
Others

bar
^r^TrsoOsOr^fnvor-eoos Misc. Misc.

24]
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

(A/a*)., Btu/lb

(nil?)

mu/hl^

(A/gug), , Inlet subcooling, MJ/kg

Fig. 8 J. The Effect of Inlet Subcooling on Critical Heat Flux

of Weatberhcad^ for an inside tube diameter of 7-7 mm

(0-3(W in.), tube length 45-7 cm
(18 in.) and a sj-stem pressure of 138 bar (2000 psia) may be taken. Weatherhead’s
critical heat flux values are plotted against the inlet subcooling (expressed in terms of

enthalpy, (Aislib)i) in Fig- 8.3 with mass wlodty as parameter. It is noted that the

242
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 1

Fig. 8.4. The Influence of Exit Quality on Critical Heat Flux

critical heat flux appears to increase linearly with inlet subcooling and this linear
relationship is often, indeed usually, found, though by no means universally. It is used

as a basic factor in a number of empirical correlations. It is also noted that increases

in mass velocity cause an increase in critical heat flux for a given inlet subcooling.

243
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Btu/lb

Fig. 8.5. The Effect of Tube Length on Critical Heal Flu* at Fixed Inlet Conditions

Here again this effect is quite general but not universal. It is instructive to replot the
between
data of Fig. 8.3 in terms of the exit conditions (Fig. 8.4). The linear relationship
critical heat flux and exit mass quality is to be expected aS a consequence of eq
(8.5).

The relationship between critical heat flux and mass velocity is, however, considerably
region
complicated by the method of display ^ven in Fig. 8.4. In the subcooled

244
 I )

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

(negative values of x(z) ), the critical heat flux increases with increased mass velocity
at constant exit conditions. In the saturated region (positive values of x(z)) there
is a
cross-over and at high values of exit quality the critical heat flux decreases with
increased mass velocity.
This example demonstrates a very important point. When the influence of one
particular variable on the critical heat flux is considered which
it is essential to specify
of the other independent (or dependent) variables is held constant. A further interest-
ing feature of Fig. 8.4 is the continuity of the straight lines through the saturation
(x(r) = 0) condition. This implies that the cause of the critical heat flux condition
is similar in the regions either side of the saturation condition though the same
reasoning would not necessarily extend to the high quality region.
(b) The relationship between ^carr* (^^suB)i Experimental data obtained by
Lee and Obertelli'^’ * for a pressure of 69 bar (1000 psia), a mass velocity of 2000
kg/m^ s (1-5 X 10® Ib/h.ft^) and a tube diameter in the range of 10-75-10-85 mm
(0-424-0-426 in.) ser\'e as an example of the variation of the critical heat flux with
length and subcooling for fixed mass velocity and tube diameter. Figure 8.5 shows
data for six tube lengths between 0-216 m and 3-66 m (8-5 in. and 144 in.) plotted as
critical heat flux against inlet subcooling. It will be seen that the critical heat flux

increases as tube length is decreased for constant inlet subcooling. For the longer
lengths (z > 1 m) the relationship between heat flux and subcooling is linear. This
linearity breaks down for short tubes.
If these data are replotted as critical heat flux versus outlet quality as shown in
Fig. 8.6 it is seen that the data points for different lengths all fall on one curve, though
admittedly with some scatter. It is concluded from this observation that the effect of
tube length on the critical heat flux for fixed exit quality is small.
The observation that the critical heat flux is independent of tube length for a given
exit quality has interesting implications. The tube may be divided into two lengths;
over the length (zjc) the liquid
first is raised to the saturation condition (x(zsc) = 0)
and over the second length (Zsat) quality is raised from zero to x(z) the outlet
quality corresponding to the critical condition. The following relationships hold:

- ^SC+^SAT (8.8)

DG (Aisub)]
(8.9)
4^C3UT

xiz}DGi[g
(8.10)
^ 4’crtt

For a fixed x(z) and ^crit. the value of Zjat is also fixed, though Zjc will vary with
subcooling. This implies that the only function of Zsq is to heat the fluid up to the
saturation condition at the appropriate flux. With the assumed relationship

^cRiT = fa Wz)> P’ f*) f

it follows from the above equation that these further equations hold:

^cRiT = fn(zsAT.G.P.f^)
245
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

^CRIT “ (8.13)

Though eq. (8.13) represents a relationship between two dependent a

variables it is

particularly usefulone since it provides an alternative way of looking at the data.

Equation (8.11) suggests there is a local relationship between critical heat flux and

Fig. 8.6. The Effect of Tube Length on Cntical Heat Flux at Fixed Exit Conditions

quality whereas eq. (8.13) suggests that the mass fraction of the liquid which can be
evaporated in the channel before the onset of the critical condition is a function
of the length over which the evaporation takes place. (rsAr)- Neither of these two

246
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —
views of the critical heat flux phenomenon is completely correct and
neither, as it
turns out, can be used as a general basis for the prediction of more complex cases.
However, for the critical condition in a uniformly heated channel it is impossible to
distinguish between the two hypotheses. Figure 8.7 shows the Lee and Obertelli'^’®
data plotted in the form suggested by eq. (8.13).
(c) The relationship between and D. The effect of tube diameter on
(pain,
the relationship between ^carr and and between ^crit and x(z) for fixed

fraction

xf^^mass

quality,

steam

Critical

values of G, z, and p can be well illustrated by plotting the data of Lee and Obertelli'*
and Matzner®. These data were obtained for a pressure of 69 bar (1000 psia), a mass
velocity of 2000 kg/m^ s (1-5 x 10* Ib/h.ft^) and for tube lengths in the range 1-93-2 m
(76-79 in.).

Figure 8.8 shows the critical heat flux plotted against inlet subcooling for six tube
diameters ranging from 5-58 mm
to 37-45 mm
(0-220 in. to 1-475 in.). As the tube
diameter is increased, so the critical heat flux increases at constant inlet subcooling.
The relationship between critical heat flux and inlet subcooling is linear for small tube
diameters (Z> < 12-8 mm) but the larger diameters show a marked curvature. Figure
8.9 shows the same data plotted against exit quality. Where the data for different tube

247
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Blu/lb

MW/m*

^ckit.

Mux,

heat

Critical

Fig. 8.8. The Influence of Tube Diameter on Critical Heat Flux At Fixed Inlet Conditions

248
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

MW/m

Btu/hfC(x10

flux,

.
heat

'cRiT

Critical

cRiT

-0-1 0 0-1 0-2 0-3 0-4 0-5 0-6

Exit quality -mass fraction steam

Fig. 8.9. The Influence of Tube Diameter on Critical Heat Flux At Fixed Exit Conditions

249
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
diamelers overlap, it can be seen that the critical heat flux decreases with increasing
tube diameter for a given exit quality.

8.2.5 Empirical Correlation of Experimental Data

The technical importance of the critical heat flux condition has led to the des clopment
of a bewildering variety of correlations. Miliori’ catalogues fifty-nine correlations and
detailed comparisons of a wide range of correlations reveal considerable diflerences.
Many of the more recent correlations do, howeser, show fairly reasonable agreement
despite wide variations in their functional form. Two types of correlating procedure
have been adopted. They are:

(a) Correlations of an empirical nature which make no assumptions w hatever about

the mechanisms involved in the critical heat flux condition, but solely attempt a
functional relationship between the critical heat flux and the independent variables.
(b) Correlations where attempts have been made to look at and write down equations
for the hydrodynamic and heat transfer processes occurring in the heated channel and
to relate these to the critical heat flux condition.

Probably the most general of the empirical correlations suggested to date that fall
in thefirst category is that by Macbeth** * based on a hypothesis proposed and tested

by Barnett.® This hypothesis, the ‘local conditions hypothesis’ suggests that the cntical
heat flux is solely a function of the mass quality at the point of overheating, as sug-
gested by eq. (8. 1 1). Figure 8.6 is a proof of the approximate validity of the hypothesis—
for uniformly heated round tubes, at least. Barnett and Macbeth make the further
simplifying assumption that the critical beat flux is a linear function of quality, thus:

4>c^„'=A^Bxiz-) (8.14)

where A and B are assumed to be functions of G, p, and D. Substituting for x(a) from
eq. (8.5)

(815)

rearranging and substituting C« DG

. A+ CDG(Ai^^)J4 (8.16)
1+Cz
and
dcMT “ <4— COGif,x(z)/4 (8.17)

Barnett and Macbeth have developed their correlation in terms of eq. (8.16) rather
than (8.17) since the former has the advantage of being in terms of the independent
variables. The values of A and C can be correlated in terms of G, D, andp as indicated
below.
Earlier work by Macbeth'® had suggested that it was desirable to divide the critical
heat flux data into two regions depending upon the particular values of the indepen-
dent variables. Referring to the plots of critical heat flux versus inlet subcooling
(Figs. 8.3, 8.5, 8.8) it is noted that the individual lines extrapolate to definite intercepts

250
 1

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

at zero inlet subcooling ( (A/suB)i = 0). This value of critical heat flux Macbeth termed
the basic burnout heat flux’ Plots of against mass velocity showed a number
of general characteristics (Fig. 8.10). At low mass velocity (pQ is almost directly propor-
tional to mass velocity, G, The region over which this proportionality applies is called
the ‘low mass velocity region’. At high mass velocities <j)Q is relatively insensitive to
—
mass velocity this zone is known as the ‘high mass velocity region’. The two regions
are joined by a smooth continuous transition. Approximate boundary limits for the

Fig. 8.10. Variation of ‘Basic Burnout Heat Flux’ With Mass Velocity

low mass velocity region are given in Fig. 8.1 1. In order to avoid possible confusion
the Macbeth correlations will be described using the British (FPH) system of units
only. This system of units was used in the derivation of the correlations. The units of
heat flux are [Btu/h.ft^], of mass velocity [Ib/h.ft^], of enthalpy [Btu/lb], of length and
diameter [inches], and of pressure [psia]. Macbeth examined the available world data
in two groups, corresponding to the low and high mass velocity regions:

(a) The low mass Macbeth assumed that

velocity region. for a given pressure, A and
C in eq. (8.16) were simple power functions of G and D, viz.,

(8.18)

and
251
Thus

10-«) = + (8.20)
c^„„ X •'
1+C,z
where
/Ii-O00I06(„D'""{Gx1O-‘)‘"” (8.21)

and
C, *=0 00344D~‘”(Gxl0‘‘)"^” (8.22)

A simplification can be obtained by considering the limiting condition

252
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 1

^cRiT-^0> -* 1 (Fig. 8.10) andA = CDG i^JA.

The simplification leads to

(GxlO-^)(,V^+(AisuB).)
(^CRIT ^ 10 *)
(8.23)
135(GxlO-fi)°5+4z/£)
or

(feirX 10"®) = :;^(Gx 10-®)“ ®(l-x( 2)) (8.24)

Equations (8.23) and (8.24) fit the appropriate world data with an R.M.S. error of
5-5 per cent and are applicable to any system pressure.
(b) The high mass velocity region. Analysis of data in this region is difficult because
the pressure effect more complex than in the low mass velocity region. Macbeth
is

divided up the data into a number of groups, each having a nominal system pressure.

Table 8.2 Macbeth correlation —optimized 'y' values and R.M.S. errors for high velocity critical heat
flux regions

R.M.S. No. of
Pressure >’o Xi >'1 X3 X4 X5 error data
psia % points

15
250
530
1000
(nom)
(nom)
sh
eH
M2 -0211
-0 553
-0 566
-0 487
0 324
-0 260
-0 329
-0 179
0 0010
0 0166
0 0127
00085
-1
-1
-1
-1
4
4
4
4
-105
-0 937
-0 737
-0 555
mSm
Bl
13 8 88
237
no
405
1570
2000
(nom) 0-720
0 627
-0 527
-0 268
0-024
0 192
0 0121
00093
-1
-1
4
4
-0 096
-0 343
KEa
90
133
362
2700 (nom) 0-0124 -1 45 0 489 0 0097 -14 -0 529 47 37

The data in each pressure group were used to find the form of the power functions
thus
Ai=yoD^'(GxlO'-y^ (8.25)
and
Cl =y3i)’’-(Gxl0-®)’’’ (8.26)

Computer optimized values of jo 1® Ts 1®^ each pressure group are given in Table
8.2. In later work Thompson and Macbeth' found that simple power functions for

A and C were not satisfactory over the very wide range of parameters now present in
the listed world data. A more complex function was required and a restricted form of
polynomial was used. The revised equation is of the general form
A‘+D(Gxl0-®)(AfsuB).
^10 (8.27)
(^CRIT )
C'+z

or written in terms of the exit steam quality x(z)

A'-I>(Gxl0 ®)ifgX(z)/4
(^cRiT ^ m )
C'
(8.28)

where
25J
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
= yoO’''(Gxio“®)''>{;i+y3i)+y4(Gxio"®)+y'5Z)(Cxio'®)] (8.29)

and

c' = y,D'''{cxio-‘)’'‘[i+y,D+y,„(CxiO'‘)+y„c(GxiO'‘)] (8.30)

The new constants yo-yn are listed in Table 6.3 together with the number of
experiments and the R.M.S. error for each group. The constants for pressures 560,
1000, and 2000 psia were quoted by Macbeth and Thompson' whilst those at 1250,
1550, and 1800 psia were gi\en by Lee** tn a report presenting extensive data in this
intermediate pressure range.
No Russian data were used in (he development of the Macbeth correlation. How-
ever, detailedcomparison between the correlation and published data from (he USSR

Table 8.3 Moditied constants and R.M S errors for Macbeth’s correlation of critical heat flux,
for uniformly heated vertical tubes cooled by water

Syricm preisurc. psia

560 1000 1250 1550 1800 2000

237 il4 93 3 580 194 65 5

130 0911 1 10 0 834 209 t 19
0-425 0 221 0575 0 224 0 593 0 376

Si Yt
Y,
-0 940
-00324
0

19 3
0 959
III
-0128
00274
-00667

127
U2
0
0
0

88 5
H6
-00336
00755
-0 296

48 3
0 823
-0 597
-0131
-00482

231
1-93
-0 577
0 220
-0 373

17
1
1

18
Y, 0931 0411 too 0121 0 612 -0456
Yt 3 61 -0274 0 0 -0 575 -153
Yxo -QOS7« -00397 0 0 -0 25$ 2 75
Yii 0 124 -00221 0 0 no 2 24

R.M.S. error % 727 6 48 602 3 93 7 56

No. ofexpts. 225 802 527 I9S 613

shows very good agreement for the detailed effects of mass velocity, tube diameter
and system pressure.
In section 8.2.2 the minimum and maximum values of the critical heat flux were
defined using eqs. (8. J)and ($.2) Ttspectiveiy. The cnJicai heat flu-r must fall within the
defined region, illustrated by Fig. 8.2. Comparison of the Macbeth correlation (8.16)
with cq. (8.1) indicates that the fatter is satisfied for the whole range of subcooling
provided
4hf.
(8.31)

When this relationship is compared with the values of C originally proposed by

Macbeth® it is noted that the condition sug^ted in eq. (8.31) is indeed satisfied at
2000 psia over the range of diameters and mass wlocilies employed. At 000 psia and 1

530 psia it appears, however, that the condition is not satisfied for high mass velocities

254
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —
and large tube diameters. The revised values of C for 1000 psia calculated from the
more recent relationships of Thompson and Macbeth' do satisfy cq, (8.31). It is
possible that similar reformulations will be necessary at other pressures as
more data
in extreme ranges become available. Extrapolation outside the limits of
Table 8.1 is
not recommended.
No attempt will be made to review the wide range of alternative correlations
available for vertical uniformly heated round tubes. Many of the hypotheses upon
which these correlations are based have been shown to be invalid by Barnett.'’ An
Macbeth-Thompson correlation which has the advantage of being
alternative to the
continuous with respect to the variable ‘system pressure’ with apparently little or no
loss of accuracy is the correlation proposed by Biasi et

1-883x10^
4’crit
— (8.32)

for the low quality region

1-78 X 10^ h(p)

4’c9XX
— (8.33)

for the high quality region

Where n = 0-4 for > 1 cm
« = 0-6 for Z) < I cm
and f(p) = 0-7249 +0-099/) exp (-0-032/))
8-99/)
h(p) = —1-159 + 0-149/7 exp (— 0-019/))
^^^^2

The correlation is evaluated in e.g.s. units, i.e., ^crit W/cm* and is valid over the
following range of variables.

0-3 cm < < 3-75 cm.

20 cm <z < 600 cm.
2-7 bar <p < 140 bar
10 g/cm^ s <G < 600 g/cm^ s

i/(l+Pf/Pg) <^(^) < 1

The critical given as the higher of the two values obtained by the inter-
heat flux is

section of eqs. (8.32) and (8.33) with the heat balance equation (8.5). For values of G
below 30 g/cm^ s eq. (8.33) is always used. The R.M.S. error for over 4500 data
points examined was 7-26 per cent and 85-5 per cent of all points were correlated
within per cent. The reader interested in lower pressure applications may wish
± 10
to note that Becker" has proposed a correlation of the form:

<^cr.t
= G-'’V.[.v(2),p]./.(0) (8-34)

where/, [.v(z), p] and /,(£)) are functions presented graphically. Tliis

correlation has

a functional form suggested by a physical mechanism and is based on a considerable

amount of data taken at pressures below 69 bar (1000 psia). It may be considered as
an alternative to the Macbeth correlation for these low pressures.

255
 CONVECTIVE BOILING ANP CONDENSATION

8.2.6 The Influence of System Pressure on the Critical Heat Flux

Consideration of the influence of system pressure as an independent variabie on the
heat flux has been deferred until now. To illustrate the major effect, the Macbeth
critical
correlation has been evaluated in the pressure range up to 138 bar for a condition in

O ctO-tSmm (O Ainl o Alekseev

OOtnl O*emm{0 3t5)n)
6 «2720fc9/m*» *U ) » 0
(2 ifO'lb/h ft* I

(300Btuflb|

/ r„.17»'C IJJS'F)

Fig. 8.12. The Influence of System Pressure on the Critical Heat Flux

which the tube geometry and mass velodty are held constant at fixed values (z = 0-76
m (30 m
), Z? = 10 15 mm
(0 4 in.), G = 2720 kg(m^ s. (2 x 10* Ib/h.ft^) ) Other
experimental data have been assembled to supplement the correlation above 138 bar
(2000 psia) and to validate certain trends.
Figure 8. 12 shows the critical heat flux plotted against pressure for four fixed inlet

256
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —
or exit conditions. In the case of the two upper curves the exit condition for pressures
above 138 bar is highly subcooled and no data were available to supplement these
curx’es.

If the exit mass quality is held fixed at zero, jr(z) = 0 then the critical heat flux falls
sharply as the pressure is increased above 30 bar up to the critical pressure. The experi-
mental data of Alekseev et al.^^ for 8-9 mm
i.d. tubes are shown for comparison and

confirm the predicted trend remarkably well. At lower mass velocities the value of
critical heat flux at x(z) = 0 w'ill be increased for pressures below 100 bar and decreased

at higher pressures. For higher mass velocities the converse is true.

For the condition where the inlet subcooling is held constant, the critical heat flux
passes through a maximum at low pressures (below 30 bar) and then falls as the pres-
sure is increased. In a number of cases a secondary maximum is found in the pressure
range 100-200 bar. This maximum is enhanced by increasing the subcooUng and the
mass velocity and reducing the tube length-to-diameter ratio.
If the inlet water temperature 7^ is held constant then the inlet subcooling increases
as the pressure is raised. The influence of system pressure on the critical heat flux is

much reduced over the complete pressure range. Holding the inlet water temperature
constant tends to enhance the secondary maximum which occurs at high pressures.
At high mass velocities this effect becomes dominant and the critical heat flux increases
as the pressure is increased*® for a fixed inlet temperature.

8.3 Important Second Order Effects on the Critical Heat Flux

In the previous sections the influence of the major independent variables on the critical
heat flux has been discussed. In this section some important second order effects will
be noted and these comments will, in many ways, qualify the more general conclusions
arrived at earlier.

(a) The relationship between critical heat flux and inlet subcooling. Earlier it was seen
that the critical heat flux is generally a linear function of inlet subcooling,- Macbeth
used this observation as a key factor in his correlation. Inspection of Figs. 8.5 and 8.8
suggests that above a z/D ratio of 100 the linearity is preserv'ed. These findings were
confirmed by experiments carried out using Freon.*^ Non-linearity may also be asso-
ciated with a large pressure drop across the channel or with data taken under hydro-
dynamically unstable conditions.
(b) The relationship between critical heat flux and tube length. Experiments carried
out by Stevens et a!.^^ using Freon have shown that the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis,
whilst being very nearly true, is not universally valid. Figure 8.13 shows the critical
heat flux for Freon 12 plotted against vapour mass quality for various tube lengths with
the tube diameter and system pressure held constant. It will be observed that for tube
lengths greater than 0-61 m (25 in.), zfD > 75, all data points are co-linear, confirming
the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis. However, at shorter lengths the data points for each
separate length lie on individual curves. In the case of the higher mass velocity value
this effect is combined with a departure from a hnear relationship between <^crit
x(z). Close examination of the experimental data for water taken by
Lee and Ober-
telli‘*- ® reveals a similar effect for channels with a zjD ratio less than 80.

257
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(c) The relationship between critical heatflux and mass velocity. Normally the critical
heat flux increases with mass velocity at constant inlet subcooling. However, there are
exceptions to this rule which are also associated with high mass velocity values, small
inlet subcooltng values, and low z(D ratios.
(d) The effect of channel orientation. An investigation into buoyancy effects on the
critical heat flux in forced convection vertical flow has been reported by Papell el al}^

Liquid nitrogen was the test fluid and critical heat flux data were obtained over a wide
range of test conditions, for a tubular section I2'8 mm (0-505 in.) i.d. and 30-5 cm
(12 in.) long with the flow direction both upwards and downwards. Under certain

Fig. 8.13. Critical Heat Flux Data for Freon 12 Showing Breakdown of the Local Conditions
Hypothesis

conditions —associated with low flows and high exit qualities in the annular flow
region —the heat flux for downflow was
critical significantly lower than for upflow.
The buoyancy effect increased as the pressure and subcooling decreased.
Similar tests for water at low pressures have been reported by Kirby et Chang-
ing the flow direction from upflow to downflow reduced the critical heat flux by 10-30

per cent, the greatest reductions being at the lowest flows. It would appear that pro-
vided the liquid downflow velocity is significantly above the bubble rise velocity given
by eq. (3.13) then the influence of flow direction on the critical heat flux is small.
The critical heat flux condition in horizontal and inclined tubes has not been exten-
sively investigated. Most practical designs of evaporator using horizontal elements
include such items as 180*’ return bends. It has been found that such features have a

258
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW
1

profound influence on the critical heat flux condition in horizontal tubes and this
aspect IS discussed in chapter II. Experimental data in the absence of such features are
sparse. Macbeth® quotes an example which suggests that flow stratification
is important
in the ‘low mass velocity’ region. The difference in
critical heat flux between horizontal
and vertical channels will decrease as the mass velocity and/or
the system pressure is
increased.
(e) Anomalous due to ultra-high mass velocities and small tube diameters.
effects
A
number of studies have been published
where experiments have been carried out at
very high mass velocities or with very small diameter tubes. A certain
type of anoma-
lous behaviourhas been found under these conditions. This behaviour can be
illustrated
by the results obtained by Waters e/ al.^^ Figure 8.14 shows
4>cr,t plotted against
(A'sub)i for three mass velocity values at a system pressure of 104 bar (1 51 psia). It is
5
observed that the data are well represented by the Macbeth® correlation provided
the

(A4ub), ,
Btu/lb

0 100 200 300 -JOO SOO 600

Fig. 8.14. Anomalous Behaviour at High Mass Velocity (Data of Waters et al.)

259
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
inlet subcooling is greater than 0-35 MJ/kg (150 Btu/lb). At values below this, the
points depart from the linear relationship and lie considerably above the correlation.
In addition, Waters et al. report that, at low subcooling, serious overheating first

occurred not at the exit end of the tube but at various locations upstream.
Studies in which short tubes of small bore have been employed also reveal this
anomaly.
(f) Compressibility effects. Fauske*® has pointed out that choking of the two-phase
flow (maximum, critical, or sonic flow) can occur and pass unrecognized in critical
heat flux experiments at low pressures and high liquid inlet velocities. In particular
he cites the work of Lowdermilk which the steam-water mixture after
et o/.*' in
leaving the heated test section passed into a downstream plenum where the exit
pressure gauge was located. The conditions at the exit from the heated section were
reported on the basis of this measured pressure which was always close to atmospheric.
Examination of these quoted conditions show that the flow is required to be supersonic
(or supercritical). In actual fact, the true exit condition from the heated section was
—
probably more likely to be ‘DNB subcooled’ at 14 bar (200 psia),
(g) The influence of surface finish and lube wall thickness on the critical heat flux. It
is possible to list four secondary variables associated with the test section which, so
far, have not been considered. These are:

(i) method of beating the tube

(ii) material of the tube wall
(iii) tube wall thickness
(iv) internal bore surface finish.

To might be added the method used for detection of the critical beat flux.
this list
Since an accurate correlation of the available world data has been achieved without
the inclusion of the above factors as independent variables, it seems reasonable to
conclude that they do not play a significant role in the determination of the critical
heat flux value. However, few systematic investigations of the importance of these
variables have been undertaken.
The experimental cntical by Macbeth and Thompson were taken
heat flux data listed
using Joule heating of the test channel Most experiments used direct current heating.
It has been suggested'*- that the use of alternating current with test elements having
a low thermal capacity and short lime constant causes a reduced critical heat flux, all

other independent variables remaining fixed

Aladyev et al}^ report that the thickness of the tube wall did not affect the critical

0 079 in. Barnett* suggests that some influence of tube

heat flux in the range 0-016 to
wall thickness might explain an apparent slight inconsistency in the data of Lee and
Obertelli.* Data taken at AERE
Harwell and AEE
Winfrith* suggest that there is a
small reduction in the critical heat flux {~5 per cent) at low inlet subcoolings as the

tube wall thicknessis decreased from 0 084 to 0 034 in., all other independent variables

remaining constant. Tippets'* reports a decrease in critical heat flux of approximately

20 per cent when a 0 010 in. thick ribbon heater was replaced by a 0-006 in. thick
ribbon. Some influence of tube wall thickness might be expected by comparison with
the influence of this variable in pool boiling experiments.

260
 I

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

There appears to be some difference of opinion on the influence of tube wall material
and internal bore surface finish. It should be observed that for the purposes of this
discussion ‘roughness’ refers to the ‘micro-roughness’ of normal machined engineering
surfaces. The influence of certain types of macro-roughness will be considered in
chapter 11. De Bortoli et al.^ concluded that the heat transfer surface material or
roughness of the surface did not influence the critical heat flux. The materials investi-
gated were nickel, Zircaloy and stainless steel. With Zircaloy II two surface rough-
II,

ness values were investigated, namely 29 microinches and 120 microinches. Aladyev
et al}^ report no influence of surface finish on the critical heat flux. In these experi-
ments eleven tubes \vith various internal finishes were tested, including polished,
etched, and machined surfaces. The evidence for some effect of surface finish comes
from the data of Weatherhead^ in the U.S.A. and Chirkin and lukin*"' in the USSR.
Both of these works conclude that the critical heat flux is lowered for very smooth
surfaces upon which bubble nucleation might be difficult.
It has been reported that porous deposits on heat transfer surfaces can influence

the critical heat flux both favourably and adversely. In tests reported by Goldstein
et aJ}^ the addition of contaminants to a test circuit caused reductions in the critical
heat flux. The effect was temporary and the critical heat flux value returned to the
clean tube figure after a period of several hours.

References

1. Thompson, B. and Macbeth, R. V. ‘Boiling water heat transfer —burnout in uniformly

heated round tubes: A compilation of world data with accurate correlations,’ AEEW-R
356 (1964); available price 80p at H.M.S.O.
2. De Bortoli, R. A. et ai ‘Forced convection heat transfer burnout studies for water in
rectangular channels and round tubes at pressures above 500 p.s.i.a.’. WAPD-188 (1958).
3. Weatherhead, R. J. ‘Nucleate boiling characteristics and the critical heat flux occurrence
in sub-cooled axial flow water systems’. ANL 6675 (1963).
4. Lee, D. H. and Obertelli, J. D. ‘An experimental investigation of forced convection
boiling in high pressure water'. Pi. 1. A'EE'W-R 213 (1963).
5. Lee, D. H. ‘An experimental investigation of forced convection boiling in high pressure
AEEW-R 355 (1965).
water.’ Ft. III.
6. Matzner, B. ‘Basic experimental studies of boiling fluid flow and heat transfer at elevated
pressures’. TID 18978 (1963).
7. Milioti, S. ‘A survey of burnout correlations as applied to water cooled nuclear reactors’.
M.Eng. thesis, Penn. State Univ., Sept. (1964).
8. Macbeth, R. V. ‘Burn-Out analysis’. Part 4. ‘Application of a local condition hypothesis
to world data for uniformly heated round tubes and rectangular channels’. AEEW-R 267
(1963).
9. Barnett, P. G. ‘An investigation into the validity of certain hypotheses implied by various
burnout correlations’. AEEW-R 214 (1963).
10. Macbeth, R. V. ‘Burn-out analysis Part 3. The low velocity burnout regime’. AEEW-R
222 (1963).
11. Becker, K. M. ‘An analytical and experimental study of burnout conditions in vertical
round ducts’. A.B. Atofuenergi Report AE 178, Sweden (1965).
12. Stevens, G. F., Elliott, D. F., and Wood, R. F. ‘An experimental investigation into forced
convection burnout in Freon, with reference to burnout in water’. AEEW-R 321 (1964).
13. Waters, E. D., Anderson, J. K., Thorne, W. L., and Batch, J. M. ‘Experimental observa-

261
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
tions of upstream boiling burnout*. Paper presented at the 6th National Heat Transfer
Conference, Boston, Mass., Aug. 1963. AIChE reprint No. 1\ see also HW-73902 (Rev.).
14. Bertoletti,G. et al. *A facility used for wet steam cooling experiments: pressure drop,
heat transfer and burnout*. Energia tfucleare, 6 (7), 458-471 (1959).
15. Tippets, F. E. ‘Critical heat fluxes and flow patterns in high pressure boilmg water flows'.
Paper presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the ASME, New York, 25-30 Nov.
Paper No. 62.WA-162 (1962).
16. Aladyev, I. L., Miropolskii, 2. 1., et al. ‘Boiling crisis in tubes’. Int. Develop, in Heal
Transfer, Vol. II, Paper 28, University of Colorado, Boulder (1961).
17. Chirkin, V. S. and lukin, V. P. ‘Critical point in heat removal from boiling water flowing
through an annular gap*. Soviet Physics (Technical Physics), 1 (7), 1503-1515 (1956).
18. Lee, D. H. 'An expenmental investigation of forced convection burnout in high pressure
water. Part 4. Large diameter tubes at about 1600 psia*. AEEW-R, 479 (1966).
19. Papell, S. S., Simoneau, R. J. and Brown. D. D. ‘Buoyancy cfTects on critical heat flux
of forced convective boiling in vertical flow*. NASA-TND-3672 (1966).
20. Fauske, H. ‘Compressibility affects flow instability and burnout'. Power Reactor TecA-
9(2), 65-68 (1966).
21. Lowdermilk, W. H., Lanzo, C. D., and Siegel, B. L. ‘Investigation of boiling burnout
and flow stability for water flowing in tubes*. NACA-TN-4382 (1958).
22. Goldstein, P., Dick, I. B. and Rice, J K. ‘Internal corrosion of high pressure boilers*.
J. of Engineering for Power, Trans. ASME, 89, Scries A, No. 3, 378-394 (July 1967).
23. L. Biasi et al. ‘Studies on burnout*. Part 3. Energia Nueleare, 14, (9), 530-536 (1967).
24. Herkenrath, H., Mdrk-Morkenstcin, P., Jung, U., and Weekermann, F. J. ‘WarmeOber-
gang an Wasser bci Erzwungener Strdmung im Druckbereich von 140 bis 250 bar*.
EUR3658d (1967).
25. Alekseev, O. V., Zenkevileh, B. A.. Peskov, O. L., Sergeev, N. D
, and Subbotin, V. 1.

‘Burnout heat fluxes under forced water flow*. Paper A/CONF 28/pi327a presented at
the 3rd U.N. conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 1964; see also Tephenerge-
tika 12(3). 47-51 (1965).
26. Kirby, G. J.. Staniforth, R., and Kmneir, J H. 'A visual study of forced convection
boilmg. Part 2. Flow patterns and bumoul for a round tube lest section*. AEEW-R 506
(1967).

262
 9

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE

FLOW— 2. MORE COMPLEX SITUATIONS
9.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter the critical heat flux conditions for water flo%ving in vertical
uniformly heated tubes were discussed. In this chapter the effects on the critical heat
flux of (a) non-uniform heating, (b) non-circular geometry, (c) the use of fluids other
than water, (d) liquid-vapour mixtures at the channel entrance, and (e) unstable
hydrodynamic conditions will be reviewed. In addition the present knowledge regard-
ing the mecham'sm of the critical heat flux will be discussed.

9.2 The Critical Heat Flux in Round Tubes With Non-Unifonn Heating
Three types of non-uniform heating will be considered: (a) the heat generation in the
tube wall is a smooth continuous function of the tube length only, (b) the heat genera-
tion in the tube wall is uniform except for a short length at a higher or lower uniform
value, and (c) the heat generation in the tube wall in the axial direction is uniform but
there is a variation in heat generation around the tube circumference.

9.2.1 Non-imiform axial heat flux profile

Table 9.1 lists experiments carried out with vertical round tubes having a non-uniform
heat flux distribution in the axial direction. Since many of these studies are concerned
with the limitations of the critical heat flux in nuclear reactor design, the form of the
heat flux axial profile often resembles a sine wave

In some of the studies, the heat flux profile is only part of a full sine wave —^i.e.,

‘chopped’ —and, in others, the heat flux profile has been built up in a series of steps
to ease fabrication problems—i.e., ‘stepped’. The form factor ‘^’ is the ratio of the
maximum to average heat flux (^max/^)-
9.2. 1.1 The focal conditions' hypothesis. If it isassumed that there is a unique
relationship between critical heat flux and local mass quality, then the case of a non-
uniformly heated tube can be dealt with in a straightforward manner. The level of

263
 1
CONVECTIVE

flow,

axial

upwards,

(vertically

tubes

in

flux

heat

critical

for

variables

of 94
I
^“1391 1
Range -

amooth
4
9.1
peak^
I
peak - peak

Table
/
chopped,
eeniral
outlet outlet

sine

S.A
Italy

U 1965

(41)1965

Wilcox,
SORIN,
(«)

264
 : 2
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —
criticalmean heat flux (or power) is that which, for any locality within the channel,
causes the unique critical heat flux/mass quality relationship to be first satisfied. For
the case of a linear form of the relationship (as in eq. (8.14)) the operation is much
simplified and has been formulated in detail by Barnett as follows:
The distance along the tube is denoted by z, the functional form of the heat flux
profile by/(z), the local heat flux by ^(z), and the peak heat flux by tp^Ax

<j)(z) = ^max/(2) (9.2)

The mean enthalpy of the steam-water mixture at a distance z, is given by

'(z) - 'f = ~ (^'suB)i (9.3)

(^J

The Macbeth form of the linear critical heat flux/quality relationship (eq. (8.17)) can
be written in terms of the local enthalpy as follows

<^cr.t(z) = A-CDG{iiz)-U)l4 (9.4)

The critical heat flux will occur at z when (^(z)and /(z) related by eq. (9.3) also satisfy
eq. (9.4). If (<^>max)crit(z) is the value of the peak heat flux when the critical heat flux
is exceeded at z, then.

(^max)crit(z) — 4A +DGC (Aijub); (9.5)

4[f(z)+C f /(z)dz]

Equation (9.5) gives the predicted value of the peak heat flux when the critical heat
flux first occurs at a distance z from the inlet, regardless of whether it has occurred

elsewhere in the system. Clearly the predicted first occurrence of the critical condition,

as the total power applied to the tube is increased, will correspond to the lowest value
of ('^max)crit(z) given by eq. (9.5). This will be when.

^[/(z) + C /(z)dz] =0 (9.6)

J
Using values of A and C derived from data taken from uniformly heated tubes,
Barnett^ compared the predictions of eq. (9.5) with experimental data from two
sources.^’ Predicted values of the peak heat flux were consistently higher than the
experimental values. The accuracy of the prediction varied considerably with pressure.
The method however, appear satisfactorily to predict the area of the tube over
did,
which the critical condition would occur. This comparison showed that the ‘local
conditions’ hypothesis is not generally valid.
Kirby®^ has shown that critical heat flux data for non-uniformly heated tubes can
be correlated on a ‘local conditions’ basis but with the actual critical heat flux/mass
quality relationship (assumed linear as in eq. (8. 1 4) ) re-optimized using the non-uniform
heating data alone. Table 9.2 shows the resultant re-optimized values of A and B.
The basis of Kirby’s reasoning was that the new ‘local conditions’ equation repre-
sented the point of equality of droplet deposition and local evaporation. However,

265
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
the location of the critical condition was predicted only approximately by Kirby’s
analysisand in further work®^ Kirby has attempted to modify the an^ysis to take
account of liquid film flow. The relationship between droplet deposition, liquid film
flow, and film evaporation will be relumed to in more detail when discussing the
mechanisms of the critical heat flux condition.

Table 9.2 Kirby** correlation for flon-unifomily heated round tubes

Correlating equation
^c«iT “ /4—Bx(r)
where A = y, C** H**
B f)**
with ^ in Btu^.ft*(xlO-*) Gin Ib/h fl*(xlO'‘)
X> in inches
Kange of Data Used tn Comlation and Optimiaed Constants

Range of
pressures 260 1000 1220 ISOO 1600 1800 2000
psia (bar) (It bat3 <69 bad (86 bat) <103 bat) (110 bat) (124 bat) (138 bat)

0 383 0 373 0 373

0446 0622
0446

600 594 *70 394 720

720 394
1920 720 720 470 1440

Cxl0-‘
Ib/h ft*
0 73
300 EB 0 27
301
025
250
020
320

Faetor.f
127
M2
127
1 92
1

1
16
26
BOB
Mm 1

163
30 1

163
16 !37
1-92

y, 2-411 0 7468 0988 0 7423 0 776 0616 £18

Yt -0271 -01285 -0)91 -0 1057 -0118 -0152 0 23)
y, 00* -0 244 00* -02335 -0 452 -0 293 2 907
y* 3211 1 344 2918 2 384 2 130 2086 508
y, 0 342 0 526 0 287 0 6910 0 739 0 743 0 827
y* OO* -0 2278 00* 00903 -0 296 -0 695 4 228

No of
Expts 34 269 22 79 98 80 69

R.M.S.^
3 66 5 73 3 37 4 82 342 S95 660

* No diameter vanation
Overatl R.M S. deviation — S 30 per cent

The 'oterall po\s er' hypothesis. Lee and Obertellt^ have suggested alternative
9.2. 1 .2
methods of estimating the total power which could be fed to a tube with a non-uniform
axial flux distribution before the critical condition is initiated. One such method, the
overall power h>pothcsis, suggests that the total power which can be fed to the tube
with non-uniform heating will be the same as for a uniformly heated tube of the same
bore and heated length, with the same inlet conditions No prediction of the location
of the critical conditions is made with this method. Lee and Obertelh*’^ and later
Lee*®, found the method predicted the cnttcal power for a number of sine wa\e profile
tubes reasonably well. Barnett,® however, showed the hypothesis was not generally

266
 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

valid for different heat flux profiles when he compared the data of Swenson et al."'
Of these two methods, the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis and the ‘overall power’
hypothesis, it is found that the latter is slightly more accurate for symmetrical flux

profiles. Lee and Obertelli have recommended calculation of the ‘overall power’ with a
deduction of 10 per cent for the non-uniform heat flux. This procedure was later
confirmed by Lee.*^® For steeper flux gradients associated with skewed flux profiles,
the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis is recommended"^® with a deduction of 15 per cent.
'^®
Recent studies'^®’ on heat flux distributions other than the sine wave profile
have confirmed that the critical power which can be applied to a tube is seldom greater
than that for a uniform heat flux profile and may be up to 30 per cent lower if the
maximum heat flux occurs near the tube exit. The one exception to this finding is the
case of a linear or hyperbolic decreasing heat flux profile for which improvements of
up to 10 per cent in critical power above that for the uniform profile case have been
observed in two studies."'®’
9. 2. 1.3 The 'F-factor' method. A consequence of the failure of the ‘local conditions’

hypothesis for non-uniform heat flux distributions is that the value of the local critical
heat flux must depend, to some degree, on the heat flux profile upstream of the point
considered.
An empirical method has been derived by Tong and co-workers'*® • which
enables the effect of the upstream flux profile on the local critical heat flux value to be
taken into account. A similar approach has been put forward independently by
Silvestri.®^ A factor, F, is defined such that

V _ [*^CRIt(z)3 u (n n \
^ ^
[<^CR.t(z)]„u

where [^critWIu the value of the critical heat flux at any given local enthalpy for

the uniform heat flux profile case and [(^>cRiT(z)]nu is the value of the critical heat flux
at thesame given local enthalpy for the particular non-uniform heat flux profile case.
The form of the correction factor, F, was obtained by considering an energy balance
on the superheated boundary layer in the bubbly flow region®® or a mass balance on
the liquid film in the annular flow region®® and was found to be

n ’r
^CRIT <}){z)
F= exp[-f2(zcRiT-z)]dz (9.8)
l-exp(-nzcRiT) Jo 0(^crit)

By combining eqs (9.3) and (9.4) the following expression for the critical heat flux
for a uniform heat flux profile is obtained:

[^crit(z)]u = ^-C 1<Pmax /(z) dz - (i? G (AisuB)i)/4] (9.9)

J
From the definition of F

~
A+C DG (Ai5UB)i/4 (9.10)
[<^CRlT(2)]nu
F+C I
<^’(z)/(^(zcRiT)dz

267
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The ratio l<}>(z)l<}>{zcRn)] in (9.8) and (9.10) may be replaced by [f{^)lf{zctin)\
and thus both integrals are functions of the flux profile only and can be evaluated
directly as a function of ?crit.
The value of the factor fi has been determined by fitting the method to experimental
data. Tong et of.^® found that was a function of both local steam quality x(zci,it)
and mass velocity G, thus

(9 . 11 )

where the mass velocity given in Ib/h.ft*. Smith et al.^° suggested that, for the
is

limited range of variables investigated in their tests(D 0-2285 in. (5-8 mm), p =
515 =
psia (35 bar), G = O-55-MOx 10^ lb/h.ft* (750-1500 kg/m* s)), n was constant and
equal to 0-59 Lee^* found, when correlating a large number of non-uniform
critical heat flux data, that Cl was well represented by

(9,12)

where K is a constant dependent on pressure: see Tabic 9.3

d is the dimensionless a.xial flux gradient taken at the point of average flux is
the upper part of the tube

-[S] [f]-
$ is the average heat flux over the tube length, L.

Table 94 OpUnuted valoes of K for Eq (9.12) and the correstxending

R.M.S error on ihe predicts!1 total cniical power (Lee** )

1000 1250 ISSO 1800 2000

38 4 1

49 84 107 1 124 138

K 3 67 500 398 3 59 2-48 103
R.M.S Error 394 718 88 578 527 8 30
% j j

To use the T-factor’ method to predict the critical heat flux for any given heat flux
profile and inlet condition the following procedure is recommended**:

(a) Define the heat flux profile in terms of the ratio (^(a)/?) with the tube divided into
zones about 2 in. (5 cm) long. Evaluate the integrals in cqs. (9.8) and (9.10) as a
function of a series of likely values of z^n- (9-12) is being used for fl
evaluate S.
(b) Select values of constants for the uniform heat flux correlation (Macbeth). Obtain
values of A and C
for the chosen values of pressure, mass velocity, and tube
diameter. Select appropriate value of /Tif eq. (9.12) is used and evaluate Cl.

(c) Use eqs. (9.8), (9.9), and (9.10) to obtain the predicted local critical heat flux
[^ciiit(^)]ou nt a series of values of along the tube.

268
 — 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

(d) Evaluate the ratio of the local predicted heat flux to the local operating heat flux
at each value of Zcrit
and obtain the minimum value of this ratio. This will provide
the margin of safety between the operating and critical heat flux conditions and
will also provide the location of the critical condition. Lee'^® recommends that a
safety factor of twice the R.M.S. error given in Table 9.3 should be applied to the
results to allow for uncertainties in predicted critical power.

To summarize, no completely general analytical method is available at present for

the prediction of the critical heat flux condition in tubes with a non-uniform axial
heat flux profile. The ‘f-factor’ method as proposed by Tong'*®' and as applied
by Lee'*® is recommended as the best purely empirical method for smooth non-uniform
axial heat flux profiles at the present time.

9.2.2 Step Changes in the Heat Flux Level Over Short Lengths
The second type of non-uniform heating occurs where there is a step change in the
level of heating over a short length or short lengths of the tube. This type of test is
commonly known as a ‘hot patch’ or ‘cold patch’ test. De Bortoli et al.^ report some
interesting experiments of this type carried out with a rectangular channel, 0-097 x
1-0x27 in. X 2-54 X 68-5 cm) with water at 2000 psia (138 bar). The initial
(0-248
26-625 cm) of the channel were at a uniform heat flux
in. (67-55 and the last 0-375
in. (0-95 cm) was operated at a heat flux (j>2 where the ratio (i^j/^j) was maintained at
1-98 through the tests. The results are shown in diagrammatic form in Fig. 9.1 where
the upper curve is 4)2 at the critical condition and the lower curve is the conesponding
magnitude of 4>i (= 4’2l^'^^)- Also shown on the diagram is the curve for the critical
heat flux against exit quality for a uniformly heated channel of the same total length
at the same exit conditions 4>3- At high exit subcoolings 4>2 = 4>3 and at high exit

qualities 4>i = 4>3- Clearly, for the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis to be valid, the curves
for 4>2 and 4>3 would need to be co-linear. Thus, it would appear from these tests that

the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis only likely to be approximately true in the highly
is

subcooled regions. It is also of interest to compare the ‘overall power’ from each
arrangement. For the uniformly heated channel the critical power is simply

W3=Pt4>3L (9.14)

where is the heated perimeter. For the channel with the ‘hot patch’ the critical

power, Wi + W2 is

W1 + W2 = Pu4>iiL-0-OUlL)+l-984>iPi,iOOmL) = 1-0138P (9.15)

If the ‘overall power’ concept discussed previously is applied then (JV1 + JV2) should
equal IV3 or comparing eq. (9.14) 4)i « 4>3.
and eq. (9.15), Figure 9.1 shows this to
be approximately true only at high exit steam qualities. Experiments carried out in
Italy®' with round tubes having a similar ‘hot patch’ arrangement have shown
that this concept of a constant critical channel power independent of heat flux distri-
bution, although approximately valid at high exit qualities for moderate value of the
ratio {4>2l4>i)> becomes increasingly incorrect as {4>2/4>i) is increased. Experiments®’®'
such as these have clearly demonstrated the inadequacy of the ‘local conditions’ and

269
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
‘overall power’ hypotheses as general statements. The results shown in Fig. 9.1 also
suggest the existence of at least two different mechanisms by which the critical condi-
—
tion is reached one for subcooled conditions and another at high qualities. The need
to consider (he influence of (he upstream heat flux profile in these ‘hot patch’ experi-
ments has led to the development of the ‘F-factor* methods*®' of dealing with non-
uniform heat flux profiles.
For the situation shown diagrammatically in Fig. 9.1 the factor f is given by the
ratio (<p3!<f>2) which varies from a value of unity at high subcooling to a value of

Fig. 9.1, Diagrammatic Display of Hot Patch Tests (De Bortoli et al.)

approximately 0-5 at high exit qualities. This type of variation for f can be calculated**
using the method outlined in section 9.2. 1 .3 with the value of fi given by eq. (9. 1 1).
It should be borne in mind that the value of F calculated from this method can be

either greater or less than unity depending on the particular heat flux profile. For a
symmetrical sine wave profile, Fmay typically take up values between 1 and 3.

Tests in which part of the channel was unheated are reported by Hewitt et
These authors report experiments at both 3*5 and 69 bar (50 and 1000 psia). For given
inlet conditions the unheated zone (‘cold patch’) was moved successively downstream

with respect to the iniet. Figure 9.2 iJluslrales some of the results obtained at 69 bar
(1000 psia). With the cold patch near the inlet end of the tube, the power to the critical
condition was close to that obtained for the same heated length with uniform heating.
However, as the cold patch was moved towards the downstream end of the tube the

270
 — 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

power increased sharply and could in fact be greater than that obtained for the same
total length with uniform heating.

9.2.3 Non-Uniform Circumferential Heat Flux Profile

The third type
of non-uniform heating is that in which there is a variation in heat
generation around the tube circumference—the axial heat flux profile is maintained

inches
40 80 120 160
250 i I I I
1 1 1

Distance between current clamps 4-27m(l4ft) ,

Inlet subcooling 30-6"C (55"F) /
Cold patch length 61cm (2 ft) /

Mass velocity 2720 kg /m^ /

12x10' Ib/hft^) V
^ I... ,>

a
-Critical power for 4'27m |14fl)
I 200 uniformly heated tube

-Critical power for 3-66m (12ft)

uniformly heated tube

Mass velocity 1360 kg/m^s .

(IxIO'lb/hft^l V*

150
0 10 20 30 40
Distance between upstream current clamp and start
of cold patch , m
Fig. 9.2. Variation of Critical Power with Position of Cold Patch for a 12-6 mm (0-497 in.)
Internal Diameter Tube at 69 bar (1000 psia)"’ (Data of Hewitt et al.)

uniform. Experiments of this type have been reviewed by Lee'^ and by Alekseev et al.^
The non-uniform circumferential heat generation was produced by passing a heavy
electrical current through the tube wall, the inside and outside diameters of which
were eccentric. In the experiments reported by Alekseev et alf three tubes 40 cm
(15-75 in.) long and 10 mm
(0-394 in.) i.d. having different eccentricities were used,
producing values of the ratio (i^max/?) of 1'12, 1-28, and 1-50. Allowance was made

271
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
for the circumferential conduction in the tube wall when calculating the heat flux
profile. The experimental results for each tube are shown in Fig. 9.3 for three diflcrent
pressures together with the results for a uniform tube of the same dimensions. It is
seen that, as the circumferential heat flux profile becomes more asymmetric, so the
average critical heat flux $ci.n (evaluated from the total power to the tube) falls. At

G«2000ltg/nn^ x(z)"0

-04 -03 -02 -Ot 0 Ot 02 0 t 2 3 4

Mass fraction Steam at exrt . x(z) G, Mass velocity (xKT^)

kg/m*s
Curve t 0Wkx /^ • 1 (uniform tube)
Curve 2 •• •• i 12
Curve 3 « 1 28
Curve 4 >1 M 1 50

Fig. 93, The Influence of Non-Unifonn Heating Around the Tube Circumference

high subcoolings the value of (^B(Ax)citiT for each of the eccentric tubes approximately
corresponds to the uniform tube value, As the exit steam mass fraction increases
so the average heat flux approaches the value for a uniform tube. These experiments
confirm the 'local’ nature of the critical condition at high subcoolings and the tendency
to an ‘overall power’ condition in the higher steam quality regions. It is recommended
that the ‘overall power’ hypothesis be used to calculate the critical power which can

272
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE PLOW 2
be applied to a tubular channel with a non-uniform
circumferential heat flux profile.
The power calculated should be reduced by 10 per cent
to cover the worst condition
(see section 9.2.1.2) for cases with
((/^max/^) between 1-0 and 1-5 and by 20 per cent
for cases with (^max/?) between 1-5 and 2-0.

9.3 The Critical Heat Flux in Non-Circular Geometries

A considerable amount of work has been carried out to determine critical
heat flux
values for a variety of non-circular ducts. Many of these geometries
are identical or
similar to the fuel channels in particular types of nuclear reactor. The
three most
common geometries, rectangular ducts, annular ducts, and multi-rod cluster assemblies
will be briefly considered.

9.3.1 Rectangular Channels

Table 9.4 lists the majority of the sources of available experimental data for uniformly
heated vertical rectangular channels. In many of the studies only the two longer sides
of the rectangle were heated. The critical heat flux appears to vary with the individual
independent variables in the same general manner as with round tubes. The linear
relation between the critical heat flux and the inlet subcooling is again evident.
Macbeth’^ has correlated the data available from De Bortoli et al.^ for channels
2-54cm (1 in.) in width and with spacings 1-27 mm
(0-050 in.) and 2-54 (0-100 in.). mm
These channels have three characteristic dimensions, viz., the flow width, an equivalent
heated width which measures 2-29 cm (0-9 in.), and the channel spacing, S. From these
figures the corresponding heat balance equation is

^(z) = 'suB)ij (9.16)

Comparing eq. (9.16) with the same equation for round tubes, it will be seen that the
tube diameter is replaced by 2-22 S, the heated equivalent diameter. The Macbeth
correlation then becomes

0-555 C‘ S (G X 10" ®) (A ism'll

—A +
‘
®
^CRIT X 10 (9.17)
1 + C^z

or,

^critX 10"® = A‘-0-555C'S(Gx 10-®)7fgX(z) (9.18)

where and are now unknown functions of S, G, and P. The units of (j) are
Btu/h.ft^, of G are Ib/ft^h, and of z and S are inches. The low mass velocity region
may be identified from Fig. 8.11 by using the ratio (z/2-22S) instead of (z/D). Experi-
mental data in the two regions were conelated in exactly the same manner as those
for round tubes. For the low mass velocity region,

(Gxl0-")(if,-KAis^;B)i)
^CRIT X 10 ® — 10-®)'-»
(9.19)
3-78 S“ (G X + l-8z/S
Macbeth compared eq. (9.19) with eq. (8.23) —the corresponding equation for round
273
AND CONDENSATION

(ATst,,
 2 :

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

is the hydraulic equivalent diameter given by (£)„- Z);); D,, is the heated equivalent
diameter given by — D-^)IDi. The correlation is in the British System of Units
and covers the following range of parameters:

A : 0-375 to 3-798 in. (0-952 to 9-65 cm)

Z?o- 0-551 to 4-006 in. (1-4 to 10-16 cm)

z: 24-0 to 108-0 in. (0-61 to 2-74 m)

G: 0-140 to 6-20 Ib/h.ft^ ( x 10"®) (190 to 8430 kg/m^ s)

(Aisub): : 0 to 412 Btu/lb (0 to 0-958 MJ/kg)

Equation from the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis

(9.24) represents a slight departure
(in which B is (G x 10"®) ). This modification resulted in a small but
fixed as 0-25 7)^
significant improvement in the R.M.S. error from 7-3 per cent to 5-9 per cent. As with
round tubes the local conditions hypothesis is not obeyed for annuli of short length
this is illustrated by the results of Alekseev et al} in experiments carried out at 98 bar

(1422 psia) in an internally heated annulus {D-, = 12 mm (0-472 in.), = 15 mm A

(0-590 in.) The critical heat flux increased with decreasing length at constant exit
).

conditions. As the heated length was decreased from 40 cm to 20 cm (15-75 in. to

7-88 in.) the critical heat flux at zero exit quality rose by a factor 1-16. When the heated
length was reduced to 10 cm (3-94 in.) the factor becomes 1-68. The effect appears to
start at about the same length to heated equivalent diameter ratio as for round tubes

(-70).
It is interesting to compare the data for internally heated annuli with similar data
for round tubes. Barnett® has carried out such an exercise and one example of his
results is shown in Fig. 9.5, which shows some data from reference (17) for an internally
heated annulus plotted as critical heat flux against inlet subcooling at a fixed mass
velocityand pressure. Also shown are data from Columbia University for round tubes
having diameters close to the value of the heated equivalent diameter and the hydraulic
equivalent diameter of the annulus.
It is not possible to relate round tube and annulus data using either of these two
equivalent diameter concepts.®
For pressures other than 69 bar (1000 psia), Barnett®'* suggests that eq. (9.24) may
be used with a slight modification, viz..

0CRIT
® — A{UJ6A9)+B{Msub)] (9.28)

where A, B, and C, are given by eqs. (9.25), (9.26), and (9.27) respectively and /fg is

the latent heat of vaporization at the pressure considered in Btu/lb. This procedure
appears satisfactory over the pressure range 41-5-96-5 bar (600-1400 psia). Below
and above 96-5 bar (1400 psia), the information
41-5 bar (600 psia) the data of Becker*®
given by Alekseev et be used to confirm the method.
al.^ may
One complicating factor with the internally heated annulus is the need to support
®- ®'*
he heated rod centrally in the unheated duct. It has been shown’- that these
•pports can transport liquid from the unheated outer wall to the inner heated wall.

277
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
annular channels with uniform heating on the internal surface. The critical heat flux
appears to vary qualitatively in the same general manner as for round tubes. The
critical heat flux may be assumed to be a function of six independent variables thus

= /(C.(A kuB>i.P. 0„ /)., 2) (9.22)

where Di and D„ are the internal and external diameters of the annulus respectively.
In a similar manner to that used for round tubes, and providing the annulus is
reasonably long, the critical heat flux in uniformly heated annuli can be correlated in
terms of the exit mass quality only*"* and the variables of length and inlet subcooling

Inlel £i£)COOlng, Btu/lb

Prvssura •ObarOOOSpsU)
4[- Mass vrtodty-980kg^ I072«0‘
Rcctar<guUrOjct>5}3cm>5cm xSton
120ln sStn x77n.) 4.1

1 « 4 $ •oeiSemtqzSin.) 6atMa<qttilnh»4t«<i
\\
Oarmr
montOSn)
dAmrUr
montOISkvl
'to

OB
i
1
3

-S

• S •177cm {050nJ . - « - 254or<|10iv) 2 06emlUatrtl

'5
05 5i«an(2-0*i) 2<ecm(08Tin)

_L _1_
SO KD SO 020 020 040 (

Inl9t subcoolrtg . kj/kg Exit quality . mass fraction steam

Fig. 9A. Influence of Heated Equivalent Diameter

are eliminated except in their influence in determining the exit mass quality from the
heat balance equation. Thus

=/(G, xiz), p. D„ DJ (9.23)

The data for annuli can be correlated hy means of a Macbeth-type correlation and
this has been done by Barnett.’^ The correlation is as follows:

(9.24)

where for a pressure of 69 bar (1000 psia)

A= 67-45 V®" (Gx 10“*)'’ [I-0-744exp{-6-512 D.CGxlO"®))] (9.25)

B = 0-2587 X>p‘ (Cx 10'*)° (9.26)

C= 185 0 D/ (G X 10' Y *’* (9-27)

276
 : 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

is the hydraulic equivalent diameter given by (Z)„-Z)j): is the heated equivalent
diameter given by The correlation is in the British System of Units
and covers the following range of parameters

£»; : 0-375 to 3-798 in. (0-952 to 9-65 cm)

D„: 0-551 to 4-006 in. (1-4 to 10-16 cm)
a: 24-0 to 108-0 in. (0-61 to 2-74 m)
G: 0-140 to 6-20 Ib/h.ft^ ( x 10"®) (190 to 8430 kg/m^ s)

(Aisub);: 0 to 412 Btu/lb (0 to 0-958 MJ/kg)

Equation (9.24) represents a slight departure from the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis
(in which B is fixed as 0-25 7)^ (Gx 10“®) ). This modification resulted in a small but
significant improvement in the R.M.S. error from 7-3 per cent to 5-9 per cent. As with
round tubes the local conditions hypothesis is not obeyed for annuli of short length:
this is illustrated by the results of Alekseev et al.^ in experiments carried out at 98 bar

(1422 psia) in an internally heated annulus (Dj = 12 mm (0-472 in.), = 15 mm

(0-590 in.) ). The critical heat flux increased with decreasing length at constant exit
conditions. As the heated length was decreased from 40 cm to 20 cm (15-75 in. to
7-88 in.) the critical heat flux at zero exit quality rose by a factor 1-16. When the heated
length was reduced to 10 cm (3-94 in.) the factor becomes 1-68. The eflfect appears to
start at about the same length to heated equivalent diameter ratio as for round tubes
(~70).
It is interesting to compare the data for internally heated annuli with s imil ar data
for round tubes. Barnett® has carried out such an exercise and one example of his
results is shown in Fig. 9.5, which shows some data from reference (17) for an internally
heated annulus plotted as critical heat flux against inlet subcooling at a fixed mass
velocity and pressure. Also shown are data from Columbia University for round tubes
having diameters close to the value of the heated equivalent diameter and the hydraulic
equivalent diameter of the annulus.
It is not possible to relate round tube and annulus data using either of these two
equivalent diameter concepts.®
For pressures other than 69 bar (1000 psia), Barnett®'* suggests that eq. (9.24) may
be used with a slight modification, viz..

1 ..in-6 ^ (ifg/649)+B(AisuB)i
(9.28)

where A, B, and C, are given by eqs. (9.25), (9.26), and (9.27) respectively and is

the latent heat of vaporization at the pressure considered in Btu/lb. This procedure
appears satisfactory over the pressure range 4T5-96-5 bar (600-1400 psia). Below
41 -5 bar (600 psia) the data of Becker*® and above 96-5 bar (1400 psia), the information
given by Alekseev et al.^ may be used to confirm the method.
One complicating factor with the internally heated annulus is the need to support
*’ ®‘*
the heated rod centrally in the unheated duct. It has been shown’’ that these

supports can transport liquid from the unheated outer wall to the inner heated wall.

277
 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

minimum to average gap
and the ratio of average gap to rod diameter are decreased.
If both of these ratios are greater than 0-25 the effect is probably small.^'^
Experiments to determine the critical heat flux for the internal surface of an annulus
in which the outer wall is also heated produce interesting results.’’ At a fixed
mass velocity, pressure, and exit quality there is an apparent augmentation of the
critical heat flux which is almost proportional to the heat flux on the outer surface.
However, for a fixed inlet quality, there may be little or no effect of the outer surface
heat flux on the critical heat flux for the inner surface.’
It can be postulated therefore

that there is little or no interaction between the two surfaces and that the heat passed
to the two-phase mixture through the outer wall serves only to increase the bulk
enthalpy of the stream without affecting the critical condition on the inner surface. In
certain instances the secondary heating may have an
indirect effect on the primary
surface.^® For example, the increased bulk stream enthalpy wilt result in an increased
local gas velocity and local pressure gradient which in turn will cause nucleation in
the liquid film on the primary surface to be suppressed earlier. This, as will be noted
in a later section, can influence the critical heat flux for the primary surface.

9.3.3 Rod Clusters

In water-cooled nuclear power reactors the fuel element is often in the form of a
cluster of small diameter rods spaced one from another by spirally wrapped wires or
by grid type spacers. A considerable number of electrically heated models of such
fuel elements have been tested in various laboratories and the detailed results have
been compiled, correlated and discussed by Macbeth^® and Barnett.
Macbeth’® applied the ‘local conditions’ hypothesis to a selection of the uniformly
heated vertical rod bundle data and obtained the following relationships for A, B,
and C for substitution into eq. (9.24) for 69 bar (1000 psia) only

A= 67-6 V'” (Gx 10"®)®’*’’

B = 0’25 (GxlO-®)
" (9.29)
and
C = 47-3 (Gx 10”®)° ”

Recent work has shown that correlations for internally heated annuli can be applied
directly to the prediction of the critical heat flux in rod bundles. For
instance,

Barnett®'^’ ®® shows that his annulus correlation, eq. (9.24) predicts a

wide range of
rod bundle data with remarkable accuracy. For rod bundles the values of D-, and D„
are defined as follows for use in eqs. (9.24)-(9.27).

‘equivalent’ Rj = Dr, the rod diameter (inches)

‘equivalent’ = [Rr (Rr + Rs*)]^ (inches)
4 X ( Flow area)
where Rh ^ ""
s x (heated rod perimeter)
and 5 = 1.^
rods

279
 CONVECTIVE SOILING AND CONDENSATION
{ is the ratio of the heat flux on a rod to the maximum heat flux in the bundle. If all
rods carry the same heat flux, = /),; the definition of D^,* ensures that the rod
bundle and the ‘equivalent* annulus have the same exit quality if the maximum heat
flux in the bundle is the same as the critical heat flux for the equivalent annulus. This
finding suggests that the internally heated annulus may be regarded as a rod bundle
having only one rod.

9.4 Critical Heat Flux in Forced Flow of Fluids Other Than Water

Table 9.6 gives a fair selection of the available sources of experimental data on the
heat flux taken under forced convection conditions for various organic liquids,
critical

cryogenic fluids,**’ *’ and liquid metals. Apart from the work of Stevens ei oi^° the
studies have been somewhat limited in scope. The very comprehensive set of experi-
ments on Freon^° have shown that this fluid, at least, behaves qualitatively in an
identical way to water. The data for both the cryogenic fluids^® and the liquid metals^*
clearly show that as the mass velocity and diameter are reduced or the tube length
increased so the critical heat flux approaches that needed for complete evaporation
of the fluid— the low mass velocity region.
A number of attempts base been made to produce empirical correlations applicable
to both water and other fluids. None of these correlations can be recommended for
general use. It is suggested that where limited experimental data are available it should
be possible to construct an approximate correlation using the ‘local conditions
hypothesis' and following the method used by Macbeth to correlate the data for water.
An attempt to determine the relevant physical properties and a set of scaling laws
for the critical heat flux condition has been made at A.E.E., Winfriih.”’ ** Barnett’*
discusses which of thenumerous physical property terms are likely to be important,
and goes on to develop appropriate dimensionless property groupings. A number of
hypothetical relationships between these groupings have been examined using the
experimental data for water and Freon.’*' ” None of the relationships so far tested
is entirely satisfactory, although one set of laws, eq. (9.30), docs appear to be near the
truth.

where

(9.M)
dp
Using scaling factors obtained empirically*® from round tube critical beat flux data
for water and Freon 12, Stevens and Wood” haw been able directly to relate critical
heat flux data for the two fluids taken in other more complex geometries including a
rod cluster.

9.5 Critical Heat Fluxes for the Case Where Hiere is a Liquid-Vapour Mixture at
the Channel Inlet

A considerable amount of experimental data for the critical heat flux exists in the
 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

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non-uniform

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Annulus
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Tube Tube Tube Tube Tube
heating)
Tube Tube
Annulus

Tube
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heating) AV3
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Tube Tube Tube Tube
1- H
experimental

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R alcohol
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c
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Hydrogen
Potassium
Potassium

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Ammonia Ammonia Nitrogen
Diphenyl Santowax Santowax
Sodium
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Ethyl

9.6 and
II So £

Table
S
Ob

Date
(1962)
f (1965)
n
(26) ^2 (1966)

'O (1959) •o
(1958)

g (1962)
(1964) (1965)
(57) *>
o
(1963)

Ob C\
Reference,

(1957)
(25)
Lurie
s
Ob (1964) (30) (56) Wood
2 (58)
(59)
(22)

<s 1 (29)
•a
(1964)

al.
at.
(24)
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c
a S.
(55)
a el
Source,
C2
r4
1 al.
e/ et
and

e (32)
et
4) et
S W.
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Robinson ¥l Povarin Stevens Stevens
Barnett
Jo Aladyev
TippelJ

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1 Lewis

X
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z Z a o
281
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
published Utcralurt for the case where there is a liquid-vapour mixture at the channel
inlet. Up about 1965 it was common to consider these data together with data
until
obtained by evaporation of subcooled liquids. However, it is now clear that a distinc-
tion must be made between these two types of experiments. Just as with the data for
the evaporation of subcoolcd liquids, it is important to establish whether the conditions
in tbe heated channel are hydrodynamically stable or not.
In general, the critical heat flux results obtained by mixing tbe two phases at the
channel inlet under stable flow conditions are higher at a given exit quality, A:(r) than

Pressure • 98bar ( M20 psia)

Massvelocity- 750kg/fn*s
(0 55x10= I

Tube d • 8fTim (0 315in)

i

Approx location of transiticn

beoA^en single and two-

-04 -02 0 02 04 06 OB 10
Steam mass fraction at exit, x(z)

Fig. 9.6. Russian Data for Cntical Heat Flux vs Exit Quality (Stynkovich el a/.**)

those obtained using a subcooled inici. This type of behaviour has been obscncd by
Styrikovich et o/.^* who measured the critical heat flux in a uniformly heated tube for
a wide range of conditions with both subcooled water and steam-water mixtures at
the lube inlet. The type of result obtained for the Jia6/e system is illustrated in Fig. 9.6
and it will be seen that there arc considerable increases in critical heat flux at short
lengths when there is a steam-water mixture at the tube inlet. For these short lengths
the lines appear to be continuous from the subcooled inlet case. A similar effect has
been noted at AERE Harwell These results arc illustrated in Fig. 9.7 where some
of the Harwell data for CHF in an annulus arc compared with values calculated
from a correlation of the data of Janssen et of which were obtained using a subcooled
Inlet. It will be observed that the Harwell data lie somewhat above the calculated line

282
 '

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 2

for a subcooled inlet and the differences increase with decreasing
heated length. It is
obvious from these comparisons that a mere statement of the local
thermodynamic
quality is insufficient to define the critical condition and the ‘local conditions’ hypo-
thesis breaks down completely.

1
1 \ I
1 1 20
Pressure - 69 bar ( 1000 psia)
Mass velocity ”2040 kg/m%
(1 5x10^ lb/hft^)(nominal) — 18
V D, -0'952cm(0-375in)
\ D„-1-590cm(0-625in) V AERE Harwell results
D(, “1*700 cm (0-667 in) ^for steam- water inlet — '

e conditions AERE-R 3961

oj

Wx -1

— \\ \
Vv
\
\

'\ -1
D
E
Heated length
$ \ A
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X
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-6
/\ '
'.(z/D. -2i;
/ X. ' -4
— /
/ V
X
N
^ '^Jz/D. 73-5cm(29in)
-43-5J
Equivalent curve for 'n
subcooled water inlet conditions ' _ 2
evaluated from AERE correlation of
G.E. San Jose data 2..2
54m(100in) Iz/Df^a 150)
1 1 1 L_ 1 1 lo
- 0-2 -01 0 0-1 0 2 0 3 0-4 05 06
Steam mass fraction at exit

Fig. 9.7. Comparison of AERE Data with AERE Correlation of G.E. Data

It seems highly unlikely that a satisfactory correlation of data taken with vapour-
liquid mixtures at the channel inlet will be possible since the results most certainly will
also be a function of the method of injection of the phases. The possible exception to
this conclusion is the case where the steam-water mixture at entry to the test section

is generated in a low heat flux boiler/preheater as in the tests at C.I.S.E.*^ In this

283
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
instance it may be possible to consider the test section as a ‘hot*patch’ on a very much
longer heated assembly.

9.6 Critical Heat Flux Under Dynamic Conditions

9.6.1 Unstable Hydrodynamic Conditions

It has been found that under certain circumstances the hydraulic characteristics of
the experimental equipment in which the critical heat flux data are obtained can have
a marked elTect on the value of the critical heat flux. This was first emphasized by
workers in the USSR*^ who found it necessary to divide their results into two classes
depending on whether they were taken under ‘pulsating* or ‘non*pulsating’ conditions.
The ‘pulsating* region manifested itself in either stable or divergent oscillations of
pressure and flow-rate. It is believed that these disturbances have their origin in the
heated section but that they arc amplified by the presence of upstream compressible
volumes. The presence of these oscillations drastically reduces the critical heat flux.
A detailed account of the phenomena associated with the critical heat flux under
these unstable conditions is given in reference (7). Maulbetsch and Griffith*® have
shown that it is possible to predict the initiation of oscillatory instability if the
pump and and the amount of compressibility upstream of the
circuit charactenstics
heated section are known. A
cntical slope of the overall pressure drop versus mass
flow-rate curve can be found and (he associated frequency of the instability computed.
Agreement between the proposed analytical model and the available expenmental
data including that of Styrikovich et was very good.

9.6.2 Transient Conditions

In many instances it is necessary to change the operating conditions of an oil-fired

boiler or a nuclear reactor whilst the unit is at power. Consideration must also be
given to possible fault conditions resulting from, for example, a loss of electrical
supplies to the pumps or, m the case of a nuclear reactor, a reactivity accident. In each
case it will be necessary to assess the likelihood of the critical heat flux being exceeded
during the ensuing flow or power transient. It is normal to assume that, during a
transient, the critical heat flux will be exceeded when the ‘local instantaneous condi-
tions* are equivalent to those causing its occurrence under steady state conditions.
The only published works dealing with the occurrence of the critical heat flux under
transient conditions are a limited study by Tong et in support of a particular
reactor design and a more extensive study by Moxon and Edwards.^"^ This latter study
involved tests on both uniformly heated and non-uniformly heated round tubes up
to 3-66 m (12 ft) long and on a 37 rod cluster simulating a nuclear reactor fuel element.
Flow transients were initiated by tripping the drculator, the flow being halved in less
than 0*5 second. Instantaneous increases in power to the test section were brought
about by switching from a dummy load. This resulted, in one particular test, in the
power to the coolant rising to 1'3 times its initial value in 0-2 second.
Theoretical predictions of the time taken to exceed the critical heat flux after the
startof the transient were made. These predictions were based on the assumption that
the critical heat flux during a transient occurs at the instant the local conditions are

284
 2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW —

equivalent to those causing its occurrence under steady state conditions. The local

hydraulic conditions at positions along the heated length were evaluated from the
measured inlet flow and the non-steady equations of conservation of mass and energy.
The local heat flux to the coolant was determined using the transient heat conduction
equations. The results of the comparison between the predicted times and experimental
times show that in all cases the critical heat flux occurs later than predicted. The delay
between the predicted and experimental times varies between 0 and 0-4 second in
Moxon and Edwards’ tests.
It is therefore recommended that consideration of the likelihood of the CHF being

exceeded during a flow or power transient be based on the ‘local instantaneous con-
ditions’ approach outlined above.
A more refined approach to transients will only come from a consideration of the
equations describing the mechanism of the critical heat flux. For example, Kirby and
Leslie’® have assumed an annular film flow model (sec section 9.7) and have written
down the time varying equations describing the liquid film flow-rate. Unfortunately
no useful comparisons with experimental data can be made at the present time.

9.7 The Mechanism of the Critical Heat Flux Condition

9.7.1 Subcooled Critical Heat Flux
Relatively little is known about the mechanism of the critical heat flux condition under
forced convection subcooled conditions. Interpretation of experiments with non-
uniform heating confirm that the conditions local to the point of overheating govern
the occurrence of the critical condition. Visual studies carried out by Kirby, Staniforth,
and Kinneir®® showed that the layer adjacent to the heating surface exhibited four
characteristic types of behaviour in order of increasing flux at a given subcooling
(Fig. 9.8):

(a) heat transfer without boiling;

(b) a region of independent bubble formation (‘partial’ boiling);
(c) a region of bubble coalescence (‘fully developed nucleate boiling’);
(d) a region of large vapour bubbles.

This picture is entirely consistent with the behaviour detailed

in chapter 6.

In the ‘nucleate boiling’ region the bubbles grow and collapse at the wall whilst at
lower subcoolings bubbles coalesce to form much larger voids. TTierc is an interesting
change of slope of the critical heat flux curve ABC at the point where the boundary
DE between the region of ‘wall voidage’ and ‘bulk voidage coincides with the critical
heat flux line. At subcoolings higher than SO’C (55°F) for the conditions of Fig. 9.8
the critical condition is truly a local one.
It was suggested of the critical condition at low sub-
in reference (36) that the onset
the large vapour
coolings corresponded to the drj'ing up of a liquid film under one of
investigated the validity of this mechanism
bubbles. In later experiments, Kirby ct al.

by measuring the conductance between the heating surface and the flowing
electrical
moreover, it
liquid. The results were inconsistent with the proposed mechanism and,
could occur in the nucleate
was found in further visual studies that the critical condition

285
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
boiling region in the absence of largevapour bubbles. Kirby, Staniforth, and Kinneir
suggest that a possible mechanism for the onset of the critical condition in the sub-
cooled region is the spreading of a dry patch following microlayer evaporation under
a nucleate boiling bubble; then h no confirmation of this suggestion.

Fig. 9.8. Flow Regime Plot for Low J*rcssuTe Water (Kirby et aL)

A further hypothesis, proposed by Kutateladzc’* and extended by Tong’* considers

the departure from subcooled nucleate boiling (DNB-subcooled) to be the result of
separation of the hydrodynamic boundary layer. Kutateladze’* has suggested an

286
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 2
analogy between the phenomenon of boundary layer separation induced
by the injec-
tion of gas into a flowing liquid through a porous wall and the
critical heat flux
condition in subcooled boiling. Flow stagnation will occur under the separated
bound-
ary layer which could result in vapour blanketing. This line of approach
appears
promising but the hypothesis has not to date been confirmed.

9.7.2 The Critical Heat Flux Condition in the Saturated Region

Considerably more is known about the mechanism of ‘dryout’ in the higher quality
regions. By making measurements of the on a heated surface at
liquid film flow-rate
various points along the channel in which water was being evaporated, Hewitt et
ai}'!’^^ were able to study the motion of liquid to and from the liquid film and, in
particular, demonstrate that the critical heat flux condition occurred when the flow-
rate of the liquid film on the heated surface fell to zero. In the initial experiments,
steam flowed between a glass tube and an electrically heated rod; a liquid film was
introduced on to the rod through a porous wall section and the film flow-rate at the
end of the heated rod was determined by sucking off the film through a further porous
wall section. The film flow-rate at the end of the heated section was found to be
function of the power supplied to the rod (Fig. 9.9). The approach to zero film flow-
rate was gradual and occurred as a result of the loss of water along the rod by evapora-
tion, by entrainment of droplets from the surface waves on the liquid film and by
entrainment resulting from the bursting through the film surface of bubbles generated
by nucleate boiling on the wall. These loss mechanisms appeared to be only slightly
compensated for by redeposition of droplets from the steam core. It was deduced,
therefore, that the critical heat flux phenomenon was governed by the interaction of
—
the above mechanisms along the entire heated section an ‘integral’ phenomenon.
Hewitt^® applied the concepts derived in this work to the development of a method
of representing critical heat flux data using the channel exit quah’ty x-(z) and the boiling
length, ZsAT, as co-ordinates (see chapter 8). Bertoletti et al? using similar arguments
regarding the integral nature of the critical condition at high qualities, have proposed
a general correlation of these two dependent variables.
In later work Hewitt et al.^^ confirmed that the liquid film flow-rate tends to zero at
the critical condition for the more important case of a subcooled liquid at the channel
inlet.By making measurements of the liquid film flow-rate at the channel exit as a
function of channel length and power, a complete picture of the conditions occurring
along a long tube was constructed.
Consider the conditions when a mixture of steam and water is introduced into a
long unheated tube to produce an annular flow pattern. If the tube is long enough and
the effects of acceleration due to the presence of a pressure gradient are neglected,
then the flow will become ‘fully developed’ and reach a hydrodynamic equilibrium in
which the rate of deposition of droplets from the steam core approximately matches
the rate of entrainment of liquid from the annular film. Under these conditions the
amount of liquid entrained in the steam core will remain constant with length and an
equilibrium distribution of water between the steam core and the liquid film will be
set up. This is illustrated in Fig. 9.10 where the equilibrium flow-rate of liquid
entrained in the steam core is plotted (as curve ABC) for a particular set of exit
287
 CONVECTIVE BOILINO AND CONDENSATION
conditions ngainst the quality of the sleam-wattr mixture introduced into the tube.
Also shown is the total water flow-rate in the tube (DE); the difference between cur\'cs
ABC and DE is the flow-rate in the liquid film.
Now consider the heated system. If the conditions at every axial location in the
heated tube correspond to the ‘fully developed’ state at the corresponding quality in
the unheated lube then the amount of liquid entrained in the steam core will increase

Fig. 9S Effect of Power on Film Flow-Rate on a Healed Rod in an Annulus (Results of

Hewitt, K.eancy, Lacey, and Pullmg’’)

up to an axial location corresponding to the roaximura (point B). Deposition of

droplets onto the film would occur in the higher parts of the tube (region BQ
and
dryout would take place at ~ 100 per cent quality. Oearly this is not the true picture.
Hewitt et al}'' initially postulated that entrainment was fairly rapid but that
deposition was a rather slow process. In this instance the entrained liquid flow-rate
in the lower parts of the tube would follow cittve AB rather closely until the maximum
at B. Since deposition was regarded as a slow process the entrained liquid Bow-rate

2S8
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 2
tended to remain constant (curve ABC') or decrease only slowly (curve
ABC") with
further increase in steam quality. Dryout (i.e., liquid film flow-ratC'+O)
would now
occur at x' or x". Although this postulate was plausible, it was found in the later
series
of measurements^® that the measured entrained liquid flow-rates in the lower part of
the heated tube were considerably lower than the equilibrium value. Clearly neither
entrainment nor deposition occurs rapidly. The measured relationships for the tube

Local quality, per cent

Fig. 9.10. Entrained Phase Flow-rate as a Function of Local Quality (Hewitt et al}^)

lengths of 2-44 m (8 ft) and 1-22 m (4 ft) are shown in Fig. 9.10. The observed approxi-
mately constant exit quality at the dryout condition is the result of two effects the
longer tube having a higher entrainment flow-rate and also a higher deposition rate.
Many of the diflering effects observed with non-uniform heating and mentioned
earlier can be qualitatively explained^^ using Fig. 9.10. For example the introduction
of a short unheated length into the heated section will produce different effects
depending on whether it is placed in a location before or after that corresponding to
quality remains
point B in the tube. If it is placed before B then, although the steam
attempts
constant across the cold patch, liquid entrainment will continue as the flow
to become ‘fully developed’. Thus the effect of the cold patch can be shown on Fig.

289
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
9.10 by the vertical line XY. Likewise, if it is placed after B then deposition occurs at
constant quality and the effect is Illustrated by the vertical line UV. Another example
is the linear decreasing heal flux profile*’ which has a short length over which entrain-
ment may take place and a long length for deposition to occur giving a higher steam
quality at dryout. Efforts arc now being turned to the accurate prediction of the
equilibrium entrainment curve for the unhcated case and, secondly, to the correlation*’
of the rates of entrainment or deposition with the system parameters. Only when this
is achieved will it be possible to predict the influence of any particular non-uniform

heating profile.
Kirby*’ has reviewrcd some of the early attempts to produce a quantitative theory
for dryout in annular flow. All of these attempts have suffered from an incomplete
knowledge mechanism and, secondly, the form of the variation of
of, firstly, the true
the entrainment and deposition functions with the main parameters.
The starting point for almost all of these attempts has been the mass balance equa-
tion for a small increment of length dr:

dz
M (9.32)

where IF, is the film flow-rate/uoil perimeter of heated surface

z is the axial co-ordioate
M is the rate of droplet deposition
and E is the rate of liquid entrainment

It has been shown*’-*’-**’*’ that, if the rate of change of film flow-rate with
length just upstream of the point considered tends to or is zero (dlF,/d 2 -+ 0) either

because of evaporation (as with a cosine heating geometry for which the critical heat
flux location is upstream of the end of the heater*’-**-*’) or because the film is

deliberately disrupted (e.g., by a physical gap in the heating surface**) then

^^M-E (9.33)

It has already been established in chapter 3 that as the film thickness and film flow-rate
in annular flow decrease so the entraiomeot also decreases (i.e., £-*0) and for this

particular condition

(9.34)
'Vg

made use of eq. (9.34) to evaluate

Collier et a/.** M
for an internally heated annulus
with somewhat ill-defined flow conditions. More recently Hewitt*’ and also Kirby*’
have used data from cosine heat flux lubes with the critical condition located up-
stream of the end of the heater to provide a correlation for Af. Kirby’s®’ correlation
for M
is of the form,

(9.35)

where
X'='Pi(GxlO~*)^> (9.36)

290
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 2
and
B' = (G X lO"®)”" (9.37)

No data are available on how E varies with Wj and so Kirby®^ postulated the simple
relation

4eB'
£=C Wi = Wt (9.38)

and that
ir, = 0 at X = 0 (9.39)

i.e., that the film flow-rate is zero at the start of the annular flow region. Although
the film flow-rate is zero at this point, it is arbitrarily assumed that this does notproduce

Tabic 9.7 Constants in cqs. (9.36) and (9.37)

Water Freon 12
69 bar (1000 psia) 10-7 bar (155 psia)

p, 0-003884 0-002161
Pj -0-263 -0-263
pj -0-363 -0-363
0 00377 000278
Ps +0-318 +0-318

British System of Units; D measured in ft

a critical condition. The condition under which dry'out can occur at x= 0 is, from
eq. (9.32) and (9.35), remembering that IK, = 0, £= 0

(^crit)(x=o) = *fg (9.40)

The equation governing the film flow-rate with length is then, from eqs. (9.32),

(9.35),and (9.40),
/ 4 c\

Equation (9.41) can be integrated along the tube and the lowest power supplied to
the tube at which \Vf passes through zero is taken as the critical power. The values of

Pi .. .Ps are given in Table 9.7.

The value of e was taken as TO. Very good agreement was obtained between this
model and uniform heat flux data (R.M.S. error 4-7 per cent), non-uniform data
(R.M.S. error 6‘4 per cent), and Hewitt’s*^ linear decreasing flux profile data (R.M.S.
error 4-7 per cent), all at 69 bar (1000 psia).
The model predicts an absolute maximum critical heat flux at 69 bar (1000 psia)

which can be achieved for any profile of

1 „7. .
(^'sub).')
G(^x„, -F
(^cr.t)max =4 j
10'®)'
where x„ = {A' IB') = 0-418 (Gx
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Comparison of the model with cold patch experiments reported by Hewitt e(
suggests that c should lie betueen I and 1*5. With a value of £ » 1*5 the model was
able to predict the slight increase in channel power as the cold patch was moved
towards the downstream end of the channel (Fig. 9.2).
Models of this type**’ will continue to be developed and extended as our know-
ledge of the variation of Af and E with system parameters is increased.

References

1. Casterline, J.E. ‘Burnout In long vertical lubes with uniform and cosine heating using
water at 1000 psia’. Topical Rep. No. t . Task XVI Columbia University 1964 (TID 21031)
also Topical Rep. No, 3 ‘Second experimental study of dryout in a long vertical tube with
a cosine heat flux*.
2. Lee, D. H. and Obertelli, 3. D. ‘An experimental investigation of forced convection
burnout In high pressure water— PL IP. AEEW-R 309 (1963).
3. Lee, D. H. ‘An experimentat investigation of forced convection burnout in high pressure
water—Pt. III*. AEEW-R 355 (1965).
4. Swenson, H. S., Carver, J, R., and Kakarala, C. R. The influence of axial heat flux
distribution on the departure from nucleate boiling in a water-cooled tube*. Paper
presented to the Winter Annual Meeting of the ASME, Nov. 1962, New York. Paper
62-WA-297 (1962).
5. Barnett, P. G. ‘The prediction of burnout m non-uniformly heated rod clusters from
burnout data for uniformly heated round lubes*. AEEW-R 362 (1964).
6. De BoroU, R. A. el at. 'Foroed convection heat transfer burnout studies for water In
rectangular channels and round lubes at pressures above 500 p s.i.a.'. WAP]>188 (1958).
7. BeRoIeiti, S. ei at. ‘Heat transfer crisis with steam-water mixtures’. Energia Nucleare,
U (3), 121-172(1965).
8. Alekseev, O. V. et at. ‘Burnout heal fluxes under forced flow*. Paper presented by
USSR Third Int. Conf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Aug. 1964.
at the
AiCONF.28/P/327a.
9. Mm. Final and Saunter. 'Determination of cniical heat fluxes at different pressures
between 80 and 140 atmospheres in a rectangular channel heated either uniformly or
non-uniformly’ E.A.E.A. Symposium on Two-Phase flow, Studsvik, Sweden, 1-3 Oct.
1963.
and flow patterns in high pressure boiling water flows*.
10. Tippets, F. E. 'Critical heat fluxes
Paper presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the ASME, New York, Paper No.
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11. Levy, S., Fuller, R. A. and Niemi, R. O. 'Heal transfer to water in thin rectangular
channels’. J. of Heat Transfer, 81 (2). 129 (1959).
12. Gambill, W. R. and Bundy, R. D ‘HFIR Heat transfer studies of turbulent water flow
in thin regular channels’. ORNL 3079 (1961).
13. Troy, M. 'Upflow burnout data for water at 2000, 1200, 800 and 600 psia in vertical
0 070 in. X 2-25 in x 72 in. long stainless steel rectangular charuiels.* WAPD-TH-408
(1958).
14. Kafengauz, N. L. and Bauarov, 1. D. The effect of the height of a flat aperture on the
transformation of heat into water*. Teploonergeiika (3), 76-78 (1959) quoted in «f. (12).
15. Zenkevich, B. A. et al. 'The effect of channel geometry on the cntical heat loads in forced
flow of water*. Tepioenergeuka 9 (7), 81-83 (1962). AEC-tr-5538.
16. Becker, K. M. and Hemborg, G. ‘Measurements of burnout conditions for flow of
boiling water in an annulus*. Paper presented at 6th National Heat Transfer Conference
(ASME-AIChE), Boston, Aug. 1963. ^pet 63-HT-25.
17. Janssen, E., Levy, S., and Kervinen, J. A. 'Investigations of burnout in an internally

292
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 2
heated annulus cooled by water at 600 to 1400 p.s.i.a.’. Paper presented at Winter
Annual
Meeting of ASME, Philadelphia, Nov. 1963 {63-WA-149) (see also GEAP 3899
(1963) ).
18. Bennett, A. W., Collier, J. G., and Kearsey, H. A. ‘Heat transfer to mixtures
of high
pressure steam and water in an annulus’. Pt. IV. AERE-R 3961 (1964).
19. Collier, J. G., Lacey, P. M. C., and Pulling, D. J. ‘Heat Transfer to two-phase gas-liquid
systems—Pt. III’. AERE-R 3960 (1964).
20. Macbeth, R. V. ‘Burnout analysis Part— 5. Examination of published world data for rod
bundles’. AEEW-R 358 (1964).
21. Noel, M. B. ‘Experimental investigation of heat-transfer characteristics of hydrazine and
a mixture of 90% hydrazine and 10% ethylenediamine’. JPL Tech. Report No. 32-109
(June 1961).
22. Hines, W. S. ‘Forced convection and peak nucleate boiling heat transfer characteristics
for hydrazine flowing turbulently in a round tube at pressures to 1000 psia’. Rocketdyne
—
Report R.2059 (Aug. 1959).
23. Noel, M. B. ‘Experimental investigation of the forced convection and nucleate boiling
heat transfer characteristics of liquid ammonia’. JPL Tech. Report No. 32-125 (July 1961).
24. Dimmock, T. H. ‘Heat transfer properties of anhydrous ammonia’. Reaction Motors,
No. RMI-124-S1 (June 1957).
25. Core, T. C. and Sato, K. ‘Determination of burnout limits of polyphenyl coolants’.
IDO-28007(1958).
26. Robinson, J. M. and Lurie, H. ‘Critical heat flux for some polyphenyl coolants’. Paper
presented at 55th Annual Meeting of AIChE, Chicago, Dec. 1962. Preprint 156.
27. Birdseye, D. E. ‘Experimental investigation of heat transfer characteristics of liquid
nitrogen tetroxide’. JPL Tech. Report No. 32-37 (Oct. 1960).
28. Gambill, W. R. and Bundy, R. D. ‘High flux heat transfer characteristics of pure ethylene
glycol’. Paper No. 2, AIChE Nat. Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif. (Feb. 1962).
29. Lewis, J. P. et al. ‘Boiling heat transfer to liquid hydrogen and nitrogen in forced flow’.
NASA-TN-D-1314 (1962).
30. Stevens, G. F. ‘An experimental investigation into forced convection burnout in
et al.
Freon, with reference to burnout in water’. AEEW-R 321 (1964).
31. Hoffman, H. W, and Krakoviak, A. I. ‘Convective boiling with liquid potassium’. Paper
presented at 1964 Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics Institute. Stanford Univ. (1964).
32. Lurie, H. Atomics International Progress Reports NAA-SR-10501 and NAA-SR-10850
(1964); see also report to 1966 Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Chicago, Paper 160.
33. Barnett, P. G. ‘The scaling of forced convection boiling heat transfer’. AEEW-R 134
(1963).
34. Barnett, P. G. ‘An experimental investigation to determine the scaling laws of forced
convection boiling heat transfer Pt. I’. AEEW-R 363 (1964).
35. Styrikovich, M. A., Miropolsky, Z. L., Shitsman, M. Ye., Mostinski, I. L., Stavrovski,
A. A., and Factorovich, L. E. ‘The effect of prefixed units on the occurrence of critical
boiling in steam generating tubes’. Teploenergetika, 6, 81 (1960).
36. Kirby, G. J., Staniforth, R., and Kinneir, J. H. ‘A visual study of forced convection
boiling. Pt. I’. AEEW-R 281
(1965) and Pt. U. AEEW-R 506 (1967).
A., Lacey, P, M. C., and Pulling, D. J. ‘Burnout and
nuclea-
37. Hewitt, G. F., Kearsey, H.
tion in climbing film flow’. AERE-R 4374 (1963).
38. Hewitt, G. F., Kearsey, H. A., Lacey, P. M. C., and Pulling, D. J. ‘Burnout and
film flow

in the evaporation of water in tubes’. AERE-R 4864 (1965).

transfer for
39. Hewitt, G. F. ‘A method of representing burnout data in two-phase heat
uniformly heated round tubes’. AERE-R 4613 (1964).
flux distnbu-
40. Todreas, N. E. and Rohsenow, W. M. ‘The effect of non-uniform axial heat
Conf., Chicago,
tion’. M.I.T.-9843-37 (1965); see also paper to 1966 Int. Heat Transfer
paper 89. ,

41.
,

Swenson, H. S. et al. ‘Non-uniform heat generation experimental

programme ijfK. ,

Nos, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 (BAW-3238) (1964).

293
 CONVECTIVE SOILING AND CONDENSATION
42. Biat\cot\e, F. e( a!. ‘Forced convection burnout and hydrodynamic instability experiments
for water at high pressure. Ft. 1*. EUR
2490e (1965).
43. Hewitt, G. F. el al. ‘Studies of burnout in boiling heal transfer to water in round tubes
with non-uniform heating', AERE-R 5076 (1966).
44. Richards, R. J., Steward, W. G., and Jacobs, R, B. ‘A survey of the literature on heat
transfer from solid surfaces to cryogenic fluids'. Nat. Bureau of Standards. Tech. Note-
NDS-TN-122 (1961)
45. Seader, J. D., Miller, W. S. and Katvinskas, L. A. 'Boiling heat transfer for cryogenics’.
NASA-CR-243 (June 1965).
46. Stevens, G. F. and Kirby, G. J. ‘A quantitative comparison between burnout data for
water at 1000 Ih/in* and Freon 12 at 155 Ib/in* (abs) and by water at 1000 Ib/in* in
vertical upflow’. AEEW-R 327 (1964).
47. Stevens, G. F. and Wood, R. W. ‘A comparison between burnout data for 1 9 rod-cluster
test sections cooled by Freon 12 at 155 Ibjin* (abs) and by water at 1000 Ib/in* in vertical
upfloW. AEEW-R 468 (1966).
48. Lee, D. H. ‘An experimental investigation of forced convection burnout in high pressure
water—Pi. W‘. AEEW-R 479 (1966),
49. Tong, L. S., Cumn, H. B., Larsen, P. S., and Smith, O. G. ‘Influence of axially non-
uniform heal flux on DNB’. Chem. Engrg. Progress, Symp. Series'He&\. Transfer—Los
Angeles', No. 64, Vol. 62. pp. 35-40 (1966); also WCAP-2767 (1965).
50. Smith, O. G., Tong, L. S., and Rohner, W. M. ‘Burnout in steam-water flows with
axially non-umform heat nux‘. ASME
paper No. 65-WA/HT-33 (1965).
51. Tong, L. S. ‘Prediction of departure from nucleate boiling for an axially non-uniform
heal flux distribution’, WCAP-5584 Rev. 1 (1966); see also J. Hue. Energy, 21 (3),
241-248 (1967).
52. Silvesiri, M. ‘On the burnout equation and on location of burnout points’, Energla
Nudtore, 13 (9). 469-479 (1966).
53. Lee, D. H. ‘Burnout in a channel with non-uniform circumferential heal flux'. AEEW-R
477 (1966).
54. Barnett, P. C. ‘A correlation of burnout data for untromily healed annuh and its use for
predicting burnout m
uniformly heated rod bundles'. AEEW-R 463 (1966).
55. Povamm, P. I. 'Critical boiling point in the flow of 96% Ethyl alcohol under low heating
conditions'. Teploenergeiika, 9 (12), 57-63 (1962) Report ORNL-lr-108 (1964).
56. Stevens, G. F., Elliott, D. F., and Wood, R. W. 'An expcrtmenlal comparison between
forced convection burnout mFreon 12 flowing vertically upwards through uniformly
and non-uniformly heated round tubes’. AEEW-R 426 (1965).
57. Barnett, P. G. and Wood, R. W.'Anexpcnmental investigation to determine the scaling
laws of forced convection boiling heat transfer. Part 2’. AEEW-R 443 (1965).
58. Aladyev, 1. T. el al. 'Heat transfer to boiling potassium in tubes’. Paper presented to 3rd
Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Chicago. 1966; No. 93, Volume III, pp. 123-128 (1966).
59. Tippets, F. 'Alkali Metals boiling and condensing investigations’ QPRs 2-12 Contract
NAS 3-2528 General Electric Co.. April 1963.
60. Maulbctsch, 3. S. and Griffith, P. *A study of system-induced instabilities in forced
convection flows with subcooled boiling’. M.LT. TR 5382-35 (1965); see also paper to
3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Chicago, 1966, No. 140.
61. —
Kirby, G. J. ‘Burnout in climbing film two-phase flow a review of theories of the mech-
anism’. AEEW-R 470 (1966),
62. Kirby, G. *A new correlation of non-uniformly heated round tube burnout data’.
J.
AEEW-R 500 (1966).
63. Kirby, G. J. *A model for correlating burnout in round lubes’. AEEW-R 511 (1966).
64. Collier, J. G., Wikhammer, G. A., Moeck, E. O., and MacDonald, I, P. L. ‘The effect
of certain geometrical factors on dryout for hi^ quality steam-water mixtures flowing in
a vertical internally heated annulus*. AECL-1788 May 1963; sec also AECL-2333 (1965).
65. Abraham, S. C., Macdonald, I. P. L., Moeck, E. O , and Wikhammer, G. A. ‘The effect

294
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW 2
of cosine and half-cosine heat fluxes on diyout for steam—water
flow in an annulus at
1000 p.s.i.a.’. AECL-2646 (1966).
66. Barnett, P. G. A comparison of the accuracy of some correlations for burnout in annuli
and rod bundles’. AEEW-R 558 (1968).
67. Biasi, L. et al. ‘A theoretical analysis of some models for steady burnout’ EURAEC
2025 (1966).
68. Tong, L. S., Bishop, A. A., Casterline, J. E., and Matzner, B. ‘Transient DNB test on
C.V.T.R. fuel assembly’. ASME Paper 65, WA/NE-3 (1965).
69. Moxon, D. and Edwards, P. A. ‘Dry out during flow and power transients’. AEEW-R 553
(1967).
70. Kirby, G. and Leslie, D. ‘Application of a film flow model to predicting burnout under
transient conditions’. AEEW-R 542 (1967).
71. Kutateladze, S. S. and Leontev, A. I. ‘Some applications of the asymptotic theory of the
turbulent boundary layer’, Proc. of 3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Chicago, Vol. HI
(1966).
72. Tong, L. S. ‘Boundary layer analysis of the flow boiling crisis’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
11, 1208-1211 (1968).
73. Macbeth, R. V. ‘Burn-out analysis’. Part 4. Application of a local condition hypothesis
to world data for uniformly heated round tubes and rectangular channels’. AEEW-R 267
(1963).

Example 1

A vertical tubular test section is to be installed in an experimental high-pressure water

loop. The tube 10T6 mm i.d. and 3-66 m long heated uniformly over
is length. The its

water enters the test section at 204°C and 68-9 bar. Calculate the minimum flow-rates
to prevent occurrence of the critical heat flux condition with powers of 100 kW and
200 kW applied to the channel.

Solution

The calculation will be carried out in British Engineering Units. The given condi-
tions are:

Pressure (p) 1000 psia (68-9 bar)

Tube bore (Zl) 0-4 in. (10-16 mm)

Tube length (z) 12 ft (3-66 m)
Power applied 100 kW (or 200 kW)
Inlet temperature (Tj) 400°F (204^)

necessary to produce a graph of power at the critical condition against

It is

flow-rate. The Macbeth critical heat flux correlation will be used.

(a) Find boundary between low and high mass velocity regions z/D
= 144/0-4 =
360. From Fig. 8.10, G = 0-62 x 10® Ib/h.ft^. Therefore the low mass velocity
of 0-62 x 10® Ib/h.ft
region extends up to a mass velocity

Saturation temperature at 1000 psia = 544-6 F.

Inlet subcooling = 144-6°F.

(b) Evaluate critical heat flux in low mass velocity region

_ (G X 10
®) (ifg -b (AisuB)i)
g
(^critX 10 ) = 10"®)“ ®-t-4z/H

295
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
it, = 650-2 Btu/Ib

(A/sub), = 542-6-375-0 « 167*6 Btu/lb

CntKal h«*t Cntical

power
kW
0 0 0
0 1 xlO* OOS3t«xlO* 20 27
02xl0‘ 01090x10* 4007
0 3x10* 0 1620x10* 39 36
0-4x10* 02144x10* 7g 82
03x10* 02661x10* 97-90
042 X 10* 0 3279x10* 120 35

(c) Evaluate critical heat flux ia high mass velocity region

»=,tXI0 )
= ^.+C,D(CNlO-‘)(Afsi,,V4

=yo^' (GxlO'^r
C, =>-jZ>»HCxlO'V
For 1000 psia from Table 8.2 we have

;’o = I'Oe.n = -0-487 .>-j » -0*I79,n = 0-0085,>>4 - -1'4,>'5 = -0*555

Mats Cnucal beat CnuaJ

velocity <4| 025C,D flM (4e»ri) power
Ib/h ft* (CkIO-*) Btu;h ft* kW
0 62x10* 1 79 00023 03247*10* 119 37
0 8x10* 1 72 00029 0 3624 X 10* 1332
r-OxIO* 1^3 00031 0 3970x10* 143-9
13*10* 133 00037 04723 * 10* 173 6
20*10* 1-43 00042 0 5353 *10* 196 9
23*10* 1-40 0-0046 0 5948*10* 218 7
30*10* 1 33 00050 0 6437x10* 236 6

Opposite is a graph of cntica! power versus flow-rate. It will be seen that the
minimum flow-rate at which 100 kW
can be sustained on the test section without
exceeding the cntical heat flux is 0-52x10* Ib/h-fl*. For 200 the figure is kW
2-08x10* lb/h.ft*.

296
 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN FORCED CONVECTIVE FLOW—

A nuclear reactor designer wishes to optimize the shape of a reactor core to give
minimum capital cost. The core is to produce 120 MW(t) and may be up to 20 ft in
length. The fuel element isform of a 19-rod cluster, each rod 0-612 in. o.d.
in the
located in a flow channel 3-25 in. The coolant is boiling water at 1000 psia entering
i.d.

the fuel channel with a subcooling of 8°F and a mass velocity of 2 x 10^ Ib/b.ft^. Each
fuel channel costs £1000/ft and the end fittings, instrumentation, etc. for each channel
cost £10,000. On the basis that the critical heat flux is the only limitation, what is the
optimum length of the core?

Solution

The critical channel power can be estimated as a function of length using Macbeth’s
rod cluster correlation.

—
A+B (AisuB)i
(^CRIT ^10 ) (9.24)
C+z
where

297
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
A = 67-6Z)t‘’ “ (GxlO"®)®”
B = 0-25 (C?x 10"®) (9.29)

C = 47-3 Z)6,° ”(Gx10~®)“*”

G = 2xl0®lb/h.ft* r, = 544-6-8 536-6“F (A;sub)i “ Btu/lb

i)^= —= 4jt [3-25*-(19x0 6I2*)]/I9xjrx0 612x4

A = 0-2964
inches

Hence:
67-6 X 0-3645 x 1-485 +0 25 x 0-2964 x 2 x 1 1-6

47-3 X 0-500x1 -206 -fz

36-591 + 1-719 38-310
28-522+r 28-522 + r

z is the channel length in inches.

Cbanoel length Critical heat flux Cnucal channel

n po^-er kW
0 1 M3 0
: 07294 1301
4 OS006 17S6
6 0 3SII 2039*
t 0 3074 2195
10 0 2579 2300
12 02220 2374
14 01949 2434
IS 01737 2471
l« 01547 2514
20 1
01427 2545

*Heston <r al (BNWL>306) letted a rod cluster of this eet^

metry with a heated length of 6 } ft and obtained a cniical diaond
po«er for the conditioiu atnimed of 1910 kW.

Assuming that the non-uniform heat flux profile likely* in the reactor core does
channel power
affect the critical (‘overall power' hypothesis) the capital costs can
be readily calculated as follows:

Channel No ot Cost ot ^
Con of Hiungi, Total capital
length channels channels '

instrumentation, etc.
ft for 120 MW £K £K £K
2 93 184 930 1U6
4 68 272 680 952
6 59 354 944
8 55 440 990
to 53 1060
12 51 1122
14 SO 1200
16 49 1274
BSB
18
20
48
48
IB 298
480
480
1344
1440
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Decide whether a critical heat flux (dryout) condition will occur on the water side
for these conditions. Use the ‘overall power* hypothesis.

3. As an exercise prepare a data bank of all available published information on the

critical heat flux for liquid nitrogen in round vertical tubes. Attempt a correlation

of this data using the same general method as used by Macbeth for water.

300
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

( 10 . 1 )
V '•
V
To calculate the temperature for equilibrium T, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation can
be used:

( 10 2 )
Ts„-T, ~ RV .

T’sat-T.'^

^ ^ (2<rc,/r*i,.)l!W 2cv,T,
(10.3)

where 7)^1 is the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure p,.
For large difTercnces between p, and p*. the more accurate form of cq. (10.1) should
be used to calculate e*. thus:
2 o Pe gf
(10.4)
RT'Infp./p.)

The of formation of embryo droplets can be obtained in an analogous manner to

rate
that used for embryo bubble nuclei. Hill, Wining, and Dcmctri* have applied the
classical nucleation theory to droplet nucleation and their expression for the rate of
nucleation (dn/d/) is as follows:

dn
(10.5)
dr

where No is the number of molecules in one krool (lb mol) and where ACir*) is given
by cq. (4.12). Equation (10.5) reduces to

^-W^2ejp(-4itffP*'/3k2'^ (10.6)

with X = (la/nm)* and N

is the number of vapour molecules per unit volume.

Equation (10.6) is very similar to the expression for bubble nucleation rate (eq. (4.13)).
The more accurate expression forr* (eq (10.4)) should be used for calculating (dn/d/).
The nucleation rate increases rapidly with small increases in (pjpa,) oud the nucleation
growth is usually taken as I0"-10‘* cm~^ s“‘.
rate for ‘significant’ droplet
The of droplets in steam is of the order of 0-01 /im at atmospheric
critical size

pressure.^' ^For very small droplets, the surface tension itself may vary and the
*
expression due to Tolman*'

a(r) = (10.7)
1+Sfr
may be applicable where <r„ is the surface tension for a flat interface and 5 is a length
lying between 0-25 and 0-6 of the molecular or atomic radius in the liquid state. Surface
tension reductions of the order of 10 per cent arc reported* for some homogeneous
nucleation cases.
Nucleation of drops at solid surfaces. For nucleation on solid surfaces in the absence

302
 CONDENSATION
of pre-existing liquid in cavities, the free energy of formation
of an embryo droplet
AG(r*) should be reduced by multiplying by the factor (see chapter (j> 4)

2— 2 cos 0— cos 0 sin^ 0

4, = (10 8 )

For a contact angle 0 = 0° (complete wetting),

^ = 0, and for 0 = 180° (no wetting),
^ = 1.

If liquid is already in cracks in the surface, then nucleation can proceed at much
lower subcoolings; this is analogous to the case where bubbles grow from pre-existing
gas in vapour-filled cavities.

10.2.2 Droplet Growth

For the critical embryo to grow, it is necessary’ that the latent heat liberated by the
condensation be removed by conduction and convection to the surrounding fluid. This
heat transfer is countercurrent to the mass transfer towards the drop. For pure con-
duction and diffusion control of the growth, the following equation has been proposed
by Mason.’’ ®

>e i1 (10.9)
J l2K,p,M 2fc,i?T/Jdt

where is the mass diflfusivity or self diffusion coefi5cient. Equation (10.9) can be
used for values of r greater than 5 pm. For smaller droplets the values of Kg and kg
must be made smaller to allow for the fact that the dimensions of the drop are of the
same order as the mean free path. For droplets smaller than 2 pm the following
equation based on kinetic theory and derived by Oswatitsch’’ is applicable;

dr
( 10 . 10)
Tt

When droplets grow on cooled surfaces the rate of growth is controlled by the conduc-
tion of heat through the drop.®

10.3 The Mechanism of Evaporation and Condensation at a Plain Liquid-Vapour

Interface

10.3.1 Introduction

Consider a pure saturated vapour at a pressure Pg and a temperature Tg condensing

on its own liquid phase whose surface temperature is 7}. The phenomenon of such an
interface mass transfer can be viewed from the standpoint of kinetic
theory as a

difference between two quantities a rate —

of arrival of molecules from the vapour

space towards the interface and a rate of departure of molecules from the surface of

the liquid into the vapour space. When

condensation takes place the arrival rate
exceeds the departure rate. During evaporation the reverse occurs,
and during an
equilibrium state the two rates are equal.®
From kinetic theory it can be shown that, in a stationary container of molecules.
303
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
themass rate of flow (of molecules) passing in either direction (to right or left) through
an imagined plane is given by

( 10 . 11 )

where

]j|
= flux of molecules (mass per unit time per unit area)
M =* molecular weight
R= universal gas constant

p and T = pressure and temperature (absolute).

Equation (10.11) is the starting point for many theories of intcrfacial phase change.

4 4
Vapour
777777777777777f7777^T77‘r77777777777Tr77777r
uhjTTTTTrrT.
Ltquid ;
T,

i
J

Fig. 10.1. interfacial Phase Change

In general it can be stated that (he net molecular flux through an interface is the

diflierence between the vector fluxes in (be directions from gas to liquid and vice*versa.
Thus, referring to Fig. 10.1,

}=U-i- (10-12)

Since the condition close to the surface not one of static thermal equilibrium, for
is

any signifleant rate of evaporation or condensation, it is really not meaningful to make

use of the thermostatic pressure and temperature on each side of the interface. Strictly
speaking one should solve the Boltzmann transport equation with appropriate bound-
ary conditions and asymptotes which arc conditions of thermal equilibrium at several
mean free path distances from the interface. However, some considerable success for
engineering purposes has been achieved by using simplified kinetic theory techniques
and applying correction factors to the resulting predictions.

10.3.2 The Crude Theory

The simplest approach considers that the fluxes in eq. (10.12) are given by eq (10.11)
for appropriate liquid and vapour ‘temperatures’ and ‘pressures’, thus,

(10.13)

304
 CONDENSATION
For sm^I differences in pressure and temperature this may be rewritten by differentia-
tion as follows:

( 10 . 14)

The pressure which is assigned to the liquid is usually taken

to be the saturation
pressure corresponding to T^. This is based on the
argument that in thermostatic
equilibrium the net value ofy is zero and the number of
molecules leaving the liquid
surface is equal to the number arrising.
Equation (10.14) contains both the pressure and temperature differences
and it

Fig. 10.2. Condensation at an Interface

would seem that these can in principle be varied independently since there is no a
priori guarantee that thevapour is saturated and not superheated.
A simplification which is often made is to assume that there is no temperature jump
across the interface. Equation (10.14) then simplifies to give

In order for condensation to occur the vapour pressure must then exceed the liquid
pressure. Figure 10.2 shows the variation of the fluxes /+ andy. with temperature.
The evaporation flux, increases with temperature according to a unique curve for
a given fluid but the condensation flux J+, decreases with temperature at constant
pressure according to eq. (10.11). The thermostatic saturation temperature Tjat
corresponding to the pressure p is then given by the intersection between they_ line
and the j\ line. If the pressure of the vapour is increased top+ Ap, while the tempera-
ture remains at T, there will be a net condensation flux given by eq. (10.15).

305
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure p+Ap is r+AT, as
shown in Fig. 10.2. Therefore, anothcrway of interpreting the result is that the liquid
must be at a temperature AT below the static saturation
temperature corresponding
to the prevailing vapour pressure. Thus, although no temperature jump is assumed to
exist at the interface, the net effect is equivalent to a subcooling
of the liquid, if one
assumes that the driving force for condensation is the saturation temperature corres-
ponding to the vapour pressure. An interfaoal heal transfer coeffidcnl can then be
defined as

= (10.16)

where ^ is the condensation energy (‘heat’) flux. This energy flux is simply the latent
heat times the mass flux, therefore

= iij (10.17)

From (10.15), (10.16), and (10.17)

i r T*'
"[2irRrJ AT
^ (10.18)

Using the Oausius-aapeyron relationship

onship (eq. (4.5)), eq. (10.18) becomes

rjiL-TJal (10.19)
L2ltl!rJ Tr„
If the temperature difference term m eq (10.14) is Gausius-Qapeyron
retained and the
relationship is assumed to apply, eq. (10.19) would have been multiplied by the factor

[-e]
which is usually close to uniiy.’^

10.3.3 Modifications to the Crude Theory

The way to modify the simple theory outlined above is by means of correction
easiest
factors For example. Silver** multiplies eq (10 19) by a factor of /, called the ‘mole-
cular exchange condensation fraction’. The value of f for water is found empirically
under vacuum condenser conditions to be about 0-036 and this leads to values of the
interfadal heat transfer coeflident shown in Table 10 1.
Another technique is to apply correction factors to both the)* and )_ terms. Follow-
ing Schrage,‘° eq (10.13) is rewniten in the form

Oe and <T, are condensation and evaporation ‘coeffidents’ which are usually taken to

be the same, as a result of thermostatic equilibrium arguments which arc not strictly
valid in the dynamic case, and arc written generally as a without a subscript. The
coefficient T results from the net motion of the vapour towards the surface which is
superimposed on the assumed Maxwellian distribution. For a gas which moves with

506
CONDENSATION

307
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
an overall speed u towards a transparent plane it is readily shown from kinetic theory
that the fluxes of molecules which cross the plane arc

( \* ^
J* 1
\2rR, T<
( 10 21 )
.

(
M'
J-
V'R; / T*

where

r(a) s= exp(— a*)+aR* fl +erf o]

( 10 . 22)
r(— a) =s exp(~a*)-ajt* [1 —erf a]

Table 10.2 The correction factor T as a function

of a

0 r(-.) r(a)

l 0089 3 624
08 0162 2 998
06 0 276 2-403
04 0447 186S
02 0682 1 394
01 0 8» 1 187
001 08646 1 1482
006 01972 t noo
004 09J07 1-0725
002 09649 10359
001 09824 10178
0001 0 998229 1-001773
1

and a represents the ratio of the overall speed, u, to a characteristic molecular velocity,

thus.

(10.23)
° (2RTIM)'
In terms of the condensation rate, u can be rewritten as

(10.24)
Pi
Utilizing the perfect gas law (10.23) and (10.24) can then be combined to give

(10.25)
pJi2M/RT,)*

The values of r(a) and r(— n) are tabulated in Table 10.2 for convenience.
For low values of a, F may be estimated from the formula, F = 1 + 071 *. The error
over 1 percentforn
is slightly * 0-1 and increases rapidly for larger values.

308
 CONDENSATION
that the effect of the net velocity
towards the interface in condensation is to
the molecular flux. In the limit of very
large a, eq. (10.22) reduces

r (a) 2 a (10.26)
Equation (10.20) then becomes

; =
'
M '

2zR T* (10.27)

If a is unity, that is all the molecules hitting the surface

are condensed
and evaporation
is neglipble compared with condensation, eqs. (10.25) and
(10.27) are seen to be
compatible. In this limiting condition of maximum possible condensation
rate on a
very cold surface the kinetic theory terms are completely dominated
by the net flow
terms. The surface simply behaves as a ‘black body’ which absorbs a flow
of molecules
which can be indefinitely high.
In the other limit of a very small value of a, eq. (10.22) becomes

r(a)itil + a7t* (10.28)

Substituting this value into eq. (10.20) and making use of eq. (10.25)

(10.29)

whence, on rearrangement.

(10.30)

Equation (10.30) is in the form suggested by Silver and Simpson^^ and referred to by
Russian authors as the Kucherov-Rikenglaz equation.* * It is only valid for low values
of a, in other words low condensation rates.
The above arguments ignore the non-equilibrium interactions between the cold
molecules leaving the interface and the hot molecules approaching it. It is really
assumed that the molecular fluxes of the evaporating or condensing streams can be
derived from kinetic theory for each ‘component’ alone and the results superimposed
to obtain the net flux. Thisis plainly incorrect. However, the difficulties which arise

if attempts are made to solve the more complex problem are considerable. The
interested reader is referred to the review by Wilhelm.^®
Further background material, which treats the various experimental methods which
have been used to measure the condensation coefficient, is contained in references (12),
(13), (14), (33), (36), and (37). The very low values of (t found for water (usually
0-03

to 0-04) are widely attributed to ‘surface contamination’ or non-condensible gases at

the interface. It has been established®® that the condensation coefficient for water falls
rapidly as the time of exposure of the evaporating or condensing interface is increased.
Theoretical values of c have been calculated by Danon'® from a consideration of the
energy necessary to release molecules from the interface. Table 10.3 compares the
predicted values with those measured experimentally for a number of common liquids.

SOP
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

10.3.4 The Influence of Non-Condensibles on Interfaeial Resistance

The presence of even a small quantity of non-condcnslble gas in the condensing vapour
has a profound influence on the resistance to heat transfer in the region of the liquid-
vapour interface. The non-condensible gas is carried with the vapour towards the
interface where it accumulates. The partial pressure of gas at the interface increases
above that in the bulk of the mixture, producing a driving force for gas diffusion
away from the surface. This motion is exactly counterbalanced by the motion of the
vapour-gas mixture towards the surface. Since the total pressure remains constant the
partial pressure of vapour at the interface is lower than that in the bulk mixture
providing the driving force for vapour diffusion towards the interface. This situation
is illustrated in Fig. 10.3 which also shows the variation of temperature in the region

Table 10 J Values of thecondemation cocflicient calculated via

(he method of Danon'^

Fluid atO'C o calculated a observed

(note of meatxtremeets)

Carbon tctrachlondc lOl 10

Benrene 091 0 85^95
CWorofonn on 016
Etbyl alcohol 0014 002-0024
Metbyl alcohol 001) 0045
Water oost 004
Toluene 039 043-0 85

of the interface. It is usual to assume that the temperature at the interface (7',i) corres-
ponds to the saturation temperature equivalent to the partial pressure of vapour (p,i)
at the interface. The molar flux of non-condensible gas (/J passing through a plane
parallel to and at a distance y from the interface is

5C.
D^+JC,
dy
= J,^0 (10.31)

Likewise the molar flux of vapour (/,) Is

dc.
(10.32)
* •
dy
where D is the diffusion coeffident,
C, and C, are the molar concentrations of non-
condensible gas and vapour respectively, / is the drift flux of the bulk fluid towards
the interface.
Since the total pressure is constant,

P.+P.= P = RI'(C.+ C,) (10.33)

then

(10.34)
dy dy dy dy

310
 CONDENSATION
Substituting into eq. (10.32)

J, = JC,-D
dy (10.35)

Eliminating / between eqs. (10.35) and (10.31)

Fig. 103. The Influence of Non-Condensibles on Inierfacial Resistance

(10.36)
D pSp^
RT p, dy
Integrating the above equation between the interface (;’ = 0) and the edge of the
diffusion layer (y = 5)

D
(10.37)
RTS
where p^, is the partial pressure of gas at the interface andpjo is the partial
pressure of
gas within the bulk mixture. Equation (10.37) can be re-written as

3J1
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

where is ihe log mean or the panial pressures of non-condeosible gas at the
interface and in the bulk mixture gi\en by

(I0J9)

It is usual to refer to the terms within the square brackets in eq. (10J8) as the
transfer coefSdent (A^).
Thus
Jt = (10.40)

where

(10.41)

The transfer of heat from the bulk mixture to the interface is made up of two com*
ponents; firstly, the sensible heat transferred through Ihe diffusion layer to the interface
and, secondly, the latent heat released due to condensation of the \apour reaching the
Hus model of heal transfer in the \'aponr phase was
interface. first expressed I7
Colburn and Hougen^* as

<> = ^(T^-T,0+K, Af, (i0.«)

For the case where the vapour-^s mixture is stagnant only the second term in cq.
(1042) need be considered. Howe'w. the use of the simple diffusion model for the
mass transfer coefficient. A',, results in an uoderestimaie of the beat fiux for a gi>'cn
temperature gradient This discrepancy has been attributed by Akers et ol** and
Sparrow and Eckert*’ to the presence of natural cons-ection effects.
Akers et 0/ ** concluded that the ratio of the mass transferboimdary layer thickness,
5, to some charactcnstic length, L, could be expressed in terms of the product of the

Grashof and Schmidt numbers (Gr.$c) thus

L
(10 43)
V
Expressing the function as a power law and using expenmeatal data to produce
empirical relationships led to

\K,LRTp^J[
= C,
[
^ P) #iD VPi )r (10.44)

over the range 10’ < (Gr.Sc) < lO’

where Cj is 1-02 for \ertical surfaces horizontal tubes; p, and p, are the
and 0-62 for
densities of the in the bulk mixture respectixely.
fluid adjacent to the interface and
For the case where the vapour-gas mixture flows parallel to the interface the heat
transfer «>effidcnl hg in eq. (10.42) is evaluated from the correlation aK>ropriate to

312
 CONDENSATION
the flow regime (i.e., laminar, transition, or turbulent flow) and flow
geometry (i c
flow within a tube, over a flat plate, or a tube bank in cross flow).
The mass transfer
coefficient in the second term of eq. (10.42) may be evaluated
from the heat transfer
coefficient by making use of the analogy between heat and mass transfer. Thus

K, (10.45)
LcpgP.m AfJ Vscy
For the turbulent flow of a condensing vapour-gas mixture within a tube the well-
known Dittus-Boelter eq. (5.7) could be used with the physical properties evaluated
for the bulk vapour-gas mixture. However, actual heat and mass transfer coefficients
will be higher than predicted by this method mainly as a result of the disturbed

nature of the film interface. This effectmay be allowed for in an approximate manner
by multiplying the smooth tube value of the coefficient by the ratio of the interfacial
friction factor, /j, to the smooth tube value, (viz., eq. (3.35) ).

In eq. (10.42) it is assumed that the process of sensible heat transfer is independent
of the process of vapour mass transfer. If the mass transfer rate is large, however, the
sensible heat transfer rate may be augmented by the sensible heat transport by the
vapour molecules.'^® In this case

(10.46)

where

(10.47)

and //g', h are the sensible heat transfer

g , ..g
and without mass transfer
coefficients with

respectively. This correction is often small and may then be ignored.

The application of eq. (10.42) requires some comment since the conditions at the

interface are usually unknown. where condensation occurs

Consider the situation
from a vapour—gas mixture to a vertical wall under conditions where the wall surface
temperature, Tw, the bulk temperature of the vapour-gas mixture, and the partial
pressure of gas in the bulk vapour, are known. The various stages to arrive at the
overall heat transfer rate are as follows:

(a) Guess a condensate film interface temperature intermediate between

Tifj. The heat transfer across the liquid condensate film is given by

^ = hf(r„-T^.) (10.48)

across the condensate film is evaluated using the

The heat transfer coefficient, //f,

methods described in section 10.4.

(b) Since the interface is assumed be a saturation condition for the vapour, the
to
the interface (p,,) to
choice of 7;i allows the partial pressure of vapour at
evaluated. The partial pressure of vapour in the bulk mixture, = (p-p,c) is
coefficients respectively
known. Values of//, and K,, the heat and mass transfer
Use is made, where necessary, of
are evaluated from the appropriate equations.

313
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
the analogy between heat and mass transfer (eq. (10.45)) and the correction for
sensible heal transfer (eq. (10.46)).
(c) The rate of heat transfer through the diffusion layer may now be calculated from
eq. (10.42). In general this heat flux. will differ from that found from eq. (10.48),
tpi. The correct solution occurs when a value of interface temperature T,, is

reached which allows to equal ^2 * This may be achieved by an iterative proce*

dure in which successively better guesses for the interfacial temperature are made.
Alternatively and 4'2 n^^y be evaluated for three or more values of Interface
temperature and plotted against T^i. The intersection of the two curves gives the
correct solution for and T,,.

Such a calculation is only valid at one point in the condenser and the computation
must be repeated for other locations.
More sophisticated boundary layer treatments of the influence of non*condensibIe
gas on forced convection condensation have been published by Sparrow et a!.*'*'
These treatments include interfacial resistance, the process of mass transfer as a result
of a temperature gradient (thermal diffusion) and energy transport as a result of a
concentration gradient. For the case where steam Is the condensing vapour and air is
the non-condensible gas these processes are unimportant.
Figure 10.4, prepared from the results of Sparrow et al*^‘ shows the influence
of non*condensible air concentrations on the heat transfer rale in the case when the
steam-air mixture is either stagnant or flowing. The temperature difference between
the bulk steam>air mixture and the cooling surface is held constant at I0”C (1 The
ordinate represents the ratio of the heat flux with non*condensibIe air present to that
which would have occurred at the same temperature difference with pure steam. The
presence of air is most marked when the bulk mixture is stagnant. Reductions in heat
transfer rate ofmore than 50 per cent are caused by air mass fractions as low as 0*5
per cent. The reductions become more marked as (he total pressure is reduced. These
findings are in qualitative and also reasonably quantitative agreement with the
experimental results of Olhracr.^*
The heat transfer rate in forced convection condensation is much less sensitive to
the presence of non-condensible air although the reduction in heat transfer becomes
more serious as the pressure is reduced. The reductions in heat transfer rate for both
stagnant and forced convection conditions increase slightly as the temperature
difference (7,^— T-w) i* increased.

10.4 Film Condensation on a Planar Surface

10.4.1 The Nusselt Equation for a Laminar Film

The first attempt to analyse the film-wise condensation problem was that of Nusselt*^
who made the following assumptions:

(a) the flow of condensate in the film is larmnar

(b) the fluid properties are constant
(c) subcooling of the condensate may be neglected

314
 CONDENSATION

® ».dZ" " ““ ““ «" "ow-'-ard of ao

(f) heat transfer is by conduction only.

(fgo-rw) = 10*C (18’F)

Fig. 10.4. The Influence of Non-Condensible Air in Steam (Sparrow et al.)

distance zfrom the top of the surface the thickness of the film is 5. Consider a force
balance on an element of film lying between
y and 5

i5-y) dz (Pf-Pg) g sin 0 = dz (10.49)

Rearranging and integrating with the boundary condition «,, = 0 at y = 0, then

(10.50)

315
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The mass flow-rate per unit width F js gis’cn by

Consider now the case where condensation occurs building up the film from zero
thickness at the top of the plane surface. The rale of increase of film flow-rate with
film thickness (dr/d5) is therefore
'

dr _ rpi(p|-p,)gsmQj^
(10.52)
di L
If the film surface temperature is and the wall temperature is 7^ the heal transferred
7*,j

by conduction to an element of length dz is

Fig. 10.5. Flow of a Laminar Film Over an Inclined Surface (Nusselt)

(10.53)

The mass rate of condensation on ibis area (df) is therefore

<ir- (10.54)
Ol,,

Substituting eq. (10.54) into (10.52), separating variables and integrating (noting
S = 0 at z — 0)

Pr*r(7;,-rw)z = p,(p,-p,)gsin0irj^^^ (10.55)

Thus the film thickness 3 is given by

4p.A-,z(7;,-Tw)y
(10.56)
LgsinO/t,p,(p,-p,)J
The heat transfer coefficient /id:} at any point z is given by

^
hd:) =—* (10.57)
6 L 4p,z(r„-Tw)
4p,z(r,.-Tw) J
316
 r

CONDENSATION
and the Nusselt number is given by

Nu(-) = == rPf(Pf-P,)gsineif,zn j^

L J (10.58)
L J
E,»a.ions (I0.57^»„d (10.58) give ,h.
,„ca, val„. of hea.
Nu^elt number. The mean value of .^sfea coejidoa. and
friV'/»n K»r
1C given
IS by,
heat transfer coefhde T v ‘ ^ whole surface,

rit =- f'/;f(c)dz = 0-943

‘•’o (10.59)
L /'r-(7;,-T(v) J
The equation for /if can be expressed in an alternative form

r.
/if = .
're
(10.60)
:(7;i-Tw)
where r, is the condensate flow at a distance 2
from the top of the plane surface
Combining eq. (10.60) with (10.54)

5 = k, n dr (10.61)
/ifZdr
Combining eq. (10.61) with (10.51) yields.

rMPf-Pg/gsin g T^ dr
y dr _ /if
(10.62)
1 3/if J z f:
Integrating over r

/if = 0-925 (10.63)

L /'rT, J
The Reynolds number of a liquid film at a distance z below the top of the plane
surface
is given by

Rcp = 4n (10.64)
fit

Substituting into eq. (10.63) and rearranging for a vertical plane (sin 0=1)

Since varies as z~* (eq. (10.57) ) the average coefficient /if is 4/3 times the local
coefficient /if(z).

10.4.2 Improvements to the Original Nusselt Theory

A number of papers have made significant improvements to the Nusselt theory. The
original analysis was extended
by Bromley*® who considered the effects of subcooling
the condensate and
by Rohsenow*’ who also allowed for the non-linear distribution
of temperature through the film due
to energy convection. Rohsenow*^ showed that
the latent heat of be replaced by
vaporization, i/g, in eq. (10.59) should

317
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

= </.[i <WM)

where AT} *= (7*,, -TV)

Sparrow and Gregg** using a boundary layer treatment removed assumption (d)
and considered momentum changes in the film. For common fluids with Prandtl
numbers around unity the results obtained show that momentum eflects are indeed
negligible but for liquid metals with very low Prandtl numbers the heat transfer
coefficient falls below the Nusselt prediction with increasing (c^f ATf/iff).
More recently Chen*®, Koh, Sparrow, and Hartnett*® and others have considered
the influence of the drag exerted by the vapour on the liquid film. There again the
assumption made by Nusselt (assumption (e)) appears justified at Prandtl numbers
around unity. For the condensation of liquid metals, however, the inclusion of the
does cause a further substantial reduction of heat transfer. The
intcrfacial shear effect
ratioof the revised average heat transfer cocificieiit (P,) to that given by eq. (10.59),
can be computed from the following approximate equation given by Chen*®
(fff)Nu
which includes both interfacial shear and momentum ciTccis

fi,
f l -bO-eSA+OOT /IB l*

where A = [c^j ATflif,] and B= [fc, /„!

Equation (10.67) is valid for ^ <2, B < 20, and for liquids with Prandtl numbers
larger than unity or less than 0 05. A number of workers have considered the influence
of variations in physical properties across the condensate film (assumption (b) ). One
method of introducing this influence is to use the Nusselt’s equation with the property
values taken at some effective condensate film temperature, 7}|,„. Thus,

7'm» = Tw+F(r„-rw) (10.68)

The value of Fgiven by Drew** is 0-25 and by Minkowyez and Sparrow*® is 0*31.

JO.4,3 The Influence qf Turbulence

Even low film Reynolds numbers, the assumption that the condensate
at relatively
layer is in viscous flow is open to some question. Experiments aimed at measuring the
average thickness of liquid films flowing down vertical surfaces do confirm the Nusselt
equations but examination of the surface structure of the flow indicates considerable
waviness. This wavinessmay account for the observed difl’erenccs** between experi-
mental and theoretical values. The results of most experimental studies give beat
transfer coefficients up to 40-50 per cent higher than the theoretical values and it is

recommended that coefficients evaluated from eq. (10.59) should be multiplied by a

correction factor 1*2 to allow for this discrepancy in design calculation.
For long vertical surfaces it is possible to obtain condensation rates such that the
film Reynolds number exceeds the critical value at which turbulence begins. Under
such circumstances Kirkbride** (1933-34) found heat transfer coefficients much
greater than given by eq. (10.65). By plotting the experimental data in terras of the

318
 CONDENSATION
dimensionless groupings of cq. (10 65) he was able to
obtain an empirical relation for
heat transfer in the case of combined viscous and
turbulent flow on the outside
surface of a vertical tube. Colbum^^ attempted to predict the heat transfer coefficient
for the case of turbulent flow by analogs with the flow of
liquids through pipes under
conditions where the liquid completelv filled the pipe but where
the pressure drop for
flow- was purely due to gravitational forces. The resulting
relation for the local con-
densing heat transfer coeffident at anv point, z is

Fig. 10.6. Condensation on a Vertical Surface, no Interfadal Shear

Integration of the local coefficient over the tube length using eq. (10.57) up to a
Rev-nolds number of 20(X) and eq. ( 1 0.69) abov e 2000 resulted in the relationship shown
in Fig. 10.6. Seban^^ in 1954 applied the Prandtl-Karman analog}' to the problem of
turbulent film condensation with no vapour shear. The results were presented graphic-
ally for a range of Prandtl numbers. In this work the critical value of the film Re}'nolds
number was taken as 1600. Figure 10.6 shows the predictions. It will be noted that
there reasonable agreement with Colburn’s analysis at high Prandtl numbers but
is

that, at low Prandtl numbers, the heat transfer rate can fall below the Nusselt
prediction at high Re}'noIds number presumably due to the increased thickness of the
turbulent film.

319
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

10.4^ Condensation on HorizontalTubes

Laminar film condensation on the outside ofa single horizontal tube was first examined
by Nusselt, who, using a derivation exactly similar to that outlined in section 10.4.1,
obtained the following relationships:
~
Pt(/>f-/>,)gsingfci
« 0-693 (10.70)

where a is the angle between any radius of the horizontal tube and the vertical, and
r,' is the local mass flow-rate of condensate per unit length of lube;
'
*
= 0-725 pi(pi-p,) s ifi'fc/n
fit (10.71)
_
Dp^r„-Tw) J
where D is the outside diameter of the tube, /,/ is the modified latent heat of vaporiza-
tion given by eq. (10.66);

1 -5! Rtf'* (10.72)

where the Reynolds number is defined by cq. (10.64) with F, equal to the mass flow-
rate of condensate from the tube per unit length. This equation is valid up to values
ofRer of 3200.
In testing Nusselt’s equations it is important to see that the experimental conditions
comply with the requirements of the theory. The results of most experimental studies
for horizontal tubes are within about 15 per cent of eq. (10.71). It is interesting to
compare the performance of vertical vcrus horizontal tubes In stagnant vapour.
From eqs. (10.59) and (10.71) it will be seen that for the same temperature difference
and fluid conditions the same average beat transfer coefficient will exist if

0 943
(10.73)

In a bank of horizontal tubes it is possible for the condensate to run off the bottom of
the upper tube onto the next tube below (Fig. 10.7). Jakob has considered this problem
and concluded that the mean heat transfer coefficient for a vertical column of n
horizontal tubes with the same temperature difference is given by eq. (10.71) with D
replaced by nD. The average coefficient for the nth tube is related to that for the
top tube by

(10.74)
"n
The above equation considerably underestimates the coefficients recorded in experi-
mental studies.®*’ Observations show that the condensate seldom falls from the
upper tube as a continuous sheet. Grant and Osment®^ found that their results could
be expressed by the empirical relationship

320
 CONDENSATION

^=r£2?T""”
fin
UJ (10-75)

where is the rate of condensate drainage

per unit length from the «th tube
and /„

Fig. 10.7. Film Condensation on Horizontal Tubes

10.5 The Influence of Literfacial Shear

10.5.1 Laminar Flow Over Inclined Surface

Ithas already been noted that the consideration of interfacial shear can considerably
modify the laminar flow solution under certain conditions. Nusselt did derive equations
for condensation in the presence of high vapour velocities on the assumption that the
entirecondensate layer remained in laminar flow. Thus, co-current downward flow
over an inclined plane surface results in the following equation instead of eq. (10.49)

(f — y) dz (pf g sin 0— (dp/dz) )-fT, dz = Pf^-^^dz (10.76)

Define a fictitious vapour density by the relationship

pf

= pf g sin 0 (10.77)

321
 CONDENSATION

10.5.2 Condensation Within a Vertical Tube

In order to apply the theory of Rohsenow, Webber, and Ling“ to the case of laminar
condensation with interfacial shear within a tube it is necessary to evaluate p* (eq.
(10.77) ) in terms of the pressure gradient in the vapour phase. For one-dimensional
flow in the vapour phase

dr
- p^g sin e + ( 10 . 88 )
dz {p-2S)dz (fi-lS)

Fig. 10.8. The Influence of Vapour Shear on the Average Laminar Flow Condensation Heat
Transfer Rate (Rohsenow, Webber, and Ling”)

Therefore

^ f
2Hg dr 2Ti ]'
r (10.89)
Pe ""
p^g sine l(D-25)dz (D-25)j

where

E-MS(T,-T,) (10.90)
dz ifg

This method proposed by Rohsenow et al.^^ is in

rigorous treatment presented in 1966 by Jacobs, provided t a ®
over which the interfacial,
surface is divided anally into a number of short sections

323
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
shear stress is assumed constant but of different magnitude to the neighbouring
section.
Carpenter and Colburn*^ also considered the influence of vapour >eIocity on film
condensation inside lubes. In experimcnls where there was an appreciable co-current
downward vapour velocity, heat transfer coefficients lay considerably above the static
vapour case. The critical value of the film Reynolds number at which turbulence was
initiated was greatly lowered (by a factor of up to ten or so) (see Fig. 10.8). Carpenter
and Colburn^* reasoned, firstly, that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in
the film occurred at much lower Reynolds numbers than in the absence of vapour
shear and, secondly, that the major resistance to heat transfer occurred across the
laminar sub-layer. They argued that, as the major force acting on the condensate film
was now interfacial shear, the velocity profile in the film might be estimated from the
analogous situation for flow of liquids in pipes.
The equation for the local heat transfer coefficient resulting from this treatment is

where is the shear stress at the outer edge of the laminar sub-lajer (i e ,
the wall
shear stress). In calculating a value of t* account must be taken of the imerfarial shear
and the gravitational effects in the liquid film as discussed in chapter 3 (via., eq. (3.28) ).

In addition, the change of momentum of the condensing vapour and the influence of
vapour mass transfer on the interfacial shear stress must be included (see section 10 8 ) .

More recently, with the help of further experimental data, Soliman, Schuster, and
Betenson’* have improved the Carpenter and Colburn treatment and modified
eq. (10.91)

The shear stress at (he outer edge of tbe lamioar sublayer r^ is made up of the sum of
three components:

(a) the interfacial shear stress, t, due to vapour phase frictioo

(b) the gravitational force r, in the liquid film

T, = ^ (I -a) (/>,—/>,) gsm 0 (10.94)

(c) the momentum change r^ in tbe vapour phase

(10 95)

where the coefficients Oj to 05 art given hyi

324
 —
CONDENSATION
aI = 2x-l-px
= 2(1 -a:)
03 = 2(1 -x-p+px)
(10.96)
04 = (l/.v)-3+Zv
«5 = Pi2-(llx)-x)

The void fraction correlation due

to Zivi®** is iispH in tt,o ^
and strictly should also be used in eq
(10 94) 1^,11 n
^ f of eq. (10.95)

(10.97)
where

I
_rip.n
-ii =
(10.98)
L2pgJ

now m
fiot at a mean vapour
“ f” single-phase
i' pipe
1 ^ e
velocity G^. given by

(10.99)

beginning and exit of the section

CMs^dtS
nsidered. If all the vapour is condensed G2 = 0 and = 0-58G,
^Jso (10.92) and (10.91)) can be re-
arr.nL?-'”!"''^'^
ing terms of the dimensionless groups
hf* and r-* thus

fif* = 0-065 Pr,* (t,*)* (10.100)

Ei^ation (10.100) is valid for Prandtl numbers between 1 and 5 and t-* from 5 to 150.
carried out a similar analysis to that of Carpenter and Colburn
bv ext
f^'^^tocnt to the case of a positive interfacial shear stress. The
PrandtT>JMf
‘universal velocity profile’was used and momentum effects within
the r "H b*™ were neglected. In addition was necessary to make a similar assump-
it
tion "f
critical transition value of the film
Reynolds number. The results of this
anal
presented graphically in dimensionless form as Ji[* against film Reynolds
numb^'^
interfacial shear stress tj* as parameter. In the area where
eq fin 07
^ applicable there was good agreement with the Carpenter and Colburn
anal s’

325
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Duklcr^® more recently has presented a rather more refined method of predicting
the hydrodynamics and heat transfer in vertical film-wise condensation. Working from
the definition of eddy viscosity and n^g the Deissler equation for its variation near
a solid boundary, Dukler obtained velocity distributions in the liquid film as a function
of the interfacial shear and film thickness. The differential equations were solved
digitally by means of a computer. While a single universal velocity distribution is
usual in full pipe flow, Dukler found that the velocity distribution curve in the liquid
film depends both on the interfacial shear and on the film thickness. Assuming that
the ratio of the eddy thermal diffusivily to the eddy viscosity was unity and that the

Fig. 10.9. Dukler Analysis, Piandtl Number = 1*0

physical properties of the fluid do not change in the direction of heat transfer, equi-
valent temperature profiles were constructed.
From the integration of the velocity and temperature profiles, liquid film thickness
and point heat transfer coefficients were computed. The evaluated results of these tv.o
properties were displayed as a function of the Reynolds and Prandll numbers with the
interfacial shear as parameter. Average condensing heat transfer coefficients were
evaluated from the point values and are shown of zero inter-
in Fig. 10.6 for the case
facial shear. The results agree with the classical Nusselt values at very low Reynolds
numbers and with the empirical equations of Colburn** in the turbulent region. There
is also good agreement with Seban’s analysis at high Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.

Figures 10.9 and 10.10 show the local heat transfer coefficients obtained from Dukler's

326
 sreato than 20, the molecnlar
cti'Vxt} teim IS neglected with respect to the eddy
conductiWty.

^ °"P^atI
m nninher, the faU-offin heat transfer
the tarbal»? ^ei^’
Dnhlers aSwL. fnf
Pro5I“ pnn ~
^ I °°
over-^ted (Hg. 10.6). Les^^ has repeated
mtenacial shear using an nnnroved selocitv-
objection concerning the temperature profile.
tMs is dcr-= V,T;ei
^ solution which gh'es results vers- dose to
£t hiah Prandtl DuHer s"* solution
number and to Seban at low Prandd number
correcting DuMers analjais for posime values of
Yerazuni-
antho- W-^
^ ^naij-sis which does this has been
*0 considering the points (a) and (b)
gis-en
raL^
bv Kunz and
above, these
T
interfadal resistance eSects (section
of th“ "Uf 10.3) and the sariadon
uo o. the eddy didushitj- of
heat to the eddy diSusisitj- of momentum

i27
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
with PrandlJ and Rej-noMs number. Table 10.4 ^ves \'alaes of the local dimen-
sionless heat transfer coefficient hj*{2) (^ven by cq. (10.86)) as a function of the
local RejTiolds number [4 TJn,] and Praodtl number for the case of zero intcrfainal
shear.The usefulness of these theoretical predictions is confirmed by the remaxlably
good agreement between values for local heat transfer coefficient along the length of
the tube calculated from Dukler’s analysis and measured by Carpenter.^*

Txble 10.4 Values of ht*W) as a fimoioo of [AVJm] and Frandtl

number for tbe case of zero iaterfarial (Ktmz and Yerazums)

to* to* 10*

001 0 266t 0-1081 00337 00212

01 0 266% 0-II32 00852 01062
to 02700 02110 02993 0495
so 0 3035 03778 04210 1139

10.5J Conderaaiion fVitkin a Horizontal Tube

Tbe problem of condensatioo within a horizontal tube is best examined by reference

to the flow patterns experienced to borizootaJ gas-liquid flow. Bell. Taborek, and
Fenoglio^^ ^ve roiewed tbe a>'ailable correlations using such a frameworL The
Baker flow pattern map (Fig. 1.6) forms a suitable starting point A useful suggestion
made by Bell et cl** concerns the preparation of an omlay for use with Fig. 1.6.
This overlay (Rg. 10.11), constructed to the same scale, represents the path followed
on the map during tbe course of progressisr condensation or evaporation at a constant
mass >clocity. If the point marked j: = 0-5on the overlay is centred over the point on
tbe Baker map corresponding to the particular ma^s ^-elodty G and a vapour mass
quality xr = 0-5 then the line on the overlay can be used to determine the range of

quality over which each flow patiem may occur.

Stratified Flow. The stratified flow pattern corresponds to a region of small vapour
velocity and low ioterfacial shear forces. In these circumstances the Nusselt equation
for condensation on the outside of a bomontal tube (eq. (10.71) ) can be applied in a
modified form. assumed that a laminar film of condensate runs down tbe inside
It is

upper surface of the tube and collects as a stratified layer of liquid in the lower part
of the tube (Fig. 10.12)

n .. ^ [<’.<<’1 p-igyvi* ( lo . ioi )

The factor F allows for the fact that the rate of condensation on the stratified lajer of
liquid running along the bottom of the tube is aegli^ble. The value of F depends on
328
 CONDENSATION
the angle 2^ subtended from the tube centre to
the chord Ibrming
Thus, the liquid level.

F = (l-^F^ (10.102)

where values of
and Fare given as a function of 0 in Table 10.5. In the limit as 2(j)
zero F equals 0-725; cf. eq. (10.71).
3to concluded that the heat transfer coefficient was not particularly sensitive

329
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
to the angle and suggested a mean value of 120®. In the study by Chato and the
2<f>

earlier analysis of Chaddock*’ it was assumed that the vapour is stagnant and that
the condensate flows under a hydraulic gradient (Fig. 10.13a). In this case, the angle
2^ decreases with length along the tube. The alternative and perhaps more common
situation** is when there is a pressure gradient and the condensate at the tube outlet
fills the tube cross-section (Fig. 10,I3b). In this latter case, the angle 2^ increases with
length along the tube and may be related to the void fraction a by the following
relationship if the condensate film is of negligible thickness

(W.I03)

Table 10.5 Values of the Factors Fand F*

For Tamimr pum Stratified Condensa-
tion in a Honzonta] Tube

S/uy, Plugand Wavy Plow. These flow patterns, although still basically stratified,
correspond to situations where the vapour shear forces are significant Using the

( b) Pressure gradient (Rofer and Keaios)

Fig. 10.13. Exit Conditions in Stratified Condensation

330
 CONDENSATION
nomenclature of Lockhart and Martinelli the flow regime is viscous-turbulent (vt)
(G^DlUg > 2000, GfDlni < 2000). Point measurements of the condensing film co-
efficients for methanol and acetone have been reported by Rosson and Myers^° for

condensation within a horizontal tube under such conditions. Coefficients were found
to var>' greatlyfrom the top to the bottom of the tube. Near the top of the tube the
was independent of the amount of liquid in the tube and was correlated
film coefficient
by including the effect of vapour shear on Fin eq. (10.101). Thus

F = 0-31 (10.104)

Near the bottom of the tube the analogy between heat and momentum transfer was
coefficient. Thus
used to predict the

h^z)Dl _
(10.105)
fcf
J 5[l+(l/Prf)ln(l-t-5Prf)]

where 4>[yt is the square root of the two-phase pressure drop multiplier (defined by
eq. (2.48)) for the case of viscous-turbulent flow. The appropriate equation for
evaluating is eq. (2.68) with C set to a value of 12.

An example of the variation of heat transfer coefficient around the tube circmn-
ference for methanol is At some angle, 6^, the local heat transfer
given in Fig. 10.14.
coefficient is the arithmetic average of the upper and lower tube coefficients. Rosson
and Myers found that the angle was a function of the liquid and vapour superficial
Reynolds numbers and a grouping designated the Galileo number, Ga:

'D^PtiPs-P^g'
Ga = (10.106)
. P"
This relation is shown in Fig. 10.15 where (OJn) is plotted against the superficial

vapour Reynolds number with [Ga/(GfD//if)°'^] as parameter. Marked on Fig. 10.15

is the value of (OJn) corresponding to the conditions of the example given in Fig. 10. 14.

The slope (d(A,(z) )/d0) at 0„ was found to be a function of the product of the super-
ficial vapour Reynolds number and the mean temperature drop through the condensate

film, (Fji — Fw). Thus

'

ci(/-t(z))'
(10.107)
dO _ate. . Pz

where h({z) is measured in kW/m^ deg, 0 in radians, and (Fgj — F^) in °C, or
~
~G D
= 12,000 -^(F,i-Fw) (10.108)
L T'g J

where h[(z) is measured in Btu/h.ft^ °F, 0 in degrees, and (F^j-F^) in °F.

Annular Flow. In this flow pattern, well away from the boundaries with wavy and slug

33J
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
flow, the correlations of Carpenter
and Berenson*’ (eq. (10.92)),
and Colburn** (eq. (10.91) ), of Soliman, Schui
of DaUer,*‘ and of Kunz and Yerazunis** may sr
^
used. In the es’aluation of the wall shear stress, r,, the grasitatlonal force, r, (cf. 2

X)0 120 to 160 100

1
!
mmm
» '

»i 1 iIMMiBUB
n pi

Al 1mwmm
1g|i1
1nm
m
m
HBH
N

m 1
Fig. 10.14. Circumferential Vanatioa of Local Condensmg Heat Transfer Coeffiaent
(Kosson and Mjxis)

(10.94)),is not now included. Ananiev a/ a/.** propose a particularly simple relation-
at
ship to corrclate their data for the condensation of steam in a horizontal tube
in a
elevated pressiucs. The analogy between liquid film flow and single-phase flow
pipe is used (cf. section 7,4) to correlate tbrir results
 CONDENSATION

Mz) = /«fo (10.109)

where is the heat transfer coefficient to liquid flowing at the same total flow-rate
in the tube and p is the homogeneous mean density of the vapour-liquid mixture given
by eq. (2.23).
The average coefficient Tif for complete condensation of a vapour is approximately
given by

Tit
( 10 . 110)

These relationships are recommended for values of (Pf/Pg) less than 50.

Fig. 10.15. Location of Midpoint of Heat Transfer Coefficient Versus Angle (Rosson and
Myers)

10.5.4 Condensation Outside a Horizontal Tube

The influence of vapour shear on the heat transfer coefficient for flow across a hori-
zontal tube has been considered analytically by Shekriladze and Gomelauri.'^® It was
assumed that the of the momentum lost by
interfacial shear occurs solely as a result
the condensing vapour. Assuming no separation of the laminar vapour boundary
layer and laminar flow within the condensate film, the following equation is given
for the case where the cross flow is downward over the tube

r|gi,o. 64 r'^f.+{i+i- 68 .
ni* ( 10 . 111 )

where Mg„ is the vapour velocity approaching the tube.

333
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The term within the curly brackets tends to unity as the vapour velocity increases
and, for the case where gravitational forces are negligible, eq. (10.111) becomes

Equation (10.11 1) is in reasonable agreement with the results of Berman and Tuma-
nov,®® At high values of Reynolds number (> 10®), separation of the boundary layer
occursand the experimental results fall below eq. (10. Ill) and approach a parallel curve
corresponding to separation at 0 = 82“.The equation for this lower curve is the same
as eq. (10.111) but with 0 64 replaced by 042. Further analytical and experimental
work should be directed to the study of vapour shear within tube bundles and the
interaction with condensate drainage.

10.6 Condensation of Liquid Metals

Whereas the heat transfer coefheiems for the lilm-wise condensation of normal fluids
are reasonably well represented by the theories reviewed in the previous sections, the
condensation rates measured for liquid metals are much lower than the theoretical
values. Figure 10.16, taken from the report by Sukhatme and Rohsenow,*’ shows
some of the information plotted in dimensionless form.
If the mean Nusselt number is evaluated from eq. (10.59)

This may be arranged thus

Nu„/o .. (,o.U4)

In Fig. 10.16 the left hand side of eq. (10.114) is plotted against [Cpf (7',i-T'w)//f,].

This method of display allows the Nusselt theory, the recent improvements to the
theory,*®' and the experimental values to be given in the same diagram. In the case
of the experrmenfaf studies, the Nu„ term is the experfmenfa/iy determined value
assuming r,i equals the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure.
As may be seen, the liquid metal data fall well below the theoretical solutions. Attempts
have been made to explain the low results in terms of the condensation coefficient
value, the increased film thickness due to the drag at the vapour-liquid interface,’*
and by the suggestion that non-condensible gases were present in each of the tests.*’
The discrepancy has not yet been satisfacttHtly resolved.
Recent experiments*®'”'’'*'*’'®'’ with potassium and sodium vapour are in good
agreement with one another and indicate a considerable reduction in the value of the
condensation coefficient from near unity at low pressure*® to below 0-1 near atmos-
pheric pressure (Fig. 10.17). The condensation coefficient is given approximately by

334
 CONDENSATION

No. Investigator Liquid metal condensed Coolant used

1. Misra; Bonilla Mercury Water
2. Misra Bonilla
; Mercury Air
3. Cohn - Mercury Air
4. Cohn Cadmium Air
5. Roth Rubidium Air
6. Misra; Bonilla Sodium Air
Lines drawn through some of the data are correlations suggested
by the respective authors

-H
I

Pr=003
Nusselt’s
theory

N - ^Modification
Qs to Nusselt :
c J
Ref.19,20-
0 003
O) r*

*5.

cT
,C ,

r)
O)

•c

001b-
= ( porexpTldata
- ft - /7exp
j

r AT-^rrgi - TJ For theory

h-h,Nu j

0001 I 1111 t III I I I III tl I I I t mil 1 I U.UIM

00001 0 001 001 01

[cpf fZgj ~T^) j /fg]

Metal Data
Fig. 10.16. Comparison of Existing Theories with Available Liquid

the relationship.
o- = 0-062p"°'® 0 00384<p<lbar (10.115)

(T=10 p< 0-00384 bar

where p is the condenser pressure (bar)

A similar type of behaviour has been reported with water.

3S5
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Wilcox and Rohsenow*® have considered the precision with which measurements
of the condensation coefficient can be made. They conclude that the value is always
unity and that the curve shown in Fig. 10.17 is the result of increasing random errors
coupled with a bias for experimental workers to report only values of tr less than unity.
Certainly such measurements are at the limits of present-day experimental techniques.

Fig. 10.17. The Variation of Condensation Coefficient for Sodium and Potassium Vapour
with Pressure

10.7 Drop-wise Condensation

Drop-wise condensation occurs on non-wcttablc surfaces. The necessary reduction in

the intcrfacial tension between the condensate and the surface may be brought about
as a result of contamination, accidental or deliberate, i.c., removal of wettable oxide
films or by electroplating. The condensate appears in the form of droplets which grow
and coalesce with adjacent droplets. Subsequently they roll or fall from the surface
under the action of gravity or aerodynamic drag forces. New droplets then appear on
the exposed clear surface.
The mechanism of drop-wise condensation is still a mystery and quite contradictory
common m the literature. The amount of published information is
statements are
extensive since drop-wise condensation offers the attraction of increasing condensing
heat transfer coefficients by an order of magnitude over film-wise condensation.
Two fundamentally different models have been proposed. In the first it is postulated

336
 CONDENSATION
that condensation initially occurs in a film-wise manner on a thin unstable liquid film
covering all or part of the surface. On reaching a critical thickness the film ruptures
and the liquid drawn into droplets by surface tension forces. This process then
is

repeats itself. This mechanism was first put forward by Jakob’^ in 1936 and has been
reiterated since in a number of modified forms by Kast’^ and Silver^”* amongst others.
The model has been supported by the findings of a number of studies including Baer
and McKelvey,'^ Welch and Westwater,^'* and Sugawara and Katsuta** which show
condensation occurring entirely between drops in a very thin film. Welch and West-
water examined the process by taking high speed cine film through a microscope. They
concluded that droplets large enough to be visible (0-01 mm) grew mainly by coales-
cence leaving a ‘lustrous bare area*. This lustre quickly faded and they explained this
in terms of the build up of the thin film which fractured at a thickness of 0-5 to 1 fim.
Silver^"^ has attempted a quantitative treatment of drop-wise condensation based
on radially inward drainage of condensate towards a droplet. This model gives the
ratio between drop-wise and film-wise condensation rates as

'Jpir
(10.116)
_Jf_ _24‘2/jfyp_

where is the drop-wise condensation mass flux and jf is the film-wise condensation

mass flux under identical conditions. For steam at atmospheric pressure for a value
of 75 equal to T36 x 10"^ kg/m^ s (10 Ib/ft^ h) this ratio is 6-5 and the mean thickness
of the thin film is about 2 /zm.
In the alternative model of drop-wise condensation it is assumed that droplet
formation is fundamentally a heterogeneous nucleation process as discussed in section

10,2.1. This concept was first proposed in 1937 by Eucken.’‘‘ Studies by Umar and
Griflith®® and by Erb®^ support the nucleation mechanism. Using an optical method
TOth polarized light to indicate changes in the thickness of liquid films of molecular
dimensions, Umur and Griffith were able to estabh’sh that, for low temperature differ-
ences at least, the area between drops has no liquid film greater than a monolayer in
thickness and that no net condensation takes place in that area.
McCormick and Baer® have suggested that innumerable submicroscopic droplets
are randomly nucleated at active sites on the condenser surface. These active sites are
wetted pits and grooves in the surface which are continually being exposed by numerous
drop coalescences and by large drops falling from the surface. Evidence to support
this picture is being accumulated.® Recently, Grigull has produced photographic
-

evidence that preferred nucleation sites occur on the surface around the circumference
of a previously departed condensate drop.
The growth rate of a drop on an active site may be assumed to be limited by the
heat conduction through the drop . For the case of a hemispherical drop this leads to

Gose, Mucciardi, and Baer®® have developed a model for drop-wise condensation
which accounts for drop nucleation and growth, coalescence with neighbours, removal
337
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
and renucleation on sites exposed by the removal and coalescence mechanisms. The
model was simulated on a computer. In order to account for the heat transfer co-
efficients found in steady state drop-wise condensation, the minimum nucleation site
density must be 5 x 10* sites/cm*, a figure which is not unreasonable. It was also shown
that large drops greater than O-OI cm in diameter grow chiefly by coalescence. A
considerable improvement in drop-wise condensation was predicted if the nucleation
site density could be increased to 10* sitcs/cm* or if droplets could be mechanically
removed at diameters of approximately 10~* cm. One feature not simulated by this
model was the sweeping action of a large drop running down a surface absorbing all
other droplets in its path.
A very considerable amount of work remains to be carried out to establish satis-
factory explanations of all the published experimental results on drop-wise condensa-
tion. Whilst the droplet nucleation mechanism is certainly the more likely at low

condensation rates (i.e., temperature dilTecenccs up to 5°C) it is possible that at higher

condensation rates there may be a film disruption mechanism as an intermediate stage
before establishing fully developed film-wise condensation. At low temperature
difierences Le Fevre and Rose^* report drop-wise heat transfer coefficients which
increase slightly with increasing temperature difference (A^ “ 0-2 MW/m* *C at l"C
and ho = 0-27 MW/m* “C at 4‘'Q. At high temperature differences Welch and
Westwater indicate a falling heat transfer coefficient with increasing temperature
difference. This may be due to a change in mechanism or equally well to the presence
of non-condensible gases in the vapour phase.
The influence of pressure on the drop-wise coefficient for steam at a fixed heat flux
is shown in Fig. 10.18. For pressures at^ve 3 bar, O’Bara e/o/.*’ report that dro^wise

condensation is gradually replaced by a combination of drop and film condensation

and finally by film-wise condensation. This is probably brought about by the reduction
in the surface tension of water at higher temperatures. These same workers also report
on the influence of vapour velocity. For a given temperature difference, the heat
transfer coefficient increased up to a maximum value with increased vapour velocity
up to 2 m/s and then started to decrease. This was believed to be caused by the in-
creased coalescence between droplets blanketing the surface with a film of condensate.

10.8 Pressure Gradient in Condensing Systems

In condensing or evaporating systems the pressure gradient and the interfacial shear
stress (in annular flow) may be conveniently estimated using the techniques developed
in chapters 2 and 3. In these conventional methods, the process of momentum transfer
is considered to be independent of the process of vapour mass transfer to or from the

liquid film. If the mass transfer rate is large, however, the momentum transfer will be
influenced by the net vapour transport to or from the interface.

10.8.1 The Influence of Condensation on the Interfacia! Shear Stress

One simple way of considering this effect is in terms of the well-known Reynolds
analogy. This approach has been discussed by Silver** and elaborated by Wallis.*®
The Reynolds analogy, In its simplest form, considers the shear stress at a boundary
338
 CONDENSATION
to be due to some fraction of the flowing fluid hitting the surface and rebounding
after givingup its momentum to the surface. If the mass flux hitting the interface is
Cjo and mean gas and liquid velocities arc w, and u, respectively (Fig. 10.19(a) then the
)
intcrfacial shear stress in the absence of phase change is

(Ti)o = Cto(M»-Uf) (10.118)

Consider what happens in the case of a condensation

mass flux J towards the interface
from the gas phase. This can be brought about quite simply by superimposing a mass

mm
0 2

o
O

Z
c
o

gOl B
u

m
c
<0
ijujiiiiiiim B
>5
O
X
BB B 0-5

Steam pressure, bar

to

Fig. 10.18. Dropwisc Heat Transfer Coefficients as a Function of Steam Pressure (Lefevre
and Rose)

flux jjlon the situation in the absence of phase change (Fig. 10.19(b) ). The interfacial
shear stress acting on the liquid in the presence of a condensation fluxy is then

(ti)j = (e,o-y/2)(«,-«f)+J(M,-Kf) (10.119)

The first term in this expression can be related to the frictional pressure gradient and
the second term to the pressure gradient. Thus, although the interfacial
momentum
shear stress increases as a result of the momentum lost by the condensing vapour, the
frictional pressure gradient actually decreases. The interfacial shear stress acting on the
vapour is therefore

(^i)j = (eto-j72)(«,-Mf) ( 10 . 120 )

 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
As the condensation flux y becomes comparable with eq. (10.121) becomes inaccu-
rate and a better expression has been derived by Spalding’’

= (10.122)

where a = y/e,.

(a| No mass transfer

Gas
Liquid

Fig, ReyarOdi AnaJesy Applied fo Jnirr/adaJ Shear Stress in Presence of Condensa-

tion (after Silver and Wallis)

The value of may be estimated from the interfacial friction factor since

(10123)
di).

and

(10.124)
 CONDENSATION
If the interfacial friction factor is defined in terms of the superficial vapour velocity
then eq. (10.124) becomes

£go=/i'[^j=/i'|^Yj (10.125)

The procedure for calculating pressure gradient and heat transfer coefficients in
condensing systems with annular flow can be summarized in the following steps:

(a) From the known mass velocity, vapour mass quality, physical properties, and
channel geometry calculate the frictional pressure gradient term using the methods
given in chapter 2.
(b) From this estimated pressure gradient compute consistent values for the local
liquid film thickness and film flow-rate using the procedure outlined in section
3.5.4.
(c) From a knowledge of the film thickness and the film Reynolds number estimate
the local heat transfer coefficient across the liquid film using Table 7.1. Taking
into account heat transfer resistances within the vapour core due to non-conden-
sible gases, the tube wall and the cooling water, estimate a local overall heat
transfer coefficient and condensing mass flux.
(d) Compute a value of (Ti)o from the previously estimated frictional pressure gradient
and correct this for the influence of vapour mass transfer using eq. (10.121) or
(10.122) to obtain (rjg. From a knowledge of the condensing mass flux j calculate
dx/dz (= —4j/DG).
(e) Recompute the total pressure gradient in the vapour core taking into account the
reduction in interfacial shear stress due to vapour mass transfer and the momentum
lost by the condensing vapour. Return to step (b) and repeat the calculation to
obtain new estimates of the heat transfer coefficient across the film and the local
condensation rate.

As an alternative to the use of Table 7.1 in step (c) any of the methods discussed in
section 10.5 may be used with the appropriate value of the interfacial shear stress
(Ti)g (for example in eq. (10.89) ).

10.8.2 Pressure Drop in Condenser Tube Banks

The change in pressure when a condensing vapour passes over a tube bank is particu-
larly difficult to estimate especially when the absolute pressures are low and kinetic
effects areimportant as in most large condensers. Little published information has
appeared in this area primarily because of the considerable difficulties in obtaining
reliable and meaningful experimental data. Many condensers are constructed as
baffled shell-and-tube heat exchangers and the study of two-phase flow in such
geometries is at a very early stage.
Comments where the condensing
in this section are therefore limited to the situation
vapour passes in cross flow through a tube bundle. Pressure changes occur due to both
frictional (drag) effects and momentum changes. Changes in velocity due to changes
in cross-section and due to condensation both contribute to the latter component.
The frictional effects are composed of both skin friction and form drag components.
341
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Two-phase pressure drop tests oa tube banks using various gas-tiquid mixtures have
been reported by Diehl and Unruh.*®* Their experimental results were plotted as
versus a parameter { where,

Experimental data for horizontal cross flow through a tube bank with a rotated square
pitch are shown in Fig. 10.20 plotted as versus Wallis’* has compared this
result with that expected from the homogeneous model. In this case

,
(dp/drf) _ 2/„GH f„v
(10.126)
(dp/dzf)^ /^c.

Rg. 10.20. Two-Phase Pressure Drop for Turbulcnl Horizontal Cross Flow Through Tube
Bank with 45* Layout (Diehl and Uhrub)

Now
1 (g.W+(g./»J l-g ^ (10.127)
'

s Q,+Q. 't >.

Multiplying through by and subslitutiDg into eq. (10.126) gives

z_/Trr 1
^ 1 (10.128)
/r, l(x~e)(vjvt)+p\ U+^J
Assuming that the two-phase friction factor is equal to that for single-phase gas flow

and substituting for p in terms of f from eq. (10.12^ yields

 CONDENSATION

As can be seen from Fig. 10.20 this relationship is in satisfactory agreement with the
experimental data.
These results were taken in the absence of mass transfer and it is to be expected that
some reduction of form drag as well as skin friction may when condensation
result
occurs within a tube bundle. Wallis cites the experiments of Drummond^* which
confirm this expectation. The reduction in form drag can be attributed to the retarda-
tion or perhaps a complete prevention of flow separation behind the tubes as a result
of the boundary layer suction effect produced by condensation.

References

1. Hill,P. G., Witting, H., and Demetri, E. P. ‘Condensation of metal vapours during rapid
expansion’. J. of Heat Transfer, pp. 303-317, Nov. (1963.)
2. Gardner, G. C. ‘Events leading to erosion in the steam turbine’. Troc. Inst. Mech. Engrs.,
178, Pt. I, No. 23 (1963-64).
3. Stever, H. G. ‘Fundamentals of gas dynamics,’ edited by H. W. Eammons. (Princeton)
(1958).
4. Tolman, R. C. J. Chem. Phys., 17, 333-337 (1949).
5. Ryley, D. J. ‘Phase equilibrium in low pressure steam turbines’. Int. J. Mech. Scu, 6,
28-46 (1961).
6. Mason, B. J. Proc. Phys. Soc., P. 64, 773 (1951).
7. Oswatitsch, K. Z. Angew. Math. u. Mech., 22, 1-13 (1942).
8. McCormick, J. L. and Baer, E. ‘On the mechanism of heat transfer in dropwise condensa-
tion’. J. Colloid Sci., 18, 208 (1963).
9. Knacke, O. and Stranski, I. N. ‘The mechanism of evaporation’. Progress in Metal

Physics, No. 6, pp. 181-235, edited by B. Chalmers and R. King, Pergamon Press (1956).
10. Schrage, R. W. A theoretical study of interphase mass transfer. Columbia University
Press, N.Y. (1953).
11. Kucherov, R. Ya. and Rikenglaz, L. E. ‘The problem of measuring the condensation
coefficient’. Doklady Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 133, No. 5, 1130-1131 (1960).
12. Danon, F. ‘Topics in statistical mechanics of fluids’. USAEC Report UCRL 10029
(1962).
13. Sukhatme, S. P. and Rohsenow, W. M. ‘Heat transfer during film condensation of a
liquid metal vapour’. Report MlT-2995-1, April (1964).
14. Subbotin, V. I., Ivanoskii, M. N. et a!. ‘Heat exchange in the condensation of potassium
vapour’. Teplofizika Vyso. Temp., 2, No. 1, 612-622 (1964).
15. Nusselt, W. ‘Die Oberflachenkondensation des Wasserdampfes’. Zeitschr. Ver. deutsch.
Ing.,541 and 569 (1916).
60’,

16. Bromley, L.A, ‘Effect of heat capacity of condensate’. Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 2966 (1952).
17. Rohsenow, W. M. ‘Heat transfer and temperature distribution in laminar film condensa-
tion’. Trans. ASME, 78, 1645-1648 (1956).
18. Sparrow, E. M. and Gregg, J. L. ‘A boundary-layer treatment of laminar film condensa-
Heat Transfer, Series C., 81, 13 (1959).
tion’. J.
19. Chen, M. M. ‘An analytical study of laminar film condensation. Part I—flat plates’.
J. of Heat Transfer, Series C., 83, 48-55 (1961).
20. Koh, J. C. Y., Sparrow, E. M., and Hartnett, J. P. ‘The two-phase boundary layer in
laminar film condensation’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 2, 69-82 (1961).
21.' Kirkbride, C. G. ‘Heat transfer by condensing vapour on vertical tubes’. Trans. AIChE,
30, 170 (1^3-34).

343
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
22. Coibum, A. P. ‘The calculation of condensation where a portion of the condensate layer
is in turbulent motion*. Trans. AIChE, 30, 187 (1933-34).
23. Seban, R. A. ‘Remarks on film condensation with turbulent flow’. Trans. ASME 76, 299
(1954).
24. Carpenter, E. F. and Colburn, A. P. The effect of vapour velocity on condensation inside
tubes’. Proc. of General Discussion on Heat Transfer, pp. 20-26, Inst. Mech. Engrs./ASME
(1951).
25. Rohsenow, W. M., Webber, J. H and Ling. A. T. ‘Effect of vapour velocity on laminar
,

and turbulent film condensation*. Trorti. ASAfE, 78, 1637-1643 (1956).

26. Dukler, A. E. ‘Fluid mechanics and heat transfer in vertical falling film systems’. Chem.
Eng. Prog, Symp. Series No. 30, 56, 1 (1960). together with appendix supplied by author.
27. Lee, Jon. ‘Turbulent film condensation’. AIChE J. 10, 540-544 (1964).
28. Colburn, A. P. and Hougen, O. A. 'Design of cooler condensers for mixtures of vapours
with non-condensing gases’. Ind. Eng. Chem , 26(1 1), 1 17S-1182 (1934).
29. Ananiev, E. P., Boyko, L. D, and Kruzhilin. G
N. ‘Heat transfer in the presence of
steam condensation in horizontal tube*. Int. Deiehp in Heat Transfer, Part II. Paper 34,
pp. 290-295 (1961). Int. Heat Transfer Conf., held Boulder, Colorado, 1J.S A , Aug.
1961.
30. Rosson, H. F. and Myers, J. A. ‘Point Values of Condensing film coefficients inside a
horizontal tube*. Chem. Eng. Symp. Senes. 61 (59) ‘Heat Transfer Cleveland’, pp.—
190-199(1965).
31. Lee, Jon. ‘Remarks on the liquid metal condensation*. C/iem Eng Symp. Serles,6l{S9).
'Heat transfer—Cleveland’, pp 200-209(1965)
32. Kunz, H. R. and Yerazunis, S ‘An analysis of film condensation, film evaporation and
single phase heat transfer*. Paper presented at 9th ASME-AlChE Heat Transfer Meeting,
Seattle. Aug 1967, 67.HT-1.
33. Labuntsov, D. A. and Smirnov, S I. ‘Heal transfer in condensation of liquid metal
vapours’. 3'd Int. Heat Transfer Conf, ASME-AlChE Chicago, Vol 2, pp. 329-336
(1966).
34. Silver, R. S. ‘An approach to a general theory of surface condensers’. Proc Inst. Meeh
Engrs., 178, Part 1. No. 14. pp. 339-376 (1964)
35- Silver, R, S and Simpson, H. C. ‘The condensation of superheated steam*. Proc. of Nat
Engrg. Lab Conf, Glasgow, Scotland (1961)
36. Misra, B. and Bonilla, C. F. 'Heat transfer in condensation of metal vapours: Mercury
and sodium up to atmospheric pressure’. Chem Eng Prog. Symp. Series 52, No. 18,
pp. 7-21 (1956).
37. Aladyev, I. T., Kondratyev, H. S , Mukhin, V, A.. Kpshidze, M. E Porfentyeva, I ,

and Kisselev, V. V. ’Thermal resistance of phase transition with condensation of potassium

vapour’. 3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conf, Vol II, pp. 313-317 (1966)
38. Wilhelm, D. 3. ’Condensation of metal vapours mercury and kinetic theory of conden-
sation’. ANL-6948 (1964).
39. Johnstone, R. K. M
and Smith. W. ‘Rate of condensation or evaporation during short
exposures ol a quiescent Liquid*. 3rd int. Heat Transfer Conf, Vo). 11, paper 78, pp
348-353 (1966)
40. Shekriladzc, I. O and Comelauri, V. I. *Theorctical study of laminar film condensation
of flowing vapour’. Int. J Heal Mass Transfer, 9, 581-591 (1966).
41. Jacobs, H. R. ‘An integral irealment of combing body force and forced convection in
laminar film condensation'. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 9, 637-648 (1966).
42. Barry, R. E. and Balzhizer, R. E. ‘Condensation of sodium at high heat fluxes’. 3rd Int
Heat Transfer Conf, Vol. II, paper 75, pp. 318-328 (1966)
43. Mendelson, H. and Yerazunis, S. ‘Mass transfer at high mass fluxes’. AIChE J., 11,
834 (1965).
44. Akers, W. W., Davis, S. H and Crawford, J. E. ‘Condensation of a vapour in the presence
of a non-condensing gas*. Chem Eng. Prog. Symp. Series 56 (30), 139-144 (I960).

344
 CONDENSATION
45. Sparrow, E. M. and Eckert, E. R. G. of superheated vapour and non-condensible
‘Effects
gases on laminar film condensation.’ AIChEJ., 7
(3), ATi-All (1961).
46. Diehl, J. E. ‘Calculate Condenser Pressure Drop’. Petroleum
Refiner, 36, 147-153 (1957).
47. Diehl, J. H. and Unruh, C. H. ‘Two-phase pressure drop for horizontal
cross-flow
through tube banks’. AS ME
Paper No. 58-HT-20 (1958).
48. Ackermann, G. ‘Simultaneous heat and mass transfer with large temperature and partial
pressure differences’ (in German). Ver. deutscher Ing. Forsch., 8 (382), 1-16 (1937).
49. Minkowycz, W. J. and Sparrow, E. M. ‘Condensation heat transfer in the presence of
non-condensibles, interfacial resistance, superheating, variable properties and diffusion’
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 9, 1125-1144 (1966).
50. Sparrow, E. M., Minkowycz, W. and Saddy, M. ‘Forced convection condensation
J.,
in the presence of non-condensibles and interfacial resistance’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
10, 1829-1845 (1967).
51. Drummond, G. Heriot-Watt —
University, Edinburgh, Scotland Personal communication
to G. B. Wallis (1966).
52. Othmer, D. F. ‘The condensation of steam’. Jnd. Chem. Eng., 21, 576-583 (1929).
53. Drew, T. B. See McAdams, W. H., Heat Transmission, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill, New York
(1954).
54. Welch, J. F. and Westwater, J. W. ‘Microscopic Study of Dropwise Condensation’.
International developments in heat transfer, ASME, Part II (1961).
55. Sugawara, S. and Katsuta, K. ‘Fundamental study on dropwise condensation’. 3rd Int.
Heat Transfer Conference ASME-AIChE. Vol. II, pp. 354-361 (1966).
56. Umur, A. and Griffith, P. ASME Paper 64-WA/HT-3, J. of Heat Transfer, pp. 275-282,
May (1965).
57. Erb, R. A. and Thelen, E. ‘Dropwise Condensation’. First International Symposium on
Water Desalination, Washington, D.C., 1965. See also Erb, R.A., Ph.D. Diss., Temple
University, 1965.
58. Le Fevre, E. J. and Rose, J. W. ‘A Theory of heat transfer by dropwise condensation’.
3rd Int. Heat Transfer Conference, Chicago, ASME-AIChE, Volume II, paper 80, pp.
362-375 (1966).
59. Gose, E., Mucciordi, A. N., and Baer, E. ‘Model for dropwise condensation on randomly
distributed sites’. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 10, 15-22 0967).
60. Kroger, D. G. and Rohsenow, W. M. ‘Film condensation of saturated potassium vapour’.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 10, 1891-1894 (1967).
61. Fuks, S. N. ‘Heat transfer with condensation of steam flowing in a horizontal tube
bundle’. Teploenergetika, 4 (1), 35-38 (1957). N.E.L. Trans. 1041.
62. Grant, I. D. R. and Osment, D. D. J. ‘The effect of condensate drainage on condenser
performance’. N.E.L. Report 350 (1968).
63. Soliman, M., Schuster, J. R., and Berenson, P. J. ‘A general heat transfer correlation
for annular flow condensation’. J. of Heat Transfer, pp. 267-276, May (1968).
64. Zivi, S. M. ‘Estimation of steady state steam void fraction by means of the principle of
minimum entropy production’. J. of Heat Transfer, pp. 247-257, May (1964).
65. Bell, K. J., Taborek, J., and Fenoglio, F. ‘Interpretation of horizontal in-tube condensa-
tion' heat transfer correlations using a two-phase flow regime map’. A.I.Ch.E. preprint
No. 18, presented at 11th Nat. U.S. Heat Transfer Conf., Minneapolis, Minn., Aug.
(1969.)
66. Chato, J. C. ‘Laminar condensation inside horizontal and inclined tubes’. A.S.H.R.A.E.
Journal, 4, 52-60 (1962).
67. Chaddock, J. B. ‘Film condensation of vapours in horizontal tubes’. Refrig. Engrg., 65,
36-41 and 90-95 (1957).
68. Rufer, C. E. and Kezios, S. P. ‘Analysis of two-phase one component stratified
flow with
condensation’. J. of Heat Transfer, pp. 265—275, Aug. (1966).
69. Berman, L. D. and Tumanov, Yu. A. ‘Condensation heat transfer in a vapour flow over
a horizontal tube’. Teploenergetika, 10, 77-84 (1962).

345
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
70. Wlcox, S. J. and Rohscnow, W. M. ‘film osndensation of liquid metals precision of —
measurement’. M.I.T. Report D.S.R. 71475^2(1969).
71. Jakob, M. Meeh. Engrg., 58, 729 (1936).
72. Kast, W. Chemie-Ingr. Tech., 35, 163 (1963).
73. Baer, E, and McKclvey, J. M. ‘Heat transfer in dropwise condensation’. Proc. of symp
on heat transfer in drop^'ise eondensation, p. 24. Newark, University of Delaware (1958).
74. Eucken, A. Naturwissenschaften, 25, 209 (1937).
75. O’Bara, J. T., KilHon, E. S., and Robicc, L. H. S. ‘Dropwise condensation of steam at
atmospheric and above atmospheric pressure*. Chem. Eng. Se., 22, 1305-1314 (1967).
76. Walhs, G. B. One dimensional two-phase flow. McGraw Hill Book Co. N.Y. (1969).
77. Spalding, D. B. Conveethe Mass Transfer. McGraw Hill Book Co., N.Y. (1963).

Example I

A 56 mm o.d. vertical tube condenser operates at a pressure of 1-53 x 10* N/m* and
condenses steam free from non-coodcnsible gas at a rate of 25 kg/h per tube. Deter-
mine the heat transfer coefficient and the length of tube required if the temperature
drop across the condensate film is 5“C

Solution
The saturation tempwraturc of steam al 1*53 x 10* N/m* is S4-4®C and the latent
heat of vaponzaiion is 2'37 MJ/kg. The ph)'sical properties of the condensate arc:
5-32x10“* Ns/m*
fci= 0 64W/mdeg.
Pr = 985 kg/m*
Calculate the film Reynolds number
4ir 4x25
* n D/I, " 297
>r56 x 10‘* x 5-32 x 10“*

The flow in the condensate film is laminar and eq. (10.65) is used.

1-47 RCr"* (10.65)

In this case p, P p, and rearranging

fi, = l 47r^r* Rc,-.=,.47r^i‘

ro-64’>i985’x9'8061t
~ l-47(2-97xl0'")*
'L297><(5-32xI0-‘)'J

.4S4kW;m='C
In line with the recommendation of section 10.4.3 this coefficient will be multiplied
by a correction factor 1-2 to allow for the discrepancy between the theoretical
Nussclt value and the observed higher experimental values.

S, « 1
-2 (say) X 4-54 = 5;45kW/n^
346
 CONDENSATION
The length of tube required can be determined by equating the heat given up by
the condensing vapour to the heat transfer rate across the condensate film. Thus,

Wii^ = KDzn,(T,,-T,y)

25x2-37xl0«
ZT^rr = nx56xlO ^XZX 5'45 X 10® X 5
JOUU

25x2-37xl0« ...
z = 3-43 m
7t X 56 X 5-45 X 5 X 3600

PROBLEMS
1. For the case of vapour condensation in the presence of non-condensible gas derive
an approximate expression for the effective temperature difference at the interface
in terms of the molal concentration of gas at the interface (Cj;). Assume that the
interface is saturated and the concentration of gas in the bulk mixture is small

Answer : - T^j) = In (1 -
C„,)J

2. Condensation of heptane takes place a horizontal tube 20

in mm
i.d. The vapour

enters the tube dry saturated at a pressure of 10 bar and a flow-rate of 100 kg/h.
Compute the variation of heat transfer coefficient with vapour quality for a constant
temperature difference between vapour and tube wall of 10°C. How long will the
tube require to be for complete condensation?
3. If the vapour flow-rate in problem 2 is reduced to 10 kg/h what will be the flow
pattern in the horizontal tube? If the condensate at the tube outlet fills the tube
cross-section calculate the variation of heat transfer coefficient with vapour quality.
How long will the tube require to be for complete condensation in this case ?

347
 11

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE PERFORMANCE

OF BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS

11.1 Introduction

In this chapter consideration will be given to methods of improving the performance

of boiling and condensing heat transfer surfaces. Two aspects will be considered;
firstly, methods of improving the heat transfer coefScient in boiling and condensing

systems, and secondly, methods of increasing the critical heat flux fora boiling system.
The latter part of the chapter is taken up with the problem of including the non-linear
behaviour of the boiling side heat transfer characteristic m design methods and also a
short comment on the related problems of corrosion and deposition in boiling systems,
and their interaction with the hydraulic and thermal characteristics.
As part of a comprehensive account of methods of augmenting convective heat
have examined the various ways of enhancing heat transfer
transfer, Berglcs et a!*^
in boiling and condensing equipment. Heat transfer coefficients in such equipment
are normally much higher than for single-phase heat exchange units. However, there
are circumstances when, for thermodynamic reasons, it is essential to transfer a given
heat load at the lowest possible temperature driving force. Examples of such equip-
ment are multi-stage long tube evaporators for use in desalination plants and con-
denser-rcboiler units in low temperature tonnage oxygen production. Considerable
efforts have therefore been made to improve the heat transfer coefficients in boiling
and condensation by various means.
Highly rated heat exchange equipment is often limited by the value of the critical
heat flux on the evaporating side. Examples where such is the case include water-tube
boilers, nuclear reactors cooled by high pressure water, and rocket motors cooled by
cryogenic fluids. A considerable amount of attention has been and is being paid to
seeking methods of improving the value of the critical heat flux. Much of this work is
empirical; a systematic approach will only come with an understanding of the various
mechanisms of the critical heat flux phenomenon in forced convective boiling

11.2 Methods of Improving the Heat Transfer Coefficient in Nucleate Boiling

This section will deal with methods that have been suggested for the improvement of

heat transfer coefficients in the nucleate boiling region. In the ‘two-phase forced con-
vection region’ where evaporation occurs at the liquid film-vapour core interface,

348
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
heat transfer coeflScients are considerably higher than for nucleate boiling
and are
amongst the highest recorded.
Methods for the improvement of performance in the nucleate boiling region depend
on achieving sustained nucleation at a lower superheat than with a normal smooth
surface. In chapter 4 it was noted that nucleation occurs at gas or vapour-filled
cavities in the heating surface and that the superheat at which nucleation occurs de-
pends critically on the size and distribution of these cavities and on the temperature
gradient away from the heating surface. Not all surface cavities can retain vapour or
gas and therefore be active. Some cavities may become deactivated as the surface is
‘out-gassed’ by prolonged boiling. Liquid rushing back into the cavity after the
departure of the previous bubble is able to condense the vapour remaining in the
cavity completely and thus deactivate the site. This mechanism, which will be termed

‘nucleation instability’ is of considerable importance in the boiling of liquid metals.^

The key to improved performance, then, is the provision of more nucleation sites
which are stable for prolonged periods. Ideally these cavities should be at or close to
the optimum size for the given temperature gradient from the surface.

11 . 2.1 Roughened Surfaces

Roughening the boiling surface is one obvious method of providing a potentially

greater number of nucleation sites. Two methods of providing surface roughness have
been used in boiling experiments. In some studies a systematic pattern of grooves or
scratches^’ ^ has been applied to the surface; in others the surface has been roughened
^
by using various grades of emery cloth or by sandblasting.'^
The first study of roughened surfaces was that of Jakob and Fritz^ who boiled
water at atmospheric pressure on a horizontal copper plate. Figure 11.1 shows some
of the results obtained with different prepared surfaces. The most efficient surface was
one on which a square grid of square section grooves 0-172 mm wide by 0-152 mm
deep on 0-477 mm centres (0-0068 in. wide by 0-006 in. deep on 0-0188 in. centres) had
been cut. This treatment increased the heat transfer coefficient to some four times the
value for the smooth surface. In all cases, however, after prolonged boiling much of the

gain in heat transfer coefficient due to roughness disappeared, indicating that the new
larger cavities were not stable.
Corty and Foust** used surfaces roughened by emery paper. These authors were the
firstto explain the relationship between the nucleate boiling curve and surface rough-
ness in terms of the cavities on the heat transfer surface. The scratch marks produced
by the various grades of emery paper ranged from 0-254 to 25-4 pm (10 to 1000 pin.) in
width and 0-05 to 0-635 pm (2 to 25 pin.) in R.M.S. depth. This method of preparation
appeared to produce a large number of cavities of uniform size since there was little
if any increase in surface temperature with increasing heat flux. Under these con-

ditions the roughest surfaces yielded heat transfer coefficients for various organic
liquids up to 60 per cent higher than the smoothest (Fig. 11.2).
A study of boiling heat transfer from scored copper surfaces using water and mer-
cury is reported by Bonilla, Grady, and Avery.* The scratches (approximately 75 pm
(3000 pin.) wide by 2-5-5 pm (100-200 pin.) deep) were spaced from
1-56 to 12-7mm
mm (t^ in. to in) apart and were formed using a weighted steel
scriber. The highest
i
349
 )

k I Surface with roughness growea

B 2 After 4 houn bolLng * 21 ho« lying in water
* 3 After 6 •• ..
o 4 Roughened by sand blast Water boiling on
A 5 Oxidized by long use and re^sarxlUasted copper strfece
* S Aner lcng» tjse
’~7 Smooth chrome plated strface
kW/m*

flux

he&t

Surface

^ ,

Fig. 11,1. Effect of Surface Roughness on Initial and Prolonged Boiling Heat Transfer Rates
(Jakob and Fntz)

Surface roughrtess R MS

r ( 1 1 1

- n-Pentane boiling on nickel surface

V
-X
-

0 01 02 03 OS 06 07
Surface roughness (/zm RMS)
Fig. 11.2. Temperature Difference Needed to Support a Heat Transfer Coefficient of 5-67
kW/m* deg (1000 Btu/h ft* ‘F) as a Function of Surfa^ Roughness (Data of Corly and Foust)

350
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
heat transfer coefficients were produced on surfaces where the scratches were 2 to 2-5
bubble departure diameters apart, i.e., 6-35 mm
spacing for water at atmospheric
pressure. The maximum improvement in the heat transfer coefficient for boiling water
varied from 80 per cent to 30 per cent greater than the smooth surface with the value
decreasing as the heat flux increased.
It may beconcluded that mechanical roughening of a surface is not altogether a
satisfactory practical method of improving performance. The major difficulty is the
long term stability of the larger nucleation sites.

(a) Natural
re-entrant
cavity

(b) Artificially
fabricated
re-entrant
cavity
I

Fig. 11.3. Re-Entrant Cavities

11.2.2 Specially Prepared Surfaces

Other surfaces which provide far more stable sites are potentially more attractive.
to nucleate, the
Whilst the mouth of the cavity determines the superheat required
characteristics of the cavity walls
internal shape and volume together with the wetting
nucleating cavity. The thermal diffusivity of
the surface
determine the stability of the
re-entrant cavities of the
is also an important parameter. has been shown* that
It
and will continue to nucleate when conica
shape shown in Fig. 1 1.3(a) are very stable
this type is shown in Fig. 1 1.3(b).
cavities have been snuffed out. An artificial cavity of
heating surfaces with such artificial
It would be impractical to produce commercial
finish are found to have a large number of
cavities. However, certain types of surface

JJI
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
naturally occurring re-entrant type cavities. Such surfaces include porous ^elds and
sprayed stainless steel coatings.* Boiling off such surfaces show-s a significant improve-
ment over the smooth surface case which dt«s not deteriorate with time, under clean
conditions. Corrugated tubing with a bonded porous metallic coat 0- 1 to 1 mm thick
is now available commercially.*® The pore siie range is from 1 to 1 50 pm. Corrugating
the tube allows some enhancement of the inside surface coefficient which would other-
wise limit the os crall heal transfer rate and thus reduce the potential benefit from the
porous surface. The boiling side performance of this commercial tubing, compared

A fstf /F

Rg. IM. The performance of commercial tubing wih porous metallic coat in water at
aimosphenc pressure (Source: Union Carbide)

with that of a fluted tube and a plain copper surface, is shown in Fig. 1 1.4. This tjT®
of surface is probably only suitable for clean, non-corfosi\c conditions. The mechan-
ism of boiling withm porous media is such that salts will tend to concentrate in the
pores resulting possibly in enhanced corrosion. This question will be returned to at
the end of this chapter when the problem of deposition and corrosion in boiling

systems is discussed
An entirely differentapproach to the problem of stabiliang nuclealion sites has
been taken by Young and Hummel.® They haN-e shown that if a heated surface which
is normally wetted by the liquid is provided with a number of poorly wetted spots
then

very large improvements in performance are achitsed. In the study reported by these
workers, water was boiled on a stainless stwl surface made non-wetting over certain

small areas by Teflon spots.

352
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
Figure 11.5 shows the relative performance of four types of surface; acid
cleaned,
pitted, pitted with Teflon inclusions,and a smooth surface with sprayed Teflon spots!
Marto and Rohsenow* have shown that cavities with walls that are not wetted are
stable under all conditions. This may provide the reason for the dramatic
improvement
noted with the Teflon prepared surfaces. Vapour formation was noted at superheats

AfsAi,”F

£
3
m

£
U
§
u
u
a>
17)

!P
Ol
X

Fig. 11.5. Results of Young and Hummel for Various Specially Prepared Surfaces

of 1 to 1-5°C (2 to 3°F) indicating that sites of the order of 250 fim (0-010 in.) in
diameter are active. Preliminary studies by Young and Hummel suggest that 30 to 60
poorly wetted spots per cm^, 250 /tm or less in diameter is about the right site density
for stainless steel surfaces. There is, however, some evidence that after prolonged
operation the Teflon spots may tend to separate from the base metal surface.
Further studies of nucleate pool boiling on stainless steel surfaces coated with very
thin layers of Teflon (7-5 /tm to 35 /m thick) have been reported by Vachon et An
353
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
improvement in performance was observed for the thinnest coatings (7*5 fim) only.
With the thicker coatings the insulating effect of the coating outweighed any advantage
from the improved nucleation characteristics.
Heat transfer rates may also be increased by the application of various force fields.
These effects are discussed together with the influence on the critical heat flux in
section 11.4.

11.3 Methods of Improving the Heat Transfer Coefficient in Condensation

This section deals briefly with methods that have been used to enhance heat transfer
coefficients during condensation. An cxceltent review of such methods has been pre-
pared by Williams, Nandapurkar, and Holland.*^ The methods used to improve heat
transfer rates fall into three categories:

(a) changes to the geometry of the surface to increase the available area or to promote
more rapid removal of condensate,
(b) treatment of the surface to promote drop-wise rather than film-wise condensation,
(c) use of force fields.

lU.I The Influence of Surface Geometry

The on film-wise condensation of artificially roughened surfaces has been
influence
examined by Spencer and Ibele** and by Medwtll and Kicol.** At low film Reynolds
numbers the coefficients lie below the smooth tube value because the roughened sur-
face appean to retain condensate due to surface tension forces. At higher Reynolds
numbers (> 140) the heat transfer coefficients are larger than for smooth surfaces.
No systematic study has been reported on the behaviour of finned surfaces during
film-wise condensation. Beatty ei al.**' have examined the performance of integral
finned tubes in horizontal and vertical orientations within small test condensers.
Although the overall heat transfer coefficient for the finned surface was about 15 per
cent lower than the smooth surface value the increase in the surface area per unit
length of tube was such that a net increase in the heat transfer rate was observed. K
should be observed that condensate may be held within the gap between narrow spaced
fins.
One of the most promising methods of enhancing film-wise condensation coefficients
isby fluting the tube. This improvement was first demonstrated by Gregorig*’ who
obtained condensation coefficientsmany times those for plain tubes. The enhance-
ment comes about from the fact that the condensate is drawn into and runs down
within the grooves in the surface leaving a very thin film on the ridge of each flute
of the tube. The movement of condensate into the groove is brought about by surface
tension forces resulting from changes in the radii of curvature of the surface and to a
lesser extent by temperature gradient effects. The local heat transfer coefficient is thus
high at the ridge and low at the groove with the average coefficient being much
greater than that for a plain tube. When the condensate flow becomes too great to be
carried entirely within the grooves, flooding occurs and a sharp drop in the heat
transfer coefficient results. The increase in heat transfer coefficient and the onset of

354
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
flooding are dearly functions of the design of a particular tube. Tj-pical
values for
heat transfer coeffidents during the condensation of steam are 50-70 kW/m^
°C for
the non-flooded condition."® The drainage of the condensate into the groove means
that the heat transfer coefficients are practically independent of length. compre- A
hensive series of experiments on the performance of fluted tubes investigating such
features as vapour velodty, tube orientation and the presence of non-condensibles has
been reported by Camovos.®®
Various methods of producing fluted commercial tubing are currently being exam-
ined. It appears possible to cany out the process of fluting in such a way that the
inside tube coeffident is increased in addition to increasing the outside condensation
coeffidenL
A
similar enhancement to that caused by fluting can be achieved by placing wires
along a vertical condenser tube. Again, surface tension forces cause the condensate to
flow towards the wires and to drain as rivulets alongside the wire. Thomas®® made a
theoretical to optimize the number of wires around the tube
and experimental study
circumference. He
found that the highest heat transfer coeffident was achieved when
the number of uires (n) was given by

018 kZ)
( 11 . 1 )

where D is the tube diameter and r/the wire diameter. Some further improvement may
be achieved by spirally winding the wires around the tube.

113.2 The Promotion of Dropwise Condensation

One obvious method of enhancing condensation heat transfer rates is by inducing
drop-wise rather than film-wise condensation upon the surface. Since water and
organics wet most metal surfaces, it is necessary to treat the surface in some way so as
to make it non-wetting (i.e., hydrophobic, in the case of water). Three methods have
been tried. These are;

(a) chemically coated surfaces

(b) polymer coated surfaces
(c) electroplated surfaces.

Much of the early work on drop-wise condensation was concerned with the identifica-
tion of various chemicals to act as effident promoters. A
suitable substance to act as a

promoter consists of Dvo parts; an active and inactive group. The active group attaches
the surface and usually consists of COOH, OCSS, SH, SS, or Se radicals whilst
itself to

the inactive group consists of a long-chain hydrocarbon which is exposed to the steam.
An excellent review of the work on chemical promoters has been given by Osment and
Tanner.®^ Chemical promoters tend to be removed from the surface within a short
time period and there is a gradual reversal from drop-wise to film-wise condensation.
Periodic injection of the promoter into the condensing vapour has been attempted but,
in general, the use of chemical coated surfaces has not been particularly successful.
In an attempt to find more permanent hydrophobic coatings attention has been
attention
directed to the use of polymer coated surfaces. In particular, considerable

355
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
has been directed at the use of Teflon ^lytctrafluorethylene) coatings. As with the
application in boiling, the coating thickness must be sufficiently thin to ensure that the
enhancement of the condensation coefficient is not offset by the insulating effect of

the coating. Much attention has therefore been paid to the development of processes for
coating surfaces with very thin (0-2S to 1 pm) uniform films which adhere to the metal
base. A number of users*** of Teflon-covered surfaces have reported a tendency to peel
as they age or become damaged. For many years it was thought that only steam could
be made to condense in a drop-wise manner. However, the very low surface free
energy of Teflon coatings renders them non-wetting to many liquids including a
number of organics.
A further method of promoting drop-wise condensation is by the use of electro-
plated coatings of the noble metals. These coatings are ideal in that they are highly
hydrophobic, have high thermal conductivity, and can be diffusion bonded to the base
metal. However, the coatings are expensive and this is limiting the introduction of such
surfaces. Erb and Thelen** have reported the cx«Uent behaviour of a 1*25 pm gold
coat deposited onto a cupro-nickel alloy tube which had been precoated by a 7*5 pm
film of nickel. Other suitable metals are platinum, palladium, and rhodium. The
absence of surface oxides appears to be the prime reason for the hydrophobic nature
of the noble metal surfaces.

11.3.3 The Use of Force Fields to Enhance Condensation

In film-wise condensation the condensate film constitutes the major resistance to heat
transfer and a variety of external forces, centrifugal, vibrational, and electrostatic,
have been used to reduce its thickness and to promote drainage.
A number of studies have been carried out where condensation is made to occur on
a horizontal rotating disc. For a plain disc Nandapurkar and Beatty** derived the
following equation on the basis of no interfacial shear:

2S
S.0904 riiVrWifiT 2
( 11 . )
U(7;,-Tw)J
where cu is the angular rotation (radians/$). Furtherinformation is available on grooved
discs** and on rotating horizontal tubes.**
The influence of vibration on condensation has also been studied. Mathewson and
Smith** condensed organic vapours within a vertical tube under conditions where
acoustic vibrations were induced in the vapour phase. The vibration caused an en-
hancement of about 50 per cent. Experiments in which the tube itself was oscillated
cither longitudinally*"' or transversely*’ have also been shown to enhance the film
coefficient. For longitudinal vibrations Haughey*’ gives the ratio of the coefficient
with vibration to that without as

l-l-OOOI8f/l {11-3)
hr

where F is the frequency ((1-150 Hz) and A is the amplitude (mm). For transverse
vibrations of a vertical tube, Rabcn et alf* suggest

3S6
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS

^= 0-619 (11.4)

where AF^'^> 5-2.

Electrostatic forces can be used to enhance condensing heat transfer rates of organic
vapours. Choi®® has reported a study in which Freon 113 was condensed within a
vertical tube.The condensate film was acted upon by an electrostatic field generated
from an electrode placed at the centre of the tube. The motion induced in the film
was similar to that on the outside of a vertical rotating cylinder and led to enhanced
condensation heat transfer coefficients.
It is doubtful if any of the methods of improving condensation by means of force
widespread use because of the considerable disadvantages of the
fields will find
additional equipment to cause rotary or vibrating motion and the likely reduced
reliability compared with heat exchangers having no moving parts.

11.4 Conditions Influencing the Critical Heat Flux in Forced Convective Boiling

A considerable number of studies have been devoted to methods for increasing the
critical heat flux in forced convection boiling. The various proposed methods can be
loosely divided into three categories depending on whether the improvement is
brought about by (a) geometrical changes, (b) force fields, or (c) trace additives.

11.4.1 The Influence of Geometrical Changes

Changes geometry starting from a simple vertical uniformly heated tube
to the tube
can both favourably and adversely. Bernstein, Petrek, and
affect the critical heat flux
Meregian’ have suggested a variety of geometries which might offer improvement
over an unmodified tube. These are:

(a) a serpentine tube where the duct is bent in one plane in the form of a hairpin,

(b) a straight tube with a twisted ribbon insert to induce swirl flow,
(c) a straight tube with internal integral helical finning,
(d) a straight tube with a separate helical wire insert,
(e) a straight tube with alternate short sections of larger then smaller internal diameter.

Tubes of each type were tested in a horizontal position using a low-pressure steam-
water loop. The heating source was condensing steam and the ‘apparent’ heat
transfer coefficients were evaluated at various points along the tube from the local
film temperature difference and the overall average heat flux. All of the specially pre-
pared tubes showed high heat transfer rates to considerably greater steam qualities
than with the plain unmodified tube.
The tubular elements of waste heat boilers and of nuclear steam generators, par-
ticularly of the once-through type, may be arranged in a variety of configurations.
For example, horizontal serpentine (hairpin), vertical U-tube, and helical coil elements
have been used The presence of gravitational and centrifugal forces have a pronounced
.

effect on the various heat transfer processes including the critical heat flux.

11.4.1.1 Horizontal tubular elements. Rounthwaite’'’- has studied the problem

357
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
of evaporation in horizontal hairpin elements representing sections of a full sized unit
for a United Kingdom nuclear power station. The test section’* consisted of two 6-25
m lengths of straight horizontal mild steel tubing 4 .3 mm bore connected by a return
1

bend 6-35 cm mean The test conditions covered the entire quality range at
radius.
pressures between 14 and 65 bar, mass velodties between 100 and 800 kg/m* s and
heat fluxes between 25 and 80 kW/m’. These tests showed that serious stratification
with greatly reduced heat transfer coefficients (by a factor of twenty) over the upper
section of the tube, occurred for values of the superficial liquid velocity (/r) of 0-2 m/s
and below.
In more recent work by Lis and Strickland’* the influence of the 180“ return bend
has been studied. These tests have shown (hat the bend produces severe flow dis*

turbanecs over a wide range of operating conditions. The disturbances cause large
amplitude oscillations of wall temperature and the formation of dry patches along
the top of the lube at up to 70 diameters downstream of the bend. At low beat fluxes
(»100 kW/m*) these disturbances appear to reach a maximum in the wavy or the low
velocity annular flow regions (a = 0 6-0 65) and art confined to mass sclocities below
1000-1200 kg/m* s.

Styrikovich and Miropolskit’* in 1950 reported the effects of stratification of a high

pressure steam-water mixture in a horizontal pipe. These caused wide temperature
differences between the top and bottom of the boiler tube. Experiments were carried
out on a single 7-5 m, 56 mm i.d. tube at pressures between 10 bar and 220 bar with
heat fluxes in the range 22 to 135 kW/m* and inlet velocities between 0-24 and 1 m/s.
It was found that there was a critical two*phase velocity, j, below which stratification
occurred and above which it did not. This critical veloaty,/, increased with heat flux
up to 60 kW/m^ and decreased with increase in pressure (Fig. 1 1.6). An investigation
into the effect of the angle of slope showed that overheating only occurred if the angle
of slope was less than 9*5“ to the horizontal.
Overheating of the upper tube surfaces and local drying out of the liquid film after
a bend when combined with deposition of particulate material may contribute to
tube failures in boilers by (he process of ‘on-load’ corrosion. This is discussed later in
the chapter. Tube diameter appears to be an important variable in determining the
threshold for overheating in horizontal heated tubes. Clearly much further work is

required on the subject of dryout in horizontal lubes and on the influence of bends of
different radii of curvature preceding the horizontal section.
1 1 .4.1.2 Helical coil elements. A further method of influencing the critical heat flux

is to form the tube into a helical coil. Helical coil evaporators have been used in

nuclear steam generators and cryogenic evaporators. Miropolskii el al}^' in the

USSR and Carver ei al.** in the USA have reported critical heat flux data for
coiled tubes. The former workers found that in the subcooled region the cntical heat
flux was reduced from that in a straight vertical tube. Both sets of workers agree that
the transition to the liquid deficient condition in the evaporator occurs at a lughet
average steam quality than the corresponding condition in a straight pipe. In most
cases the steam quality for the transition at all parts of the tube circumference is

higher than the straight tube value. Dryout first occurs at locations on the tube wall
between the point closest to the centre of curvature and the top of Uie tube. At low

358
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
pressures it is possible for the centrifugal forces acting
on the gas phase to be higher"*^
than on the liquid phase due to the differing phase velocities, i.e.
[pg u^^lR]>[pj
The liquid can then flow on the inside rather than on the outside parts of the coil.
Experiments at low pressure with boiling in a helical coil reported by Owhadi and
Bell‘‘^ support this picture and dryout occurs first near 100 per cent
quality at the top

Pressure , bar

(b) The extent of overheating

in a horizontal boiler
tube at a heat flux of
100kW/m2
tJ 'C Difference between
top and bottom tube
temperatures

Fig. 11.6. Stratification and Overheating of Horizontal Boiler Tubes (Styrikovich and
Miropolskii)

at the point nearest

and bottom positions around the tube circumference rather than
the centre of curvature. Nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficients are not
greatly

affected by the centrifugal forces or the secondary flow.

1 1.4. Swirl flow. Swirl flow has attracted a considerable

1.3
amount of attention as a
method of increasing the critical heat flux in tubes. One of the earliest investigators in

obtained dramatic improvements in heat

this Gambill of Oak Ridge,®
field, has

359
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
transfer to subcooled water flowing in short, small diameter tubes. In the last ten
years, other teams have started experiments in this area, first at low pressure’* and
then with geometries and pressures found in conventional and nuclear steam genera-
tors.” * The usual way of obtaining swirl flow is to insert a twisted ribbon,
of width equal to the tube Inside diameter, along the full length of the heated tube. The
amount of ribbon twist is expressed in terms of the twist ratio, defined as the number of
tube inside diameters per 360® twist. Table 11.1 summarizes the range of variables
investigated for swirl flow of water in uniformly heated tubes.
Gambill and Bundy' ^ have reviewed the status of swirl flow heat transfer up to 1 962.
Even though they found some disagreement in the results presented by the various
authors, they have shown a definite relationship between the radial acceleration of the
coolant and the critical heat flux. For the case of zero exit subcooling, they found that
the incremental critical heat flux above that without acceleration (axial flow) rises at
an increasing rate for accelerations in excess of about 100 times earth gravity. For
example, for water at a radial acceleration of 60x 10* limes earth gravity the incre-
mental critical heat flux was estimated to be 60 MW/m* (1*9 x 10’ Btu/ft*h) above
that for axial flow.
While swirl flow increases the pumping requirements, the gain in critical heat flux
more than offsets the pumping loss. Gambill and Bundy'* show that at constant

pumping power, the ratio of the swirl flow to axial flow critical beat fluxes can be as
much as 2*5 at centrifugal accelerations of 6 x 10* limes earth gravity.
Swirl flow also has an influence on the boiling heat transfer coeiSdent below the
critical heat flux. Gambill and Bundy quote the following equation to relate the wall
superheat, A^jat for water with the twist ratio, y, and the heat flux, ^ h,

AT,„ = 2-94/"W;iO‘)>” (11.5)

Equation (11.5) obviously becomes invalid at large values ofy. Blatt and Adt'*
report experiments on swirl flow heat transfer in nucleate boiling of Freon 1 1 and also
water. They also found that for boiling Freon 11 at a given temperature difference and
mass velocity the heat transfer coefficient increased with radial acceleration. For
boiling water near atmospheric pressure and at a mass velodty of about 122 kg/m* s
(9x 10 * Ib/hft*) twisted ribbons improved the heat transfer coefBcicnt only at low
accelerations and low heat fluxes. These findings are in agreement with those of Merte
and Clark'* who studied the influence of increased acceJerational fields on the pool
boiling of water. Itwould appear that the radial acceleration increases only the con-
vective or s/ngle-pbase hquidcompooeot 4*^ of the totaJ heat fla.r whilst tie nvekate
boiling component remains unchanged.
The increase in surface temperature at dryout in tests with twisted tapes is often
very gradual and the heat transfer coeffident in the liquid defident and superheated
vapour conditions appears to be enhanced as a result of the radial acceleration by up
to 15 per cent. The approximate increases in the critical heat flux due to swirl flow in
the saturated boiling region are indicated by the AECL'* and Columbia University'*
data. At a pressure of 69 bar (1000 psia) and for a given tube diameter, length, and
inlet enthalpy, the critical heat flux in swirl flow is 1*25, 1*33, and 1-66 times that for
axial flow for twist ratios of 69-0, 30, and 1 1*1 respectively at a mass velocity of about

360
 flow

swirl

with

tubes

heated

uniformly

in

experiments

flux

heat

critical

for

variables

of

Range

11.1

Tabic
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
1360 kg/m* s(l-0x 10® Ib/hfi*). Figure 11.7 shows the results at a twist ratio of IM
plotted as a heat flux eflidency (t;) against the mass velocity, G. The heat flux effidency,
»}, is defined as the ratio of the actual critical heat flux to the heat flux required to
evaporate all the water fed to the test section. At exit qualities in excess of about
85 per cent and mass velocities below 680 kg/m* s (0-5 x 10® Ib/h ft*), the critical heat
fluxes with twisted tapesmay be less than those for plain tubes.
At these low water flow-rales, the twisted ribbon captures some of the water in the
channel as a film on its This water is then not available to cool the heated
surface.
surface as it would otherwise have been if the ribbon were not present. Therefore, in

Mass velocity (GxlO^ ) Ib/hft*

Mass velocity (kg/m*s)

Fig. 11.7. Diyout Heat Flux Ratio for a Twist Ratio of IM (E. O. Moeck etal.)

applying twisted ribbons to once-lhroogh boiler applications, the ribbon should termin-
ate some distance before the end of (he evaporation region.
Other methods of inducing a swirl flow include the provision of short, twisted rib-
bons at various locations along the healed length and by helical finning on the inside
tube surface. Studies on the first method have been reported by Matzner et al}^ and,
on the second, in addition to the work of Bernstein ei alP already mentioned, Swenson
et al}^ report a remarkable improvement in the critical heat flux when the smooth
tube was replaced by one having helical ribs. Such tubes are now in commercial
service in conventional once-through boilers.
1 1 .4. 1 .4 Improvements in critical heat flux due to geometrical changes in non-circular

362
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
ducts.Twisted ribbon tapes have also been used to increase the critical heat flux in
both an internally heated annulus®- and in a rod cluster*'^ type fuel element for a
nuclear reactor. Improvements of up to 30 per cent have been noted at 69 bar
(1000
psia).
Roughening of the heated surface is another possible way of improving the per-
formance of a boiler system. Bruck et al’’^ report the influence on the critical heat
flux for subcooled conditions of various macro surface flnishes including sand
roughness, knurls, and threads. Only with a very coarse knurl (roughness >0-3 mm)
was the critical heat flux increased significantly above the smooth surface value and
even in this case the improvement was small compared with the increase in single-phase
convective heat transfer coefficients expected with this surface. These results are at
variance with those presented by Durant, Towell, and Mirshak'® where, for con-
ditions near atmospheric pressure, increases in the critical heat flux of up to 80 per cent
at constant velocity and 60 per cent at constant pumping power were reported for an
internally heated annulus when the heating surface was roughened by coarse knurling
(roughness ~ 0-1 5-0-3 mm).
Janssen, Levj’, and Kervinen^® report tests carried out at higher steam qualities in an
internally heated annulus with a heated rod whose surface had been sandblasted to a
7-5 pm (300 pin.) roughness. The critical heat flux was reduced below the smooth rod
value by 35 per cent at the low flows and as much as 50 per cent at the higher flows.
Roughening of the heated surface by sandblasting thus has an adverse effect on the
critical heat flux for saturated boiling at medium and high exit steam qualities. This is

understandable since the roughening w-ould be expected to reduce the flow-rate of the
on the surface and thus bring about dryout at a lower heat flux.
liquid film
The use of thick massive fins, ribs, or studs on the heater surface has been investi-
gated in France^* and the USSR.^^ The concept is known in France as the ‘Vapotron’
and is used to cool electronic power tubes dissipating heavy heat loads. The principle
of the Vapotron is shown in diagrammatic form in Fig. 1 1 .8. This diagram shows two
fins with boiling taking place in the interspace. The outer surface temperature of the
fins varieswith location according to the modes of heat transfer taking place. Under
typical operation, the following boiling heat transfer modes might occur.

Location Mode AT between surface and liquid

A—tips of fins Non-boih'ng convection 8°C

B— sides of fins Stable nucleate boiling 8 to 25°C

C—sides of fins Transition boiling (past

heat flux) 25° to 125°C
critical

D —base of fins and

surface between fins Film boiling > I25°C

the balance between the heat

The temperature distribution in the fins results from
transfer coefficient at the surface.
conduction within the fin and the boiling heat
AT
the efficiency, and the optimum fin
The detailed temperature distribution in a fin, fin
by Lai and Hsu, and by
shape have been considered by Haley and Westwater,^^
363
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Cumo o//’ Because the heat transfer coefficient is a strong function of surface
et
temperature, the usual formulae for fins arc seriously in error. For cooling of electronic
tubes, copper is used to obtain high conductivity in the fins. Portions of the surface
can operate past the critical heat flux without destruction of the surface because the
high thermal conductivity and the large thickness of the material allow high heat
fluxes for the maximum permissible temperature gradient.
One further method which has been used very successfully to increase the critical
heat flux in an internally heated annulus or rod duster^*’ operating at moderate

Typical shapes of 'Vdpotron' fins

Fig. 11,8. The ‘Vapotron’ Concept

steam qualities, is roughening of the i/nAc<irc</outer wall. This geometrical modification

stems from the philosophy that the water in the form of a thick liquid film on the
unheated wall does not normally contribute to the cooling process and hence should
be directed to the heated surfaces Experiments in this area have been performed at
GEAP, San Jose^®' and at Chalk River.'* Howard” has noted that the provision
of roughness rings on the inside of the flow lube of an annulus heated internally gave
no improvement in the critical heal flux at outlet qualities below 5 per cent by wt.
For higher qualities, the improvement in the critical heat flux increases with increasing
quality and mass velocity.

364
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
Quality % Mass velocity G kgjrn^ s Improvement in critical
by wt. ilblhft^) heat fiux
15 680 (0-5x10®) none
15 2300 (1-7x10®) 48%
25 680 (0-5x10®) 75%
25 2300 (1-7x10®) >100%
The AECL tests'^ performed at exit qualities between 65 per cent and 95 per cent
and mass velocities below 680 kg/m^ s (0-5 x 10® Ib/h ft^) showed improvements in the
critical heat flux up to a factor of 7 for a 0-75 mm
(0-030 in.) roughness height at a 3-8
cm (1-5 in.) roughness ring spacing. At a given roughness ring spacing, mass velocity
and inlet quality, the dryout heat flux increases by up to a factor of 5 when the rough-
ness height is increased from 0 to 1-25 mm
(0 to 0-050 in.). The actual ring spacing has
only a relatively weak effect on the dryout heat flux value in the range investigated,
viz., 3-8 to 11-4 cm (1-5 to 4-5 in.).

11.4.2 Improvement in Critical Heat Flux Through the Use of Force Fields
Clearly, the considerable increases brought about by the use of swirl flow is one example
of the application of a force field. Other methods which come under this category are
electrostatic fields and ultrasonic vibrations.
1 1.4.2. 1 Electrical fields. The use of electrical fields to increase boiling heat transfer
rates hasbeen successfully demonstrated in laboratory type equipment. Bonjour et al.^‘^
report increases in critical heat flux by factors of 2 to 6 by application of a.c. fields to
boiling organic liquids and pure water heated by 0-1 and 0-2 mm wires. Markels and
Durfee^® report an increase in burnout heat flux of over a factor 4-5 by application
of 7000 volts d.c. to a 9-5 mm
(0-375 in.) tube acting as a heater causing pool boiling of
isopropanol at one atmosphere. One effect of a voltage applied across a vapour-liquid
interface is to produce a force on the liquid phase tending to accelerate the fluid to-

wards the solid surface. This results in the vapour film in the film boiling region being
destabilized and hence increased wetting of the heater surface. Heat transfer coefficients
in the nucleate boiling region are also increased by the electrical field. Experiments
under forced convection conditions have been reported by Nichols et al.^^ Experi-
ments conducted with water at 103 bar (1500 psia) with high inlet subcoolings showed
that the critical heat flux can be increased by up to 25 per cent by the application of
electrical potentials of 1000-2000 a.c. volts.

11.4.2.2 Flow and ultrasonic vibrations. Both Isakoff^* and Ornatskii and Shcher-
bakov^^ report that ultrasonic vibrations considerably increase the critical heat flux in
pool boiling. The paper from the USSR^'' gives results for atmospheric pressure sub-
cooled pool boiling of distilled water from a horizontal Nichrome wire. The strength
of the ultrasonic waves emitted from the transducer at 1 Mhz was 1 -5 to 2-0 watts/cm .

The ultrasonic field greatly increased the bubble separation frequency. The observed
subcooling from approxi-
increases in the critical heat flux varied with the degree of
However, Romie
mately 30 per cent at zero subcooling to 80 per cent at ATjub of SO'C.
and forced flow system, obtained a contrary result. These investi-
Aronson,^® using a
vertically upward in an in-
gators obtained critical heat flux data for water flowing

365
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
temally heated annulus. An acoustic transdu^r was located at the inlet end of the flow
channel and it propagated ultrasonic wa\’es parallel to the surface of the heating
element. No effect on the critical heat flux was detectable although a considerable in-
crease in the frequency of bubble formation was noted. The conditions of this series
of from those mentioned above for pool boiling in that (a) the direction
tests differed

of the was parallel rather than normal to the heater surface and (b) the coolant
field

conACction was forced rather than free. BergIcs*’reports the influence of flow vibration
on forced convection boiling heal transfer of water. Using a similar arrangement of
equipment to that of Romie and Aronson (except that the vibrator was placed at the
downstream end of the test section), Bergicsalso found no influence of flow vibrations
on the critical heat flux. Heat transfer in the region of the onset of boiling, however,
was considerably enhanced as a result of an increase in the single-phase forced con-
vection heat transfer coefficient.

I1.4J The Influence of Trace Additives

Although there is little published information for forced convection boiling, the
addition of a small quantity of a second component to water has been reported as a
means of increasing the critical heat flux in pool boiling In some cases the critical
heat flux is higher than the value for either component alone. The benefit from the
second component would appear to be large compared with the small changes in the
physical properties (surface tension, viscosity, and density) attributed to the second
component. It is, therefore, not possible to predict, a prion, the influence an additive
might have on the critical heat flux simply by substituting the altered physical proper-
ties into an equation of the type proposed for pool boiling critical heat flux by Kutatel-

adze or Zuber and Tnbus (see chapter 4).

The experimental and theoretical understanding of ihecntical heat flux phenomenon
for binary mixtures has been increased very considerably by the work of Van Siralen.*’
The early investigations suggested the action of several conflicting mechanisms re-
garding such variables as the volatility, molecular weight of the additives, and the
geometry of the heater. Some of (his early work and the resulting explanations are
briefly reviewed below.
Lowry and Westwater^^ suggested (hat increases in the critical heat flux of methanol
were due to additives providing particles which acted as nucleation sites within the
superheated boundary layer. Van Slralcn” concluded that the increases in the critical
heat flux for water with the addition of a more volatile component were due to the
formation of smaller bubbles. Dunkus and Westwater^* obtained data on the effccls
of various additives on the heat transfer characteristics of boiling isopropanol. They
concluded that when additives were from the same homologous series the magnitude
of the increase increased with molecular woghl. A decreased volatility of the additive
increased the gain in heat transfer. These authors suggested that the increases could be
attributed to a depiction of the solvent with respect to the non-volatile additive at the
bubble wall leaving the bubble surrounded by a fluid of high viscosity which tended to
reduce coalescence between bubbles and also to reduce the motion of eddies.
An effect of geometry has been observed by Kulatcladze*^ for boiling on a wire and
a plate. In this instance, butyl alcohol was used as an additive to increase the heat

366
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
transfer to water at about 10 bar (150 psia).
For a wire heater, the critical heat flux had
a maximum about 10 per cent butyl alcohol of 2-5 times the value for pure water.
at
For a plate heater the critical heat flux had a minimum at about 6 per cent butyl
alcohol of 0-56 times the value for pure water. A similar discrepancy was found by
Owens^"* when he compared his results for the boiling of water with various additives
from a stainless steel tube with the results obtained by Van Stralen^^ for similar
binary systems using a thin wire.
The more recent work by Van Stralen'^^’ has presented an explanation for many
of the phenomena observed with binary systems. Van Stralen has shown that the
maximum in the critical heat flux found at a particular concentration of the binary
system corresponds to the point of minimum bubble growth rate. The rate of bubble

growth in a pure liquid (see chapter 4) depends on the heat inflow towards the bubble
wall to satisfy the heat requirement of evaporation. In binary mixtures, the
heat diffusion is linked with mass diffusion of the more volatile component. A lower
mass diffusivity of this component results in a decreased bubble growth rate. The mini-
mum in bubble growth rate occurs at the maximum value of [AT/Gj] where AT is the
temperature difference between the dew temperature of the vapour in the bubble and
the boiling temperature of the original liquid in the binary mixture and Gj is the vapor-
ized mass diffusion fraction

where Xq is the mass fraction of more volatile component in the original liquid binary

mixture, K is the equilibrium constant of more volatile component in the

binary mix-

ture, and
(S')
Jx = XO

is the slope of the saturation temperature versus mass fraction of more

volatile com-
ponent at x: = Xq.
coefficient from
The lower bubble growth rate considerably reduces the heat transfer
the heating surface to the boiling fluid with the result that the wall
superheat is con-

siderably increased. The critical heat flux can be considered as the

sum of two terms,
vaporization at the heating surface, the second from
con-
one resulting from direct
vaporization
vection of hot liquidaway from the heating surface together with indirect
liquids the theones of Kut-
into the bubble away from the heating surface. For pure
suggest that the first term is dominant. Van Stralen is
ateladze and Zuber and Tribus
able to show that, for binary systems, at least, the second term
can be large and can be
offers an explanation for the
estimated from natural convection laws. This finding
the geometry of the system.
observations of Owens^'* and Kutateladze” concerning
case of the single wire is very muc greater
Clearly the convective contribution in the
points out that the first mrm which is attribut-
than for a flat plate. Indeed, Van Stralen
able to direct vaporization is, in fact, decreased in
going to a binary system. ^

systems have been given by Naboi-

Data for the forced convective flow of binary
in the critical heat flux versus
composition
chenko and Andrews e/n/.’’ Maxima
curves are seen in these results also.

367
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Although it has been shown that considerable increases in the critical heat flux can
be obtained from the addition of small quantities of a second component, the practical
application of additives in commercial plant must await a considerably increased
understanding of the phenomena involved.

11.5 The Design of Boiling Systems Where Heat Flux is a Dependent Variable

Convective boiling has been discussed in previous chapters for the situation where the
heat flux is an independent imposed variable. Qosc approximations to this situation
occur in a radiantly heated water-tube boiler and in a water-cooled nuclear reactor.
However, in many instances healing of the evaporating liquid is carried out by heat
transfer from a circulating primary fluid. One example is the waste-heat boiler. It is
therefore, necessary to have some method for transposing results taken under con-
ditions of constant imposed heat flux to the case where heating is carried out by a
primary fluid. This section discusses this problem and suggests a graphical method as
an alternative to the current design methods.
The conventional method of designing heat exchangers usually involves the use of a
length-mean (or point) overall heal transfer coefficient V evaluated from

i i+ + (11.7)
C/“a, kwAw
where Ai, and A^ are the internal, external, and log mean tube areas. Such a
relationship is useful when the heat transfer coefficients, fti and are relatively
invariant with heat flux. In convective boiling the relationship between surface heat
flux and boiling side temperature diflcrence is not even approximately linear and the
conventional method breaks down.
The alternative method proposed in this section considers the heat flow to and from
the inside tube surface as separate entities. Under steady state conditions the heat
supplied must equal the heat removed and the intersection of the heal input charac-
teristicand the heat removal characteristic will provide the operating point.
The proposed method is best illustrated by way of an example. Consider a point on
the inside tube surface. By assuming that the shell side heat transfer coefficient, ho, is
constant, it is possible to arrive at an expression giving the tube inside wall tempera-
ture, (Twli. in terms of the thermal conductivity, k^,. and the thickness of the tube
wall, the shell side heat transfer coefficient. A,, and the local primary fluid temperature,
To. Thus
Doln(D.
(Tw), - ( 11 . 8 )
2fc,

Figure 11.9 shows a removal characteristic for a steam-water situation

typical heal
taken from the data of Herkcnrath et al. for a variety of local conditions at a point
on the inner tube surface. Such a set of characteristics would either be obtained from
experiments with a given pressure, tube diameter, and mass flow-rate in which the heat
input characteristic was that of constant heat flux, or alternatively from correlations
derived from such data.

368
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND
CONDENSING SYSTEMS
Also shown in Fig 1 1.9 are straight lines
corresponding to eq. (1 1.8) for a variety of
vapour qualities each intersecting the vertical axis
at a value of (T^). equal to the
corresponding local primary- fluid temperature T^. The intersection of one of these

Fig. 11.9. The Boiling Characteristic for a High Pressure Water-Steam Mixture. Data from
Herkenrath; G = 2250 kg/m' s; £» = 10 mm; p = 195 bar.

lineswith the curve representing the convective boiling conditions at the same quality
provides both the inside wall temperature and the local surface heat flux.
It can be seen from Fig. 11.9 that stable liquid deficient region operation occurs at

point B and at higher mass qualities. Stable saturated nucleate

(39 per cent quality)

369
 CONVECTIVE BOItING AND CONDENSATION
A (33 per cent quality) and at lower qualities. At mass qualities
boiling occurs at point
between 33 per cent and 39 per cent, the lines intersect in a region which is unstable
with an imposed heat flux situation (Point C). What happens in this region under
conditions where the heat flux is a dependent variable is still uncertain.
This method of analysing the local conditions in a vapour generator heated by a
circulatingprimary fluid depends on a premise, not yet discussed, which is
that the heat removal characteristic is independent of the method used to supply
the heat. This question is a vital one. No one has, to date, reported an experiment
to measure the heat removal characteristic for a given set of conditions using
differentmethods of heating in turn; say Joule healing (constant heat flux) and con-
densing vapour (near constant temperaturt) heating of a vertical tube evaporator. In
the absence of such evidence it is difficult to argue convincingly that the heat removal
characteristic is independent of the heat source.

11.6 Deposition and Corrosion on Boiling Surfaces

So far the discussion of convective boiling heat transfer has been limited to the con-
dition where the heat transfer surface is clean. This, however, is rarely the case in
operating plant and it is necessary to discuss briefly the incidence of deposition and
corrosion particularly on steam-generating surfaces and the influence this deposition
and/or corrosion has on the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics.

11.6.1 The Characteristic of DepostUon in OncC’through Evaporators

With a once-through evaporator all dissolved salts and suspended particulate matter
entering with the liquid feed to the evaporator must either:

(a) remain in the evaporator forming a deposit,

(b) be mechanically entrained in the vapour outflow, or
(c) be actually dissolved in the vapour outflow.

A comprehensive review of the solubility of various salts in sleam has been given by
Styrikovich and Martynova.’* For supercritical fluid it is possible to consider the
solubilityof the salt as a function of temperature and pressure. For subcntical systems
information on the partitioning of the salt between the water and steam phases is
required. The partition (or distribution) coeffident denoted by Kq is

(Pf/Pr)"
v-r

where C, and Q are the concentrations of salt in the steam and water phases respec-
tively. The partition coefficient is found to be a simple power law of the ratio of the
phase of
densities, the value m
varying from salt to salt (Fig. 11.10).
If not possible to establish that all or most of the salts present in the feed are
it is

soluble in the effluent steam to a greater extent than the feed concentration then a
continuous build-up of salt deposits will result It is, of course, not possible to state
the converse, i.e., that evaporators in which the saturation levels arc not exceeded
will

be free from deposits.

370
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
of this phenomenon to measure the thickness of the micro-layer. Since the number of
active sites is proportional to the square of the heat flux, the results of Palen and
Westwater,®' which indicate a sharp increase in the rate of fouling of surfaces with
calcium sulphate as the heat flux is increased under pool boiling conditions, are readily
explained.
In the two-phase forced convection region where nuclcation had been suppressed
Collierand Pulling’® found the surface of the evaporator free from deposits. Further
up the tube a region of continuous deposit was found and it was suggested that this
corresponded to the ‘liquid deficient' region. However, because of the use of steam
heating, the tube wall temperature did not rise appreciably at dryout and, although there
was no liquid film on the surface, water droplets were able to impinge on the tube wall
and subsequently evaporate to dryness. In a constant heat flux situation, corresponding
to a sharp rise in temperature at the dryout point, droplets would be unable to ‘wet’ the
wall and the formation of a deposit by this means is unlikely. Deposition, however,
may occur as a result of decreased solubility in the steam phase as its temperature is
raised.
Careful studies have been carried out on the deposition of magnetite in once-
through The magnetite exists in boiler feed water as a colloidal suspension of
boilers.
particles and agglomerates
in the size range from below /im to 50 /im. For the turbu-
1

lent flowof water in unheated pipes, the rate of deposition increases with the Reynolds
number of the flow. In the core region, away from the wall, turbulent eddies carry the
magnetite particles In a radial direction. As the wall is approached the eddies become
smaller until, in the immediate vicinity of the wall, turbulence is completely suppressed
and there exists a laminar boundary layer. The thickness of this laminar boundary
layer is inversely proportional to the Reynolds number. Particles entering the boundary
layer will only reach the wall if their entry momentum is sufficient. Deposition is

enhanced by increases in velocity because the particle radial velocities are increased in
proportion and the boundary layer is also thinner. For (he particles to remain at the
wall the adhesion forces must exceed the separative forces. In practice, deposition of
magnetite takes place in the natural valleys formed in commercially rough tubes. The
subsequent infilling of these valleys may often cause the tube to become hydraulically
smooth with a consequent reduction in the turbulence level at the same Reynolds
number. This effect may account for a fall in the rate of deposition with increasing
time.
The of deposition of magnetite is relatively insensitive to the presence of a heat
rate
flux through the tube wall as long as boiling docs not occur. Once subcooled boiling
and subsequently saturated boiling occur, the rate of deposition is dramatically in-
creased. Mankina*’’ has carried out extensive tests in experimental and operating
boilers and has recommended the following relationship between the rate of deposi-
tion, the heat flux, magnetite concentration, and time under boiling conditions.

D = K^’Ct (11.10)

where D is the mass of magnetite deposited per unit area of tube (kg/m’)

ij> is the local heat flux (W/m*)

372
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING
SYSTEMS
C is the iron concentration in the feed water (kg/m^)
t is the time (h)
-S' is a proportionality constant.

Mankina®^ found that the rate of deposition increased sharply with

increases in heat
fluxand concluded that n = 2. The value of K
varies with the water chemistry but
typically for water at350°C with trisodium phosphate dosing, K had a value 4-2-
6-2x 10““. Other workers have concluded that the value of n should be nearer
um'ty
and have shown a strong dependence of the deposition rate on the local mass quality,®^
the rate of deposition increasing as the quality is increased. It is generally
observed
that mass velocity has little effect on deposition under boiling conditions.
At the dryout point, under conditions of constant heat flux, the rate of deposition
drops sharply. Other impurities may deposit with the magnetite. Mankina found that
copper will deposit at about one-tenth the rate of iron at similar concentrations and
will be distributed uniformly through the magnetite deposit. The presence of copper
within a magnetite deposit is believed to make it more adherent and to cause a serious

resistance to heat transfer.

11.6.2 Corrosion at Boiling Surfaces

‘On-load corrosion’ is a particularly rapid and severe attack of boiler tubes in zones
where steam is raised. As a result of intensive research into this problem over the past

Table 11.2 Concentration of sodium salts in porous magnetite deposit (Picone et

Test ^SAT n Fw ,
c
Steaming rate
“F 'F “F Counts/min Btu/h ft* Ib/h ft*

1 540 528 554 125 126,300 193 98

2 551 530 565 250 147,300 231 127
3 561 531 574 550 168,300 271 284
4 569 532 580 650 189,400 311 348
5 583 534 593 1025 210,700 343 545
6 588 535 597 1425 231,500 404 765
7 600 536 608 2250 252,000 460 1220
8 620 539 626 5250 294,600 586 2950

t Background Dg = 650 counts/min.

$ Assumes deposit voids are filled only with liquid.

few years a considerable amount is known about the reasons for this type of cor-

work carried out by Masterson, Castle, and Mann®’ has eluci-

rosion. In particular,
dated three mechanisms by which corrosive salts may be concentrated in the boiler.
The first mechanism is that of diy-out, either complete as in a once-through boiler, or
partial as may occur due to stratification in the horizontal tubes of waste-heat boilers.
A second concentration mechanism is that occurring in crevices in the heating surface,

particularly where the heating is applied asymmetrically.®® The third mechanism is

closely associated with the build-up of porous deposits on the heat transfer surfaces.
Liquid is drawn into the deposit between the micron-size magnetite particles by a

373
 CONVECTIVE BOlUNO AND CONDENSATION
‘wicking’ effect whilst steam is liberated into ‘tunnels' in the deposit. Very high con-

centration factors in excess of 10^ have been measured for the liquid held within the
deposit. Piconc el o/.®* have measured the i/i-jitu concentration of a tracer
within a 25 /im thick magnetite deposit having 70 per cent porosity. No concentration
was found within the deposit under non-boiling conditions. Table 11.2 gives the
results obtained under boiling conditions. The concentration is very strongly dependent
upon heat flux.After each test the heat flux was lowered and this showed a complete
reversibilityof the concentration effect. Clearly the maximum concentration possible
in the deposit is the inverse of the partition coefficient.

Temperature difference
between watt and bulk fluid

i^-r.i*F

Fig. 11.11. Nucleate Boiling on Clean and Fouled Surfaces (Cohen and Taylor)

It is clear that both corrosion and deposition must be considered together and where
deposition occurs in a steam generator then conditions are also right for corrosion.

11.6.3 The Influence of Deposition upon Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
Deposits can and do have an influence on the hydrodynamic and heat transfer
performance of steam generators. As mentioned previously, magnetite particles
reaching the wall fill in the micro-roughness of the boiler tube internal surface causing

an initial decrease in the pressure drop. This may be accompanied by a corresponding

decrease in the heat transfer rale. Reductions in the dryout heat flux and the liquid
deficient heat transfer rates have been observed to result from deposition.®® Further
deposits can cause an increase in pressure drop and this increase can be many times
that anticipated from the change in flow cross-section since the deposit is often rippled

and acts as a surface roughness.

374
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
Cohen®® discusses the heat transfer behaviour of fouled surfaces. Under non-boiling
conditions heat transfer through the depositis by conduction. The effective conducti-

vity of the deposit may be computed from Maxwell’s formula,

Ktt ( 11 . 11 )
l+{a-i)b
where k[ is the conductivity of the liquid (or vapour) phase
kp is the conductivity of the particulate phase
a = 3k[l(2ki+kp)
b = VpHV.^Vp)
Vp is the total volume of the particulate phase
V( is the total volume of the fluid phase.

Surface heat flux, 0

Overall Heat Flux
The Influence of a Resistance in Increasing the
Fig. 11.12.

375
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The equation is up to values of 6 « 0*5. For magnetite deposits
valid ^ 1*0 Btu
h ft* *F/ft. For a deposit of 65 per cent porosity in water at 600®F, is calculated
to be 0-46 Btu/h ft* ®F/ft. If the continuous phase steam then the value drops to
is
0-1 Btu/h ft* "F/ft. The temperature rise of a constant heat flux surface when dryout
occurs within a magnetite deposit is therefore accentuated by the reduction in effective
conductivity of the deposit.
Nucleate boiling from surfaces covered by porous magnetite deposits has been
studied by Cohen and Taylor.*® The number of nuclealion sites in the case of the
fouled surface was considerably greater than for a clean surface. Figure 11.11 shows
the experimental boiling curves for both fouled and clean surfaces. In the single-phase
forced convection region the fouled surface temperature exceeded that of the clean
surface by up
to 28”F. Nucleation occurred at a lower heat flux in the case of the
fouled surface and for heat fluxes above 4x 10* Btu/h ft* the temperature of the
fouled surfacefell below that of the clean surface. The remarkable improvement of

performance of the deposit-covered surface may be better understood when the

behaviour of the tubing with a porous metallic coat discussed in section 11.2.2 is
recalled. Clearly the deposit acts to provide large stable nucleation sites.

In special cases the presence of an additional thermal resistance in a system heated

by a primary fluid may significantly improve the overall thermal performance of the
system. This is illustrated tn Fig. 11.12. The heal Input characteristic for the initial
system is shown as curve (1) This intersects with the heat removal characteristic
corresponding to the liquid deficient heat transfer region at point A. The inclusion of
an additional resistance either on the primary fluid side or on the boiling surface side
will produce a new characteristic (curve (2) ) which will now intersect the heat removal
characteristic corresponding to the nucleate boiling heat transfer region at point B.
This results in an appreciably higher heat flux than in the case without the resistance.
The optimum value of the resistance is one which allows point B to be just below the
dryout heat flux corresponding to the local boiling side conditions

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8I>86 (1965).
46. Bergles, A. E. and Morton, K. L. 'Survey and evaluation of techniques to augment con-
vective heat transfer’. MIT report 5382-34 (1965). See also notes by Bergles. A. E., en-
titled ‘Augmentation of boiling heat transfer’, given al Two-phase gas-liquid flow and
heal transfer Special Summer Program MIT. 10-21 July (1967).
47. Haley, K. W. and Westwater, J. W. ‘Boiling heal transfer from single fins*. Proc. of 3rd
Int. Heat Transfer Cortf., pp. 245-253 (1966).
48. Lai, F. S. and Hsu, Y. Y. ‘Temperature distribution in a fin partially cooled by nucleate
boiling’. AIChE J., 13 (4), 817-822 (1967).
49. Cumo, M., Lopez, S., and Pujchcra. G. C. Chem. Engng. Prog. Symp. Series No. 59, 61
225 (1965).
50. Anon. ‘New heat exchanger tubes make their commctdal debut’. Chem. Engng., pp.
60-62 March (1970).
51. Vachon,R.I.,Nix,G.H.,Tanger,G.E.,andCobb.R.O.‘Poolboilingheattransferfrom
Teflon coated stainless steel’. J. of Heat Transfer, pp. 364-370 Aug. (1969).
52. Williams, A. G., Nandapurkar, S. S., and Holland, F. A. ‘A review of methods for en-
hancing heat transfer rates in surface condensen*. The Chenu'va! Engineer, pp. CE 367-373
Nov. (1968).
53. Spencer, D. L. and Ibele, W. E. Proe. 3rd Int. Heat Trans. Conf. 11, 337 (1966).
54. Medwell, J. O. and Nicol. A. A. ASME-AIChE Heal Trans. Conf., Aug. 1965, Los
Angeles. Paper 65-HT-43.
55. Beatty, K. O. and Katz, D. L. Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs , 44, 55 (1948).
56. Beatty, K. O. and Forb«, A. V. Chem. Engrg. Prog., 46, 531 (1950).
57. Gregorig, R. Z. angew Math. Phys., 5, 39 (1954).

37S
 ,

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING

SYSTEMS
58. "^'^^^’ ^ ^ Neugebauer, F. V. 7. Heat Transfer, 81
(4), 297
( 1959
59. C^oyos, T, C. First Int. Symp. on Water Desalination,
Washington (1965). Paper

60. Thomas, D. G., Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundamentals, 6 (1), 97 (1967).

61. Osment, B. D. J. and Tanner, D. W. Promoters for the Dropwise Condensation
of Steam
N.E.L. Report No. 34 (1962).
62. Erb, R. B. and Thelen, E. Ind. Engng. Chem., 57 (10), 49 (1965).
Q960)^^^*^^^^' ^
63. K. O. Chem. Engng. Prog. Symp. Series 56 (30), 129

64. Bromley, L. A., Humphreys, R. F., and Murray, W. J. Heat Transfer 88, 80 (1966).
65. Singer, R. M. and Preckshot, G. W. Proc. Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics. Inst 14.
205 (1963).
66 . Mathewson, W. S. and Smith, J. C. Chem. Engng. Prog. Symp. Series 59 (41), 173 (1963).
67. Haughey, D. P. Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 43, T40 (1965).
68 . Raben, I. A., Commerford, G., and Diertent, R. U.S. Dept of Int. O.S.W. R and D
Prog. Report No. 49 (1961).
69. Choi, H. Y. Tufts Uni. Dept, of Mech. Engng Report 64-1 (1964).
70. Rounthwaite, C. and Clouston, M. ‘Heat transfer during evaporation of high quality
water-steam mixtures flowing in horizontal tubes’ Int. Heat Transfer Conf, Boulder,
Colorado, 1961. Part 1, 200-211.
71. Rounthwaite, C. ‘Two-phase heat transfer in horizontal tubes’. I. Inst. Fuel, pp. 66-76
(Feb. 1968).
72. Lis, J. and Strickland, J. A. ‘Local variations of heat transfer in a horizontal steam evap-
orator tube’. Paper presented at 1970 Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Paris, Aug. 1970.
73. Styrikovich, M. A. and Miropolskii, Z. L. Dokl. Akad. Nauk, S.S.S.R., 71 (2) (1950).
74. Miropolskii, Z. L. and Pickus, V. Yu. ‘Critical boiling heat fluxes in curved channels’.
—
Heat Transfer Sov. Research, Vol. 1 (1), pp. 74-79 (1969).
75. Bahr, A., Herkenrath, H., and Mdrk-Morkenstein ‘The development of the heat transfer
crisis in tubes with and without swirl generators’. EUR/C-IS/785/68e.
76. Brack, E., Hufschmidt, W., and de Clereq, E. ‘The influence of artificial roughness on
the increase in the critical heat flux of water in annuli with forced convection’. EUR
4040d (1969).
77. Andrews, D. G., Hooper, F. C., and Butt, P. ‘Velocity subcooling and surface effects on
the departure from nucleate boiling of organic binaries’. Can. J. of Chem. Engng., 43 (3),
194-199 (June 1968).
78. Styrikovich, M. A. and Martynova, O. I. ‘Contamination of the steam in boiling reactors
from solution of water impurities’. Sov. At. Energy, 15 (3), 917 (1963).
79. Collier, J. G. and Pulling, D. J. ‘The deposition of solids in a vertical tube evaporator’
Industrial Chemist, 39, 129-133, 200-203 (1963); also AERE-R 3807 (1961).
80. Hospeti, N. B. and Mesler, R. B. ‘Deposits formed beneath bubbles during nucleate
boiling of radioactive calcium sulphate solutions’ AICliE J., 11, 662 (1965).
81. Palen, J. and Westwater, J. W. Chem. Engng. Prog. Symp. Series, Vol. 62, No. 64, pp.
77-86(1966). . , . ,

82. Mankina, N. N. ‘Formation of iron oxide deposits in recirculation steam boilers

et al.
.

Teploenergetika, 6 (2), 79 (1959); see also Brit. Power Engng.,

March 1961, p. 60.
_

83. Mankina, N. N. et al. ‘Investigation of conditions of formation of iron

oxide deposits .

Teploenergetika, 7 (3), 8-12 (I960). . r 1.- u

84. Klein, H. A. and Rice, J. K. ‘A research study on internal corrosion
of high pressure

boilers’. Paper presented at ASME Annual Meeting,

Chicago, 7-1 1 Nw. 1965.
85. Goldstein, P., Dick, I. B., and Rice, J. K. ‘Internal Corrosion
of High Pressure Boilers .

7. /or Poiver (ASME), 89 (A) 378-394 (July 1967).

ru- v, pressure
--c.ir..
of high
86 . Goldstein, P. and Burton, C. L. ‘A research study on internal corrosion
75-101 (April 969).
boUers-final report’. 7. Engng. for Power (ASME), 91 (A),
1

379
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
87. Mastcison, Castle, J. E., and Mann, G. M. W. ‘Waterside corrosion of power
H. G.,
station boiler tub«’. Chemistry oftd Industry, pp. 1261-1266 (Sept. 1969).
88. Picone, L. F., ^Vhyte, D. D., and Taylor, G. R- ‘Radio>tracer studies of hide out at high
temperature and pressure’. WCAP
3731 (June 1963).
89. Cohen, P. H'aier coolant technology ofponer reactors. Published by Gordon and Breach
(1969).
90. Cohen, P. and Taylor, G. R. ‘Discussion of Boiling Heat Transfer at Low Heat Flux’, by
\V. C Elrod et al., Trans ASMEiCiJ. of Heat Transfer. 89, 242 (1967).

PROBLEMS
1. The operator of a tonnage oxygen plant plans to replace the plain tubes in the
conventional condenscr-rcboiler by lubes basing a porous coating giving an
enhanced boiling side coefficient. The aluminium tubes are i in. o.d.x 0-040 in.
wall thickness.The saturation temperatures of the evaporating oxygen and the
condensing nitrogen (assumed pure) arc 165“R and 170®R respectively. The con-
densing coefficient on the nitrogen side is constant at lOOOBtu/h "F. The ‘active’
nucleation cavity radius for the plain tube surface on the boiling oxygen side is 5 fim
and for the porous enhanced surface is 100 pm. If the total heat load for the existing
rcboiler is 10* Btu/h calculate the increased heat load if the rtboiler is re-tubed by
tubes with the enhanced heat transfer surface.
Use the method outlined in section tl.5 to calculate the heat input and rrmoval
characteristics for each boiling surface. Assume that the heat removal characteristic
for the boiling surface on a ^ versus plot is a vertical line intersecting the
abscissa at the wall temperature necessary to cause the onset of nucleate boiling
corresponding to the two active cavity sizes.

2. The sketch below model first proposed by Macbeth (AEEW-R 711)

represents the
for the process of boiling heat transfer upon a hcatitig surface overlaid by a porous
deposit. It is assumed that liquid is drawn into the deposit (thickness h) through
fine pores (</,) by surface tension and steam is ejected via larger diameter pores

Heat flux, d

3S0
 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING BOILING AND CONDENSING SYSTEMS
(rfj). In the limit as the heat flux is increased all the liquid drawn into the deposit
is vaporized and dryout occurs. Construct a model of this process accounting for
surface tension, frictional, and inertial forces within the two sizes of pore. Assume
that the frictional and inertial terms for the two-phase flow in the larger pores are
approximated by the homogeneous model. Calculate the concentration of a salt
within the deposit for which the partition coefficient between the liquid and vapour
is K^.
3. A waste-heat boiler is being designed in which the tubes are formed into a serpentine
composed of horizontal 56 mm i.d. tubes connected by 180° return bends. The unit
is mass quality of 25 per cent and at a pressure of 55 bar.
to be operated with an exit
The initial is 600 kg/m^ s. What will be the maximum tube
choice of mass velocity
wall temperature if the surface flux is 30 kW/m^ ? What will be the consequences
of prolonged operation under these conditions? What is the minimum value of
mass velocity required to prevent stratification and overheating of the upper tube
surfaces?

381
 12

TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER

12.1 Introduction

The problems of two-phase two-component heat transfer have so far been over-
shadowed by those of the single-component systems and have therefore received
considerably less attention. Simultaneous preheating of a liquid and a permanent gas
is, however, often required in catalytic and other processes.

A major difTerence exists between two-component and single-component two-phase

heat transfer, in that ‘boiling’ does not normally constitute the main mechanism of
heat transfer in the former case. Only under certain specihe conditions does nucleation
play a part in the transfer of heat with the two-component system.
Once again the flow pattern plays an important role. Only one author, however,
namely Lunde,^ has attempted any correlation of the limited experimental data
available in terms of a physical model which includes the differing flow patterns. The
following sections attempt a presentation of the available experimental data, together
with what limited analysis has been carried out to date.

12.2 Heat Transfer to the Liquid Phase In Two-Component Bubbly Flow

The from or to a surface contacted by a liquid containing gas
rate of heat transfer
bubbles is very dependent on whether the gas is introduced into the liquid stream prior
to or through the heat transfer surface.
Consider first the case where the gas is introduced into the liquid to form a bubbly
flow prior to passing over the heal transfer surface. A conservative estimate of the
increase in the heat transfer rate can be made initially on the assumption that the
introduction of the gas only serves to increase the liquid phase velocity. In this case

hyp
( 12 . 1 )
hr

If the liquid is in laminar flow, n ~ 1/3; in turbulent flow, n «= 0-8. Assuming homo-
geneous flow, a reasonable approximation for horizontal bubbly flow

hrp
( 12 . 2)
hf

382
 :

TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER

where /g and/f are the mean volumetric fluxes of the gas and liquid respectively. Since
bubbly flow normally does not occur for void fractions much greater than 30 per cent
it might be expected that, on the foregoing basis, the introduction of
a gaseous phase
into a flowing liquid so as to form a bubbly flow pattern might not greatly increase the
heat transfer rate.
Probably the most comprehensive study on heat transfer in the bubbly flow region
isthat undertaken by Novosad^ in 1954. This study was concerned with heat transfer
from liquids through which gases were bubbled at various velocities. The test section
consisted of a vertical copper tube 38 mm (1-49 in.) i.d. and 1 m
(39-4 in.) long, around
which cooling water was circulated in a concentric jacket. Air or hydrogen gas was
bubbled, via a sintered glass distributor situated across the bottom of the tube, through
the slow-moving hot liquid. Three fluids were employed water, a 49 per cent glycerine
;

solution, and n-butyl alcohol. Film coeflacients were obtained from measurements of
the overall heat transfer coefBcient after previous calibration experiments had evalu-
ated the other thermal resistances, i.e., the cooling water coefficient, the dirt factor,
and the wall conductivity. Single-phase liquid heat transfer experiments were carried
out and for the low velocities employed (~18 mm/s (0-7 in./s)) the data were well
correlated by the laws governing natural convective heat transfer with the equation

NUf = 0-3Grf°-3iPrf®‘ (12.3)

A correlation of the experimental two-phase heat transfer coelScients was presented

using the measured void fraction, a, in evaluating the Reynolds number

As the gas flow was gradually increased, the flow pattern changed from bubbly to
slug flow. In the bubbly flow region, the heat transfer coelficient rose, with increasing
gas flow, to five or six times its value without gas flow. At a certain critical gas rate,
slug flow was initiated and the coefficient rose more slowly and, in some cases, even
temporarily decreased. A general equation was presented for calculating the heat
transfer coefficient in the bubbly flow region in which the effects of both the gas
flow

and natural convection were taken into account

Nutp = +2-28 [Re'^]-^ Pr,°-^ (12.5)

l-h30.ya

Itwas suggested that a value of heat transfer in the slug flow region might be obtained

by substituting the critical gas flow rate and void fraction for the onset of slug flow

into the equation for the bubbly flow region.

heat transfer to mtrogen--oil
Knott et al? carried out an experimental study of
mixtures in vertical upward flow. The test section consisted of a 12 85 mm
(0 506 in.)

i.d. stainless steel thin-walled tube, 1-525 m

(5 ft) in length and resistance
heated by a

power supply. Wall temperatures were measured at six

low voltage, high current, a.c.
points along the tube length. -wi,
paraffin-base petroleum oil, ^rOTgh
Nitrogen was mixed with the liquid stream, a
four holes at the throat of a venturi mixer. The pressure
m
the ventun was kept at 1 3-8

383
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
bar (200 psia) and the homogeneous two-phase mixture was formed dowustieam of the
mixer by expansion through a needle vahc. Tlie two-phase mixture passed to a calming
section consisting of a0 61 m(2 ft) length of stainless steel lube, similar to that used
in the test section, surrounded by a steel jacket The mixture then flowrd down the
annulus formed between the tube and the jacket, made a ISO’ turn at the base and
passed up the inner tube of the calming section. The take-offafter the test section was
of similar construction.
Experiments were carried out using single-phase flow of the oil and showed satis-
factory agreement with the Sieder
and Talc equation for heat transfer to single-phase
fluids in laminar flow. Two-phase flow nins were carried out oser a range of super-
ficial liquidReynolds numbers from 6*7 to 162 and superficial gas Rejiiolds numbers
from 126 to 3920. The experimental data were expressed as (Aj,/Af) plotted against
where hrr is the experimental length mean two-phase heat transfer coefficient,
and hf is the single phase heat transfer coefficient at the same liquid flow-rate calculated
from the Sieder and Tale equation. Very little increase in two-phase coefficient abo%e
the single-phase value was obsersed at values oT(j\fji) less than 0-2 but as this ratio
increased to 10 then the heal transfer coefficient ratio increased from unity to two.
These findings arc similar to those reported by Fried* for horizontal air-water flow.
This result indicates that the addition of the gas phase in these cases was insufficient
to promote turbulence and serk-ed only to increase the mean tclocity of the liquid.
Hence the heat transfer coefSdent was only slightly increased. The experimental values
reported by Knott ft al} were slightly lower than those predicted from eq. (112) with
n e 1/3, almost certainly as a consequence of the actual liquid velocity being lower
than (j|-fjf) due to ‘slip’ between the phases.
In an attempt to examine the respective roles of nucleation and convection on the
heat transfer rates in the low quality region of forced convection single component
boiling, Kudirka*' ’ carried out analogue experiments using air-water and air-

elhylencgl}^! mixtures covering the bubbly and slug flow regions. Thehjdrodj-namic
aspects of bailing were simulated by bubbling the air through the wall of a porous
heated tube into the Bowing liquid. The vertical porous tube which was healed by
direct resistance was 15-9 mm (0-625 in.) i.d. and 28 cm (1 1 in.) long.
The results obtained for air-water and air-cthjlene gJ>eoI flow with no gas bubbling
through the porous heated w alls were correlated within ± 20 per cent by the following
relationship:

This equation reflects the small dependence of the heal transfer coefficient on the gas
to liquid volumetric flax ratio {jjj,}.
Equation (12.6) also indicates a much lower dependence on liquid phase Rejmolds
number than found for single-phase flow. Figure 12.1 shows Kudirka’s results for
air-water flow plotted as h-nif’t against the liquid volumetric flux/f for a
constant

value of ijflji) of unity. The downward trend of hjf}hf asy, is increased can be con-
sidered in terms of the influence of the gas phase on the liquid phase turbulence. At
low values of the turbulence level is initially low and the addition of the gas phase
Jt

384
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
considerably increases the heat transfer rate. At high
values ofy^ the additional turbu-
lence caused by the gas is nothing like as effective
in enhancing heat transfer rates
Fipre 12.1 also shows the prediction from eq. (12.2). The
experimental results drop
below this value presumably due to relative velocity between
the phases. The results
of Novosad for very low liquid velocities are also in
qualitative agreement with an
extrapolation of Kudirka’s findings.
Consider now the case where the gas is introduced into the liquid
through the heated
surface. The results of the tests carried out by Kudirka®- ''with air injection through
the porous heater walls into water are illustrated in Fig. 12.2.
At low values of(jJji)

Fig. 12.1, Variation of Two-Phase Heat Transfer Rate with Liquid Flow-rate (Kudirka)

corresponding to bubbly flow, air injection caused a sharp increase in the heat transfer
rate which rapidly saturated as the injection rate (y^) was increased. However, at high
values of (Jjj^ corresponding to slug, froth, or annular flow, air injection caused a
deterioration of the heat transfer rate.
Gose, Petersen, and Acrivos® also found a sharp increase in the measured heat
transfer coefficient when small amounts of nitrogen were injected through the bound-
ary layer into a water stream. The test section consisted of a 15'25 cm (6 in.) length
of sintered porous bronze tube 22-2 mm (J in.) i.d. and
50-8 mm (2 in.) o.d. around

which heating coils were wound in such a way as to allow the gas to pass through
the
were located at five points along the
porous wall to the inside surface. Thermocouples
temperature.
length of the test section to measure the inner wall surface

385
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Experiments were carried out withsiogle-phi^ flow of the water stream in the range
of Reynolds number 749 to 20,500 and the measured coeffidents agreed to within 10
per cent of those calculated from the Sieder and Tate equation. The injection of a small
amount of nitrogen gas caused a very rapid increase in the coefficient, the greatest

Fig. 12.2. Air-Water Heat-transfer Characteristics (Kodirka)

A IS at y, =
0 3 m^s (I 0 ft/s), B is aty, = l-37m/s (4-5 ft/s)

y/ IS the gas injection rale through porous heated surface s)

relative effect taking place at the lowest water rales where the value of the heat transfer
coefficient was increased by a factor of six. However, in agreement with Kudirka’s
findings, this rapid rate of increase of coeffident was not maintained as larger volumes
of nitrogen were injected and the experimental values tended to level out as the injected
gas flow-rate was increased.
It will be realized from the foregoing statements that injection of gas through the

SS6
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
heated wall is a much more effective means of increasing the heat
transfer rate than
passing a bubbly mixture in co-current flow through the heated section.
The volumetric
flux of gas through the porous surface should however
be limited to below that given
by eq. (12.7)

OV)max = 0-1 (12.7)

This equation will be recognized as that attributed to Kutateladze describing the

critical condition where liquid attempting to reach the heating surface is impeded
by
the gas departing from the surface.

12.3 Heat Transfer In Two-Component Slug Flow

Lunde^ has discussed the heat transfer characteristics to be expected in this region and
has presented a simplified model to correlate the observed experimental results. In this
it is assumed that all the heat is initially transferred to the liquid phase and that heat

transfer to the gaseous phase and to atomized liquid takes place in parallel from the
massive liquid phase.

= ( 12 . 8)

The first term represents the heat transfer coefiicient to the massive liquid slugs while
the second term represents that to the gas and atomized liquid. As tends to unity,
so hxp tends to The liquid phase heat transfer coefficient (Afj) is a function of a
modified liquid Reynolds number, Re/;

(12.9)

The liquid hold-up (1— a) was evaluated from the data of Alves^ for all the experi-
mental data studied regardless of whether hold-up data were taken with the heat
transfer measurements or not.
For slug flow, a very simple relationship was found to be satisfactory, ft, was placed
equal to unity by assuming that all the heat was retained by the liquid phase.
The experimental data used are shown in Fig. 12.3. The abscissa is the modified
liquid Reynolds number Re/ and the ordinate is essentially the Colburn heat transfer
factor (/) modified for the effect of pressure on the two-phase coefficient obsen'ed by
Johnson.^®

= riT'Tpr r ' M"'' (12.10)

. JL/’J L J
is seen that,
where p is the system pressure and is normal atmospheric pressure. It

heat transfer coefficients follow the equi-

in the normal turbulent region, two-phase
and must be concluded that the mechanisms in-
valent single-phase relationships it
average some
volved are much the same. The data for two-phase slug flow lie on the
values of Re/> 3x10, the
20 per cent lower than the Sieder and Tate equation. For
equation given by Lunde* is

387
 CONVECTIVE BOIUNG AND CONDENSATION

i^ = 0022[Rc,T»[Pr,].(^);"[^]"” (12., 1,

Data points from five sources appear in Fig. 12.3. The experimental results of Ver-
schoor and Stemcrding" for upward flow of air and water in a 14 mm (0-55 in.) i.d.
aluminium-brass tube arc shown in Fig. 12.4. The total length of the test section was
110 cm (43*5 in.) of which 40 cm (15-75 in.) iwre heated by steam condensing at
atmospheric pressure. Wall temperatures were measured by thermocouples soldered
onto the tube wall In order to check the soundness of the experimental procedure,
single-phase liquid coefficients were measured and were correlated by the Sieder and

Single phase flow

(Sieder and Tate)

phase phax
• t> Johnson - horix
• a Abou-sabe- •• •

A Fnefl • •

• 0 King - •• .

' Versehcor -vefleat

Fig. 12J. Heal Transfer in Slug Flow Region

Tate relationship for forced convection through a tube. The superficial water velocity
Of) varied from 0-14 to 0-45 m/s (0-46 to 1*47 ft/s) and the volumetric ratio of air to
water fro™ 0 01 to 450 covering a variety of flow patterns.
(JtUt)
An increase in ijjjt) resulted in an increase in heal transfer coefficient at constant
liquid rate.The slope of this graph changes at an air/water ratio of two and shows a
general tendency to pass through a maximum at a value of (JJJi) of about two hundred.
This latter value corresponds with the transition from annular to annular-dispersed
flow. The change in slope at (Jg/Ji) equal to two corresponds with the transition from
slug to annular flow. Heat transfer coefficients obtained by these authors ranged from
2-3 to 12-5kW/m^ 'C (400 to 2200 Btu/h ft* •F), and Fig. 12.5 shows that the intro-
duction of air has most effect at the lowest liquid flow-rate and that the effect is more
pronounced in the slug flow region.
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER

Btu/hft

coefficient,

transfer

Heat

0
/
/’

Symbol J, ft/s

Bubbly 0 46

—
0-62

-l—L- 1-16
1-47

01 10 10

Volumetric ratio, air to water,

jJj,
Fig. 12.5. Data of Verschoor and Stemerding

389
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The remaining four sets of results used in Fig. 12.3 are for horizontal two-component
flow. Heat transfer coefBcients and pressure drop values for two-phase flow of air and
water in a horizontal 4-5 m
(15 ft) length of 25-4 mm(l in.) x 16 gauge brass tubing were
measured by Johnson and Abou-Sabe.** Flow rates were in the range 454 to 6800
kg/h (1000 to 15,000 Ib/h) water and 0-91 kg/h (0-200 Ib/h) of air, and heat fluxes
ranged from 1 10 to 550 kW/m* (35,000 lo 175,000 Btu/h ft*). The pressure of the
system was varied from I to 4-5 bar (1 5 to 65 psia) and the mean temperature of the
flow from 21 to 60®C (70 to MO^F). The wall temperatures were measured by means of
24 thermocouples arranged along the outside of the tube wall. Single-phase heat
transfer coeffleients for water and air alone were evaluated and the results for water
alone agreed with the accepted equations for single-phase flow. However, the results
for air alone were not satisfactory due to various reasons. Results from the two-phase

Air flow-rate^ Std mVmm

(482 kg/h)

(685 kg/h)

(2265 kg/h)

(4080 kg/h)

(6800 kg/h)

Rg. 12.6. Data of Johnson and Abou-Sabe for Horizontal Flow of Air-Water Mixtures

study indicate that the heat transfer coeflicient inside the tube at a given mass flow-
rate of liquid at first increases as the co-current gas flow is increased and then, in some
cases, reaches a maximum and declines. The authors state that the increase at low
air rates is in part due to the reduced liquid flow area and resulting increase in liquid
velocity; however they do not necessarily attribute the decreasing values at high air
rates to the lower heat-transfer performance of air, since at the lowest liquid rate,
mass transfer probably contributes significantly and this would result in the depression

of the heat transfer coefficient at high air rates.

The experimental values volume fraction (1 — o) were
for the non-isothcrmal liquid
50 per cent lower than the average isothermal values proposed by Martinelli. Heat
transfer results were shown to be consistent by plotting the ratio of two-phase to
single-phase liquid coefficient against the air rate (Fig. 12.6). The values at maximum
water rate are than unity due to the use of an equation to predict single-phase
less

liquid coefficients which gave higher values than the authors’ own data for the single-
phase liquid coefficients.

390
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
King^^ continued the work of Abou-Sabe with the same equipment but with an 18-7
mm (0-737 in.) i.d. tube and performed runs at water flow rates from 624 to 2910 kg/h
(1375 Ib/h to 6410 Ib/h) and air flow rates from 0 to 1-2 std.m^/min (0 to 43 scfm).
His results followed those of Abou-Sabe very consistently. However, slight divergences
were noted in the liquid volume fraction (1 — a). In this case the values obtained were
much nearer those obtained by Lockhart and Martinelli for isothermal flow.
Fried'^ also continued with the same apparatus and the same diameter tube but with
provision for the separate measurement of the condensate from each half of the test
section. Separate condensate collection permitted an estimate of the temperature
distribution of the fluid as it flowed through the test section and thereby a more accur-
ate estimate of the heat transfer coefficient, values of which ranged from 6-25 to 31-2
kW/m^ °C (1 100 to 5500 Btu/h ft^ °F). The values of the heat transfer coefficient were

computed by use of logarithmic and integrated mean temperature differences. Fried

correlated his results using a parameter which is analogous to the Martinelli
parameter <j)^ used for pressure drop correlation and is defined by the equation below:

The value of h, is based on the liquid flowing alone through the pipe.
Fried"* found
no satisfactory correlation arose from plotting
that, for his results at least, against \j/

X, a method similar to Lockhart-Martinelli’s pressure drop correlation. The author

did, however, correlate his and the previous results from the equipment by plotting
against where was evaluated from a measured pressure drop corrected for
kinetic energy changes. The better correlation was given by those values of cal- ij/

culated using an integral mean rather than log-mean temperature difference. The ratio
ij/^ was plotted against X but the data fell into separate bands for the two pipe sizes

used, namely 22-1 mm and 18-7 mm (0-870 in. and 0-737 in.). The test section length
and arrangement were the same for both sizes and separation of the bands was con-
sidered due either to a size effect or to a difference in infernal roughness.
Johnson,*® continuing his previous work, gathered heat transfer and pressure drop
data in the viscous-turbulent region for oil-air mixtures. The apparatus again con-
sistedof a 4-5 m
( 5 ft) length of
1
8-7 1 mm
(0-737 in.) i.d. copper pipe heated by steam
in two sections as with the previous author. Single-phase heat transfer runs were
performed and correlated by the respective laminar and turbulent correlations for air
and oil. The oil flow-rates used in the two-phase heat transfer runs were from 317 to
2270 kg/h (700-5000 !b/h) and air rates from 0 to 127 kg/h (0-280 Ib/h). For two runs
at an oil flow-rate of 635 kg/h (1400 Ib/h) and an air rate of 16 kg/h (35 Ib/h), the
system pressure was changed from 1-38 to 4-13 bar (20 to 60 psia). An increase in
system pressure caused a decrease in heat transfer coefficient.
Increasing system pressure increases the liquid holdup (1 — a) and thus reduces the
liquid velocity, causing a lowering of heat transfer performance. The results of the
heat transfer measurements plotted against the air flow-rate again show the character-

istic rise, maximum, and then a decline in some cases.

The results were effectively correlated to within ±20 per cent by plotting
versus X. Liquid flow-rate did, however, appear as an irregular parameter at limiting

391
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
air flow-rates. Itwas noted that for oil the heat transfer performance increase due to
air addition is roughly two to four times as great as that for water.
Returning to the consideration of the correlation proposed by Lunde (Fig. 12.3), it
is noted that the data of Verschoor and Stemerding** and Johnson*'’ cover the range

of values of Re/ normally associated with the viscous and transition regions. The
data, however, appear to lie on an extension of the turbulent region and exhibit a mass
velocity dependence. This was allowed for in the empirical relationship suggested by
Lunde for the range of Re,' less than 3 x 10^,

= 0 069 “ [PtJ < (12.13)

where Re, = \p,J,

Oliver and Wright** have reported experimental data for pressure drop and heat
transfer for two-component gas-liquid slug flow in horiiontal tubes. They used 88
per cent glycerol-water solutions, a 1*5 per cent SCMC (sodium carboxymethyl-
cellulose) solution in water and a 0-5 per cent Polyox (poly-ethylene oxide) solution
in water. The latter two solutions are non-Newtonian. The heat transfer equipment
consisted of a copper tube 6-3S mm (0-15 in.) i.d. by 1*37 m (4*5 ft) long heated by
means of a water jacket. Single-phase heat transfer data for the glycerol solution
followed the usual Siedcr-Tate type laminar flow equation. The heat transfer data for
single-phase non-Newtonian fluids followed a mMifleation of the Graetz-Leveque
solution which allows for the non-Newtonian flow behaviour.
In the two-phase heat transfer tests, nitrogen was introduced into the fluids prior
to the test section.The increase in heat transfer coeiBdent in this instance was some-
what greater than given byeq. (1 2.2) by a factor up to 1*2 for the Newtonian fluid and
up to 1*5 for the non-Newtonian fluids. An empirical coneciion, based on circulation
inside the liquid slug, was devised to account for this additional enhancement. The
enhancement reached a rnaximum in the range a » 0- 3-0*5 and died out as annular
flow was reached (a = 0*7-0-8).

This work was extended by Oliver and Young Hoon***’ ** who confirmed that cir-
culation inside liquid slugs occurred for Newtonian liquids but was unlikely with non-
Newtonian liquids. Heat transfer experiments were carried out in an apparatus which
allowed the liquid slug length to be varied at will whilst maintaining constant flow
conditions. It was found that was indeed an important parameter.
liquid slug length
This is illustrated diagram shows a plot of the Nusselt number cor-
in Fig. 12.7. This
rected by the viscorily ratio ** ^goinst the Craeii number, Oz{ = Re
Pr, DjL). For two-phase flow the Reynolds number is based on the volumetric flux

(;, +J,). Consideration of the circulating flow patterns led Oliver and Young Hoon
to a
hypothesis concerning heat transfer in the liquid slug in tenns of an 'effective’ length
to use in the Graetz number. If it ts assumed that no heat is lost from the liquid slug
then it can be shown that hj^jh, = 1*2. If all the heat in the liquid slug is dissipated in
some manner, then *= (L/Z.,)*. This hypothesis is shown diagrammatlcally in

Fig. 12.8. The enhancement is of the correct order but the assumption of no heat
transfer to the stagnant film adjacent to the gas slugs over-emphasizes the reduction in
heat transfer as the gas flow-rate increases.

392
To summarize, it would appear that in the bubbly and slug flow regimes, the
chanism of heat transfer is by the normal convective process to the liquid phase and
It the enhancement over the single-phase liquid heat transfer coefficients is due, in

[/Av//Jb],

Nu

meral, to the increase in the liquid phase velocity in the two-phase case. This increase
1 heat transfer coefficient can be obtained from
eq. (12.1) using measured or estimated

quid holdup values (l-ct). An additional enhancement occurs at low liquid phase

J9J
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Reynolds numbers (Rcf) corresponding to the viscous and transition regions (Re, < 10*)
for single-phase liquid flow.
This additional enhancement appears to result. In bubbly flow, from a considerable
increase in the level of turbulence above its cvormal low level in single-phase liquid

Fig. 12.8. Slug Flow Heat Transfer Model (Oliver and Young Hoon)

flow.Heat transfer rates appear to lie on an extrapolation to lower Reynolds numbers

of the turbulent region. Heat transfer cocflBcients in this region may be estimated
using eq. (12.13) or Fig. 12.1. At very low liquid Reynolds numbers (Re, <500) the
addition of the gas may be insufficient to promote turbulence in which case cq. (12.1)
remains valid.

394
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
In slug flow would appear that the additional enhancement stems from recircula-
it

tion within the liquid slug making the system equivalent to single-phase liquid flow
in a series of short tubes. Heat transfer rates are correspondingly higher due to the
fact that the flow and temperature profiles never become fully developed.

12.4 Heat Transfer in Two-Component Annular Flow

Heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics for the annular flow region of two-
phase two-component flow in pipes was the subject of a theoretical treatment by
Levy^^ who presented solutions for three liquid-gas flow regimes, namely the viscous-
viscous region, the viscous-turbulent region, and the turbulent-turbulent region. The
major parameters derived were identical with those obtained by Lockhart and Martin-
elli,but three additional parameters based on the physical properties of the fluids
appear in the solutions. Their effect, however, appears to be negligible in most prac-
tical systems. The solution for two-phase heat transfer in the annular regime shows

that the correlation parameters are identical as for pressure drop if constant liquid or
gas mass flow-rate curves are plotted. One point which arose from Levy’s work was
that the curve of (1—a) (the volumetric liquid holdup in the tube) against the Martinelli
parameter, X, was indeed unique and independent of the flow mechanism. Levy’s
analysis of heat transfer showed that in the annular region, at least, a new grouping
was of significance, namely [Prj L/RCf r] where Prf is the Prandtl modulus for the
liquid phase. Ref is the Reynolds modulus for the liquid phase based on the superficial
water mass velocity (Gf), L is the length of the conduit and r is the conduit radius. The
comparison between theory and experiment was not possible at the time of derivation
as data were not available for the turbulent-turbulent regime.
The studies of Johnson,^® Abou-Sabe,^^ Fried,'* King*^ Kudirka,® and Verschoor
and Stemerding,** all include data taken in the annular regime. The heat transfer
coefficient in two-component annular flow shows a considerably increased dependence
on both mass velocity and volumetric flux ratio UJJi)-
Johnson and Abou-Sabe*^ presented a correlation of their data based on the model
proposed by Lockhart and Martinelli for the correlation of pressure drop and liquid
holdup. In this correlation of their heat transfer data, the simple relation given by the
equation below was postulated.

/iTP = ftfZg-b/igZf (12.14)

where Zg and Zf are respectively the gas and liquid rate factors with values between
zero and one to be determined experimentally; h[ and hg are respectively the liquid and
gas heat transfer coefficients for single-phase flow calculated from the Dittus-Boelter
equation:

inwhich D and G are based on effective hydraulic diameters. Using the concept of the
Lockhart and Martinelli model (chapter 2) the effective hydraulic diameters are given
by.

395
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION

A,^ -
6 "') (2.58)

A, (2.59)

where y and 6 arc In effect the ratio of actual cross-sectional area of flow to the area of
a circle of diameter D, or £), respectively.
Also
7Z),*+5/),* = D* (12.16)
and

(12.17)

By substitution of eqs. ».15), (2.58), (2.59), (12.16),

(12.15), am (12.17) into
and eq. (12.14)

y'
18)

where from eq. (12.15) based on the pipe diameter D.

h, is defined
From the data presented by Johnson and Abou-Sabe It was shotvn that if the
gas rate is not controlling (hen eq. (12.18) becomes

(12.19)
h, (!-«)«

At this point the similarity between this analysis and that presented by Lunde* for
slug flow (section 12.3) will be noted
The Maninelli relationships for 7 were used. i.e. for tuibulent-turbulenl flow
y = (1— «)* and eq. (12.19) then becomes

( 12.20 )
hf -»)•»* •
(1

The experimental data of Abou-Sabe were plotted to obtain the empirical relation

Z ! (12.21)
• l+0006[DG,//g°*
The use of the gas phase Reynolds number based on the superficial gas mass velocity
(G,) was purely arbitrary.
The authors correlated their data by a plot of

versus the Martinelli parameter X to within ±15 per cent. They also correlated their
data by the plot of (i.S'Vd’f^) 'ersus X The error limits in this case were ±20 per cent.
study covering the slug and annular flow regimes of two-phase twcKomponcnt
A
flow has been published by Groothius and Hendal ** Heat transfer measurements

396
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
for the flow of water-air and gas-oil-air mixtures in a vertical tube were presented.
The test section was constructed of thick-walled copper tubing 14-25 mm
(0.561 in.)
i.d. with a wall thickness of 6 mm This considerable wall thickness was
(0-236 in.).

employed to reduce temperature disturbances at the inner surface. The copper tube
was surrounded by a glass jacket and heated by condensing steam over a length of
20 cm (8 in.). This unit was installed, with thermal insulation at each end of the test
length to avoid axial heat losses, in a non-heated tube of length 120 cm (47 in.) with
the same internal diameter as the test section. In the calculation of the heat transfer
coefficients, an arithmetical mean of wall thermocouple readings and the liquid inlet
and outlet temperatures were used. The wall thermocouple readings were corrected
for the slight temperature gradient in the radial direction.

o
o
O
<£>
M

01

o'

Fig. 12.9. Heat Transfer to Water-Air Mixtures (Data of Groothius and Hendal’®)

Experiments were carried out for the single-phase forced-convective heat transfer
to waterand gas-oil. The experimental results for water lie some 20 per cent higher than
the predicted values from the Sieder and Tate equation, due almost certainly to the
small LjD ratio of the test section.
In the experiments with the two-phase mixtures, the air and the liquid were fed to
the base of the unheated tube through needle valves set at 45° to the tube axis. For the
water-air system, the mass velocity of the water phase was varied from 200 to 800
kg/m^ s (1-47 X 10’ to 5-90 x 10’ Ib/h ft^) and the volumetric air-water ratio, UJjt,)
from unity to 200. The wall temperature influenced the value of the heat transfer
coefficient; the value rising by 5 per cent for a wall temperature rise of 10°C. All
results were therefore corrected to a wall temperature of 60°C. The experimental
results are shown in Fig. 12.9. For each value of water mass velocity, G[, the heat
transfer coefficient passed through a maximum value; the value of (JJJd which this
maximum occurred decreases with increasing water velocity. Similar results were
achieved with the gas-oil-air mixtures and by Verschoor and Stemerding.^’

397
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
The ratio (Ajt/Aj), as previously dchned, reached a value of six at the highest value of
UJJi) for air-water system and a value of eleven for the gas-oil-air sj-stem. A
correlationwas developed on similar lines lo that of Knott et al.^ A volumetric m ea n
RejTiolds number was defined by adding together the liquid and gas Reynolds
numbers both based on superficial velocities. Thus, since

where (I— a) is the fractional holdup of liquid, and u, are the actual mean vxiodties
of liquid and gas.

(12.23)

The data were then correlated using the physical properties of the liquid in a modified
Sieder and Tate type equation.

For the water-air system ((C, f)//%l>5000).

and for the gas-oil-air system ((<?, /)/n,l<3500X

Perroud and de La Harpe*^ have studied beat transfer to mixtures of hydrogen and
water fiowiflg upwards through a vertical tube, 32cm(I2'6 in.) long, heated electrically,
and have presented a theoredcal appreciatioa of their results.
The liquid was introduced into the gas stream by means of an ejector opening into
the neck of a convergent-divergent nozzle. The flow pattern in the tube was shown to
depend on whether or not the liquid wetted the tube walls. WTicn the liquid wets the
wall (as is the case with water) a proportion of the liquid flows as a thin annular film
along the wall while the remainder of the liquid is entrained in the form of small
droplets in the centra] gas core. When the wall is not wetted, the liquid remains in the
form of small droplets without the formation of a liquid film. Perroud’s work was
concerned solely with the annular film flow pattern.

T*Ijle 11.1 Range oT vanables in PcttowTs expenawats

M»» of bydrojen 2«-70 K 10* lb iJ ft* 35-95 kt-ia* i

Misi flow>rate of water I2-5»KlO*lb’bft* IS-WOkfo*!
Rauo of nuo &ow-rate of water lo
bydrogen 04-15 04-15
Reynolds nomber for hydrogen flowiog
^one in tbe tube 15-35x10* 1 5-35x10*
Pressure 2S-I42 psa 2-10 bar

The test section was constructed from stainless steel tubing 4 mm (0-158 in.) Ld.
398
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
Direct resistance heating by a heavy alternating current allowed a maximum heat
flux of 2-5 MW/m^ (8 x 10® Btu/h ft^).
In case of a sudden temperature the hottest point of the test seetion, an
rise at
amplified signal from a thermocouple was used to operate a fast-acting circuit breaker.
The temperature of the inner tube surface was evaluated from the outer surface
temperature measured by thermocouples. The correction applied was approximately
4-5°C (8°F) at a heat flux of 0-315 MW/m^ (10® Btu/h ft^). The fluid temperature was
estimated as a function of length assuming the gas to be saturated at every point by
the liquid vapour and using Dalton’s law for the quantity of vapour contained in the
gas. Knowing the heat flux, point heat transfer coefficients were evaluated at positions
along the tube length, and plotted as a function of the ‘film’ temperature. This ‘film’
temperature was defined as the mean fluid temperature plus 0-3 times the temperature
difference between the heating surface and the fluid.
Experiments were carried out over the range of variables indicated in Table 12.1.
The liquid was injected into the test section at room temperature and, in the first
part of the heated section, the major part of the heat supplied went into heating the
water. Evaporation was small and the water film was rapidly heated to a temperature
of 60-70'’C (140-160°F) where the vapour pressure of water began to increase rapidly
and evaporation became the predominant mode of heat some
transfer (Fig. 12.10). In
cases the surface temperature exceeded the saturation temperature and the water in
contact with the surface ‘boiled’.
This study is the only one of those reported in this chapter in which nucleation at the
heating surface was observed. A drastic reduction in the heat transfer —the coefficient
critical —was observed in a number of experiments. This was due
heat flux condition
separate causes — the formation of a vapour film on the
to the two
heating surface
— andboiling’
distinct
‘film
firstly,

—and secondly, thinning of the liquid film by evapora-

tion and entrainment to a condition where a continuous film could no longer be main-
tained on the heating surface
— In general, second type of
‘dryout’. heat
this critical

flux condition occurred before the surface reached the temperature corresponding to
the saturation temperature of water at the test section static pressure.
Estimated values of the liquid film thickness upon the heating surface were in the
range 0-075-0-15mm (0-003-0-006 in.). Using eqs. (7-8) and (7-9) the temperature drop
across the liquid film (T^-Tgi) was evaluated. This drop in temperature across the
film was, in general, equal to about 40 per cent of the observed temperature difference
between the inside surface and the gaseous core (Tyf-Tg^). Clearly in two-component
annular flow a considerable resistance to heat transfer exists at the interface with the
gaseous core.
The conditions at an interface where evaporation or condensation is occurring in the
presence of a non-condensible gas have been discussed in section 10.3.4. Basically the
transfer of heat from the interface to the bulk gas and droplet mixture (Fig. 12.10) is
made up of two components firstly, sensible heat transferred to the gas and, secondly,
:

latent heat released due to evaporation of liquid at the interface (see eq. (10.42)).

4,, = /I, (T^i- TJ+K, M, q, (p,i-pj (12.26)

where is the mass transfer coefficient defined by eq. (10.41). It should be noted at this

399
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
point that the heat flux through the interface will in general be lower than the surface
heat flux since heat is being supplied to provide sensible heat to the liquid film. Again,
it may be assumed that the temperature at the interface T,, corresponds to the satura-
tion temperature equivalent to the partial pressure of vapour, p,i, at the interface. The
evaluation of the heat and mass transfer coefficients {h^ and A', respectively) follow the
equivalent procedures for condensation, lliese are discussed in detail in section 10,3.4.

Fig. 12.10. Temperature Distribution for Two-Phase Two-Component Annular Film Flow

The application of cq. (12 26) requires comment since the conditions at the inter-
face are usually unknown. Consider the situation where evaporation occurs to a
vapour-gas mixture from a liquid film on a vertical wall under conditions where the
wall surface heat flux, 0, the bulk temperature of the vapour-gas mixture. and the
partial pressure of vapour in the mixture, are known. Since the procedure must be
a stepwise one proceeding downstream along the channel the partial pressure of
vapour in the bulk gas stream is known from the inlet conditions and the cumulative

400
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
amount of evaporation computed from the previous upstream steps. The various stages
to arrive at the wall surface temperature are as follows:

(a) Guess a liquid film interface temperature, T^-„ above

(b) Compute the interface heat flux from the relationship

= (12.27)

(c) Since the interfaceis assumed to be at a saturated condition for the vapour, the

choice of allows the partial pressure of the vapour at the interface,

T^-, to be
evaluated. The partial pressure of vapour in the bulk mixture, is known.
Values of and A' ,
the heat and mass transfer coefficients are evaluated from the
appropriate equations (see section 10.3.4).
(12.26)
(d) (12.27)
The rate of heat transfer from the interface may now be evaluated from eq.
. In general this heat flux, tpn, will be different from that found from eq.
, 4‘i2- The correct solution occurs when a value of interface temperature,
reached which allows 4>n
7'ji, is equal ^-, 2 This may be achieved by an iterative
.

procedure in which successively better guesses for the interfacial temperature are
made. Alternatively 4>ii may be plotted against T^-,. The intersection with <j)i 2 gives
the correct value of Tg,.

(e) The wall temperature is given by

Tw = | + Tgi (12.28)

The
heat transfer coefficient /if across the liquid film is influenced by the ratio
Hewitt and Hall Taylor have discussed the laminar flow solution for the case
where this ratio is zero and unity. For design calculations it is satisfactory to evaluate
h( from eqs. (7.8) and (7.9).

The above is only valid for one point in the channel and the
calculation procedure
computation must be repeated for the next downstream location.
Hughmark^^’ has suggested an approximate method of prediction based on the
above concept which effectively adds the interfacial and liquid film resistances. Thus

^ _ •Pi
^
<(>

(12.29)
hjp hg h(

Heat transfer coefficients hg and h( were estimated from the momentum-heat transfer
analogy using the friction factors based on each phase flowing alone in the channel.
Superficial agreement was achieved with the data of Fried, Johnson, Johnson and
Abou-Sabe, and King, together with those of Groothius and Hendal.
The study of Perroud el al. was continued by Huyghe, Mondin, and Villeneuve.*® In
this later study the amount of vaporization of the liquid phase was kept very small.
However, a similar enhancement of the heat transfer coefficient over the single-phase
—
gas coefficient was observed. Dowtherm a eutectic mixture of 26 per cent by weight
di-phenyl and 74 per cent by weight di-phenyl oxide boiling at 255°C under atmos-
—
pheric pressure was injected into a stream of carbon dioxide gas. The fluid passed

401
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
inside a stainless steel tube, 6 mm (0-236 in.) i.d. and m (39 in.) long heated by the
1

Joule efTcct.

Experiments were carried out over the range of variables given in Table 12.2. The
fluid temperature was again calculated using the assumption that the gas was saturated
by the liquid vapour. This vaporization contributed less than 5 per cent of the total
thermal capacity. In order to compare the two-phase and single-phase coefficients, a
plot of /itp/A, against the mass fraction of liquid in the flow was prepared. Values
of Atp/A, up to eight were observed with 75 per cent by mass liquid in the flow.
By same dimensions, de-
replacing the stainless steel tube with a glass tube of the
tailed hydrodynamic measurements were made of the local and mean liquid film
thickness on the tube walls and the wavelength of the ripples. Data were also taken
for the fraction of the liquid phase entrained as droplets in the gas core. The ratio of

Table 12.2 Range of variables used by Huyghe. Kfondin, and Villeneuve

Mast flow-rate of carbon dioxide I 3-d 5 K 10* Ib/h ft’ 17 S-$g kg/m’ a
Mass flow-rate of Dowtherm l3-3 2KlO*lb/hft’ 17 5-70 kg/m’
Ratio of mass flow-rates of Dowtherm to
carbon dioxide 02-4 02-4
Reynolds number for carbon dioxide flow-
ing alone in the tube 0^3OkI0* 06-30*10*
Pressute l7-2Jj.$ia in 7 bat

the mass flow-rate of liquid in the film to the total liquid flow-rate ranged between
0 95 and 0 67. Film thickness values were from 0025 to 0125 mm (0 001-0 005 in.)
with minimum to maximum local values ranging between 2-5 and 9.
On the basis of these measurements a theoretical analysis was attempted in order to
relate the hydrodynamic and heat transfer results.
The temperature drop through the liquid film was evaluated using the measured
values of the film thickness and Reynolds analogy:

(Tw-T,,)
< Prey*' (12.30)
AT,

AT, is the temperature drop that would exist for the gas flowing alone in the tube at the
same mass flow. Ap, and Apyp are, respectively, the single-phase gas alone and two-
phase pressure drops along the tube.p* is the dimensionless film thickness [(y u* Pr)//Jel,
where u* is the friction velocity, V(tw/Pi) and is the shear stress at the tube wall.

/, is the friction factor for the gaseous phase flowing atone in the tube.
Over the range of the experiments it was shown that

(rw-T,,)
6.T.

For the temperature drop from the interface to the droplet-laden gas core, the heat
flux passing to the gas core is given by

(12.31)

402
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
where yis the ratio of thermal capacity of the liquid film to the total thermal capacity
of the two-phase fluid given by

y_ mCpf(l-£) (12.32)
fVg Cpg + fVf Cpf
Using Reynolds’ analogy the temperature drop from the film interface to the core
— Tg„) can be expressed as
(Tgi

= (i-y) (12.33)

The droplet-laden core density p is approximately given from the homogeneous model
by

P = Pf, (12.34)

The temperature of the two-phase coolant is by definition the mean of the temperatures
in each zone (film or core) weighted by the thermal capacity (Wcp). This weighting
introduces a further factor of (1 Y) which multiplies the term (Tgi-Tg^yATg.
Adding the temperature drops in the film and core

The inverse of this expression was compared with the experimental results. At low
flow-rates excellent agreement was noted while at the highest flow-rates the occurrence
of waves was believed to have caused increased convection in the liquid film and
consequently a lower than calculated value of (Ty,—Tg,).
The main conclusion from the studies of two-phase annular two-component flow is

that the increased heat transfer coefficient due primarily to the flow pattern rather
is

than vaporization. The liquid, the better heat transfer medium, passes to the walls of
the heated tube. Despite its low velocity, it removes a significant heat flux. The tem-
perature drop at the gas core interface benefits from this drop in heat flux (^j «j>) and
also from the increased interfacial heat transfer coefficient induced by the wave rough-
ness. The liquid velocity remains low so that the frictional pressure loss increases

very little with respect to the heat transfer.

12.5 Onset of the Liquid Deficient Regime for Two-Phase Two-Component Flow

The occurrence of maxima in the two-phase heat transfer coefficient data obtained by

Groothius and Hendal^® and by Verschoor and Stemerding** (cf. Figs. 12.4 and 12.9)
at high values oi(JJjf) is significant and is believed to be the onset of liquid deficiency
with two-component two-phase flow. The explanation and interpretation given by
Groothius and HendaF® is interesting. It was observed that beyond this maximum,
the outlet gas temperature was higher than that of the liquid. This suggested that

403
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
‘dry’ spots were appearing at the healed walls. This non-equilibrium between the
phases is typical of the liquid deficient region for single component systems. Heat
transfer beyond the maximum will no longer be controlled by the heat transfer to a
turbulently flowing liquid film but also by transfer from the dry wall to the gas at these
‘spots’. A
criterion was derived for the flow conditions at which the liquid film was
disintegrated by the shear stress exerted by the gas stream. The Weber number was
chosen as this criterion.

const
^=
WCrtiT = (12.36)

By substituting an expression for the film thickness, the maxima can be characterized
by the dimensionless criterion

const (12.37)
V )\ )
For the water-air system the value of this constant calculated from experimental
results was from 7*7 x 10~* to lO-I x 10“^ and for the gas-oil-air system from 10 6 x
10'^ to U'8x 10’*. This result must be considered with considerable caution until
further information from other systems can confirm the hypothesis which forms the
basis of the criterion. It seems more likely that surface tension difTcrcnccs, which result
from differences in film thickness (as a consequence of waves) and therefore local film
temperature, are primarily responsible for hquid film breakdown m two-component
flow.
Perroud and de La Harpe*’ correlated the onset of the critical heat flux condition—
both by the initiation of ‘film boiling’ and ‘dryout’ of the hquid film— for their experi-
mental conditions by an empirical equation of the form

(12.38)

No information has been published on heat transfer in the liquid deficient region for
two-phase two-component systems flowing in heated ducts. Obviously a minimum
heat transfer rate can be estimated using a single-phase coefficient evaluated from the
Dittus-Bocltcr or Siedcr and Tate equations using just the gaseous phase flow-rate.
Temperature differences and hence non-equilibrium will probably exist between the
liquid and gaseous phases as with single component flow— such differences have been
reported by Giootbius and Hendal.

12.6 Two-phase Two-component Heat Transfer in Cross Flow

Experimental data has been obtained by Alimov'^ for heat transfer to a transverse
flow of a two-phase stream of air and water from a hot cylindrical tube. The horizontal
Duralumin tube was cooled by a stream of water droplets diameter 130-200 pm —
falling under gravity. A certain amount of air was entrained in the water stream and
flowed by the rod. As heat was added to the rod, heal transfer took place to a film of
liquid falling around the rod surface. At a certain critical rod surface temperature the

404
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
film disappeared and the droplets were throwTi off the surface. The rod surface tem-
perature continued to rise rapidly. Heat transfer rates above the critical temperature
difference were correlated by

= 0-34[ReJ“-® (12.39)
[^]
where Re^' is based on the rod diameter and the gas velocity and physical properties;
is the thermal conductivity of the gaseous phase.
Further work on the influence of small amounts of liquid in atomized form on the
heat transfer from surfaces to gases flowing across tube bundles has been reported
by El’perin.^^ Acrivos^^ and more recently Finlay^^^ have reported experiments where
a larger enhancement of the heat transfer coefficient from an isolated cylinder has
been noted. Finlay^"* reports that a liquid film is formed over the region of the tube
between forward stagnation and separation points. The maximum increase in heat
transfer measured was seventeen times the normal single-phase gas coefficient.

References

1. Lunde, K. E. ‘Heat transfer and pressure drop in two-phase flow' Chem. Engng. Prog.
—
Symp. Series, ‘Heat Transfer Buffalo', Vol. 57, No. 32, pp. 104-110 (1961).
2. Novosad, Z. ‘Heat transfer in two-phase liquid gas systems'. Collect. Ccechoslov. Chem.
Cosomun., 20 (2), 477-498 (1955).
3. Knott, F. R., Anderson, R. N., Acrivos, A., and Petersen, E. E. ‘An experimental study
of heat transfer to nitrogen oil mixtures’. Ind. Engrg. Chem, 51 (11), 1369-1372 (1959).
4. Fried, L. ‘Pressure drop and heat transfer for two-phase two-component flow’. Chem.
—
Engng. Prog. Symp. Series, ‘Heat Transfer ^Research Studies for 1954.’ Vol. 50, No. 9,
47 (1954); also M.S. Thesis, 1953, University of California.
5. Kudirka, A. A. ‘Two-phase heat transfer with gas injection through a porous boundary
surface’. ANL-6862 (1964).
6. Kudirka, A. A. et al. Ind. & Eng. Chem. Fundamentals, 4, 339 (1965).
7. Kudirka, A. A. ‘Two-phase convective heat transfer’. Chem. & Proc. Engng. pp. 43-64
(Nov. 1966).
8. Gose, E. E., Petersen, E. E., and Acrivos, A. ‘On the rate of heat transfer in liquids with
gas injection through the boundar>' layer’. J. App. Phys., 28 (12), 1509 (1957).
9. Alves, G. E. Chem. Eng. Prog. 50, 449 (1954).
10. Johnson, H. A. ‘Heat transfer and pressure drop for viscous-turbulent flow of oil-air
mixtures in a horizontal pipe’. Trans. ASME, 77, 1257-1264 (1955).
11. Verschoor, H. and Stemerding, S. ‘Heat transfer in two-phase flow’. Proc. of Gen. Discus-
sion on Heat Transfer, p. 27, Section 2. Inst. Mech. Engrs. London, 11-13 Sept. (1951).
12. Johnson, H. A. and Abou-Sabe, A. H. ‘Heat transfer and pressure drop for turbulent
flow of water-air mixtures in a horizontal pipe’. Trans. ASME, 74, 977-987 (1952).
13. King, G. D. G. ‘Heat transfer and pressure drop for viater-air mixtures flowing in a
0-737 in I.D. horizontal pipe’. M.S. Thesis, U.C.L.A. Berkeley, California (1952).
14. Oliver, D. R. and Wright, S. J. ‘Pressure drop and heat transfer in gas-liquid slug flow
in horizontal tubes’. Brit. Chem. Engng., 9, 590-596 (1964).
15. Levy, S. Proc. 2nd Midwest Conf Fluid Mech., p. 337 (1952).
16. Groothius, H. and Hendal, W. P. ‘Heat transfer in two-phase flow'. Chemical Engineering
Science, Vol. 11, pp. 212-220 (1959).
17. Perroud, P. and de La Harpe, A. ’The transfer of heat by entrained liquids in a turbulent
gas stream’. Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires de Saclay, Rep. CEA 1422 (1960).

405
 CONVECTIVE BOILING ANO CONDENSATION
18. Huyghc, Mondin, H., and Villencuve, J. *Hcat transfer by a mixture of liquid and gas
J.,
in turbulent forced convection with a small amount of vaporization of the liquid phase’.
Comptfs rendus des srancts de VAcademie des Seiencts, Vol. 252, pp. 3015-3017, 15 May
1961 ; Vol. 253, pp. 395-397, 17 July 1961 ; Vol, 253. pp. 615-617, 24 July 1961.
19. Alimov, P. Z. ‘Heat transfer by transverse flow of a two-phase stream over a hot cylindrical
tube’. J. Tech. Phys., 26 (6). 1264 (1950.
20. Oliver, D. R. and A. Young Hoon. Two-phase— non-Newtonian flow’ Part I. Pressure
drop and hold-up Trans. /. Chem. Engrs. (London), 46, T106-115 (1968).
21. Oliver, D. R. and A. Young Hoon. Two-phase non-Newtonian flow* Part II: Heat
transfer. Trans. /. Chem Ergrs. (London). 46, TM6-t22 (1968).
El’jwrin, 1. T. Imh. Ft:. Zhur.. 4 (8). 20 (1961)
Has Acrivos, A. et al. Aerospace Research Labs. Report ARL-64-II6 (1964).
Finlay, 1. C. ‘Heat transfer enhancement by addition of a liquid phase’. Nature, 214, 22
Apnl(l967).
25. Hughmark, G. A. ‘Heat transfer in horizontal annular flow’. Paper presented at 6th Nat.
Heat Transfer Conf., Boston, 1 1-14 Aug. (1963) AlChE preprint No. 49.
26. Hughmark, G. A. ‘Heat transfer in vertical two-phase flow‘.,4/CA£y., 11 (5), 937 (1965).

PROBLEM
1, In a submerged combustion vaporizer for cryogenic liquids, combustion products
are injected directly into a tank of water. The bubbling gas (assume nitrogen) gises
up its heat to the water and induces a circulation over a bank of tubes containing
the fluid to be evaporated (see sketch). The mass velocity of the circulating water
was 2*5 X h (based on the minimum flow- area in the tube bank). The
10’ Ib/ft’

injection rate of gasis such as to cause a bubbly flow pattern with a value of

the volumetric quality of 0-20 If the single-phase heat transfer coefficient at the
same water mass velocity is 400 Btu/h ft* *F what is the value in the case of gas
Injection? If the water temperature is I40”F calculate the maximum heat flux to the
tubes before ice forms at the tube surface.

Qp.Q.O 0'O.6,0
'.o,o:o:
oo.po OQ'O-p

406
 APPENDIX

Table A.l. Conversion Factors

(a) Thermal Conductivity

w Btu g cal w i

kg cal
°C/m h ft^ "F/ft s cm’ ‘Clem cm’ ‘CJcm h “C/m

1 0 5779 0 002388 0 01 0 86
1 731 1 0 004134 0 01731 1 488

418 7 241 9 1 4 187 360

100 0 2388 1 86
1-163
WSm 0 002778
1
0 01163 1

(Jb) Coefficient of Heat Transfer

W Btu g cal W kg cal

*C h ft’ ”F s cm* ®C cm’ ‘C h m’ °C

1 0 1761 0 00002388 0 0001 0 86

5 678 1 0 0001355 0 0005678 4 882
41,870 7,373 I 4 187 36,000
10,000 1,761 0 2388 1 8,600
1-163 0 2048 0 00002778 0 0001163 1

(c) Heat Flux

Btu W kg cal
m* hft’ cm’ hm’

1 0 3170 0 00002388 0 0001 0 86

3 154 1 0 00007535 0 0003154 2 712
41,870 13,272 1 4 187 36,000
10,000 3,170 0 2388 1 8,600
! 163 0 36S7 .
0 00002778 0 0001163 1

1 1
1

407
 CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
(rf) Viscosity

Centipoises lb Ibfi lb ke
(Poiseuille)* an ft* hft h m

1 1,000 0 672 00309 2,420 3.600

0001 I 0000672 00000209 2-42 360
1 49 1.490 \ OOMl 3.600 5,350
47 88 47,880 32 2 116,000 172,000
0 0004134 04134 0 000278 000000864 1 1 49
0-000278 0 278 0000187 0 00000381 0 672

* I Ns/m* (poiMiilIe) — 10 poise.

(e) Physical Quanlilies

Reciprocal
Physical British Conversion conversion
quantity units SI factor* factor*

Basic tnflHserinf u/iiis;

Mass lb k8 04S36 2 2043
Length ft m 0 3048 3 2808
Ibf N 4-4482 0 2248
Energy 103306 9 4781 KlO-*
ftibf 3 3338
1 0 7373
Power 330 ft Mis W 743 69 1 3410xl0-»
- 1 hp.
lUat transfer umts-
6 Biu/ft’h W/m* 3133 0 3169
h Blu/n’h ’F W/m‘*C 3 678 01761
k Btu/ft h ’F W/m ‘C 1 731 0 5777
Blujlb ‘F siH’C 4186 8 1388x10-*
Ib/ft’ kg/m’ 160183 0 06243
Iblftb kg/ms, or Ns/m* 4 134x10-* 24189x10*
a.e.D ft'lh 2581 xlO-’ 3 8744 10*
Ibfjft* N/m* 47 880 0 02089
Ibf/in’ N/m* 6 8948 X 10’ 1 4503x10-*

Multiply the numerical value in Brilnh units by the conversion factor to obtain the
*
equivalent in SI; multiply the numerical value in SI by the reciprocal conversion factor
to obtain the equivalent in British units.
 APPENDIX
Table A.2. Viscosity of Steam^"^ micropoiseuille (N s/m^ x 10“®)

Absolute Temperature “C

m
pressure Saturated
bar vapour 0 100 200 300 400 500 800 1000

12 06 8 10 121 162 20 3 24 5 28 7 40 5
1

20 162 — — 20 2 24 7 28 9 40 6
mum
— — — mum
40
60
80
17 5
18 5
19 4
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
20 1
20 0
19 8
—
25 0
25 2
25 5
29
29
29
1

3
5
40
40
41
7
9
0
Bn
100
120
20 3
21 3 — — —
25 8
26 2
29
30
7
0
41
41
1

3
Warn
140 22 4 — — — — 26 6 30 2 41 5 48 3
160 23-7 — — — 27 1 30 5 41 6 48 4
180 25 6 — — — 27 7 30 8 41 8 48 5
200 28 5 — — — 28 5 31-2 41 9 48 6
220 35 5 — — — 29 5 31 5 42 1 48 8
240 — — — 30 9 31 9 42 3 49 0

(a) From U.K. Steam Tables in SI Units 1970 Published by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd London.

409
 Transport

and

Tension

Surface

Capacity,

Heat

Specific

Line;

Properties

Saturation

1963.

Table,

Skeleton

International

Tables^*’

Steam

A.3.

Table
 . ;
:

APPENDIX

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412
 APPENDIX
Table A.6. Thermal Properties of Saturated Liquids

k
T P ,
a/kg pip (W/m a P
(-Q (Vg/m*) degQ (ra*/s) degQ (ni*/s) Pr (1/degK)

Water (HjO)
0 1002 4218 0-179x10-* 0 552 13-1 XlO-* 13 6
20 1001 4182 0-101 xlO-* 0 597 14-3 XlO-* 7-02
40 994 6 4178 0-0658 xlO-* 0 628 15-1 xlO-* 4-34
60 9854 4184 0 0477x10-* 0 651 15-5x10-* 302
80 974-1 4196 0-0364 XlO-* 0 668 16-4x10-* 2-22
100 960-6 4216 0 0294x10-* 0 680 16-8 XlO-* 1-74
120 945 3 4250 0-0247 X 10-* 0 685 17-1 xlO-» 1 446
140 928-3 4283 0 0214x10-* 0 684 17-2x10-* 1-241
160 909 7 4342 0-0189 xlO-* 0 680 17-3 XlO-* 1-099
180 889-0 4417 0-0173 xlO-* 0 675 17-2x10-* 1-004
200 866-7 4505 0-0160x10-* 0 665 17-1 XlO-® 0937
220 842-4 4610 0-0149 XlO-* 0 653 16-8 XlO-* 0 891
240 815-7 4756 0-0143 xlO-* 0 635 16-4x10-* 0 871
260 785 9 4949 0-0137 xlO-* 0611 15-6x10-® 0 874
280 752-5 5208 0-0135 xIO-* 0 580 14-8x10-® 0 910
300 714-3 5728 0-0135x10-* 0 540 13-2x10-* 1019

Meth>I Chlonde (CH 3 CI)

-so 1053 1476 0-0320 X 10-* 0 215 13-9x10- s 2-31

-40 1033 1483 0-0318 xlO-* 0 209 13-7x10- s 2-32

-30 1017 1492 0-0314x10-* 0 202 13-4x10- 8 2-35

-20 999 4 1504 0-0309x10-* 0196 13-0x10- 8 2-38

-10 981-4 1519 0-0306 xlO-* 0187 12-6x10- 8 2-43

0 962-4 1538 00302x10-* 0178 12-1 xlO- 8 2-49

0-0197 xlO-* 0171 11-7 xlO- 8 2-55
10 9424 1560
923-3 1586 0-0292x10-* 0-163 11-1 xlO- 8 2 63
20
1616 0-0287x10-* 0 154 10-6 xlO- 8 2-72
30 903-1
1650 0-0281 xlO-* 0144 10-0 X 10- 8 2 83
40 883 1 8
0-0274x10-* 0 133 9-2x10- 2 97
50 861-2 1689

Freon (CCI 2 F 3 )
0-0675 5-01xlO-* 6-2 2 63 x10-*
-50 1547 8750 0 0310x10-*
0-0279 XlO-* 00692 5-13xlO-® 54
-40 1519 884-7
48
0-0253 xlO-* 00692 5-26x10-*
-30 1490 895 6
44
0-0235x10-* 00710 5-39x10-*
-20 1461 907-3
5-50x10-* 4-0
-10 920-3 0-0221 xIO-* 00727
1430 5-57x10-* 3-8
934-5 0-0214 xlO-* 00727
0 1397 5-60x10-* 36
949 6 0-0203x10-* 00727
10 1364 5-60x10-* 3-5
965 9 0-0198 xlO-* 00727
20 1330 5-60x10-* 3-5
983-5 0-0194x10-* 00710
30 1295 * 5-55x10-* 3-5
1002 0-0191 xlO 00692
40 1257 5-44x10-® 3-5
1022 0-0189 xlO-* 00675
50 1216
Gljcerin (CsHjCOHlj)
0 282 9-83 xIO-* 84 7 X 10*
Q 1276 2261 8-31 xlO-*
0 284 9-65 xlO-® 310
1270 2320 3-00 xlQ-* 0-504x10-*
10 9-47x10-* 12 5
2387 1-17x10-* 0 286
20 1264 9-29 xIO-* 54x10*
30 125g 2445 0-50 X 10-* 0 286
9-13 xlO-® 2-5 X 10*
0-22 xlO-* 0 286
40 1252 2512 8-93 xlO-* 1-6x10*
0-15 xlO-* 0-287
50 1245 2583
Ethjiene glyco! (CjH^COHU
0 242 9-34x10-* 615
0 1130 2294 5-75x10- 0 648 XlO-*
0 249 9-39 xIO-* 204
2382 1-92x10-
20 1117
0 256 9-39 X 10-* 93
40 1101 2474 0-869 xlO-*
0 260 9-31 xlO-* 51
2562 0-475 xlO-*
60 1088
0 261 9-21 xlO-* 324
2650 0-298 xlO-*
go 1078 0-263 9-08 xlO-* 224
2742 0-203x10-*
100 1059
413
 —
CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Table A.6. cont.

k
T QN{m
CQ degO Pr (I/deg K)

EAgine Oil (unused)

0 899 1796 4 28x10-* 0147 911 xJ0-» 47,100
20 888 1880 090x10-* 0145 8 72 x10-* 10,400 0 702x10*
40 876 1964 024x10-* 0144 8 33x10-* 2870
60 864 2047 0 0839x10-* 0140 8 00 x10'* 1050
80 8S2 2131 0 0375x10-* 0 138 7 69x10-* 490
100 840 2219 0 0203x10-* 0137 7-38x10-* 276
120 629 2307 00123x10-* 0135 7 10x10-* 175
140 817 2393 00080x10-* 0133 6 86x10-* 116
160 806 2483 0 0036x10-* 0132 6 63 xlO-* 84

Mercury (llg)
0 13.630 140 3 00124x10-* 8 21 430x10-* 00288
20 13,380 1394 00114 x|0*» 8 69 461 xIO-* 0 0249 1 82x10-*
50 13,310 >38 6 0 0104x10-* 940 302x10-* 00207
100 13.390 137 3 0 00928x10-* 105 371 xlO-» 00162
ISO 13.260 136 3 000833 xlO-* 115 633 x10** 00134
200 13,150 1361 003802x10-* 123 691 xlO-* 00U6
250 13.030 1357 0 00764x10** 13 1 740x10** 00103
316 13,830 1340 0 00673 X 10** 140 815XJO** 00083

Adtpled from Ttble A E R. C. Eckert end R- M Drake, Jr., Ufoi end Mess Transfer, McOriw*Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York (1959).

Table A.7. Thermal Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure

T /r
(kf/m*) (3 /kg deg C) {m*/s) (W/m deg O (m*/s) (N s/m*)
1 i ^

414
 —

APPENDIX
Table A.7. cont.

Hydtogaa
250 (00981 ( 14,050 ( 8-1 xlO'^ I 0156 I 11-3 xrlO-* I 7-9x10-6
300 0 0319 14,320 10-9x10-6 0-182 15-5x10-= 90x10-® 0-706
350 0 0702 14,440 l-!-2xl0-6 0-206 20-3x10-= 9-9x10-* 0 697
400 0 0614 14.490 17-7x10-= 0-229 25-7x10-= 10-9x10-* 0 690
450 0 0546 14,500 21-6x10-= 0-251 31-6x10-= Il-gxlO-® 0-682
500 00492 14,510 25-7x10-= 0-272 38-2x10-= 12-6x10-® 0-675
550 0 0447 14,530 30-2x10-= 0-293 45-2x10-= 13-5x10-® 0-668
600 0 0403 14,540 35-0x10-= 0-315 53-1 x10-= 14-3 x10-® 0^64
650 0 0349 14,570 45-5x10-= 0-351 69-0x10-= 15-9x10-® 0 659
700 0 0306 14,680 56-9x10-= 0-384 85-6x10-= 17-4x10"® 0-664
750 00272 14,820 690x10'= 0-412 102x10'= 18-8x10'® 0 676
800 00245 14,970 82-2x10-= 0-440 120x10'= 20-2x10"® 0686
850 0 0223 15,170 95-5x10-= 0-464 137x10'= 21-5x10"® 0-703
0- 1-
1- 2-
2- 3-
3- Oxygen
200 1956 913-1 5-
0-795x10"= 09182 192x10"= 14-9x10"*
6-
0-745
250 1-562 915-6 1-144x10-=
8- 09226 1-58 XI0-* 17-9 xlO"* 0-725
300 I-30I 920-3 9-
1-586x10-= 09267 2-24 X 10"= 20-6x10"* 0-709
350 1-113 9299 2980x10"= 09307 2-97x10"= 23-2x10"® 0-702
0976 9429 xI0-=
2-618 09346 3-77x10"= 25-5x10"® 0-695
450 0-868 956-7 3-199x10-* 09383 4-61 xl0-= 27-8 XlO"® 0-694
500 0-780 972-2 3-834x10-= 09417 5-50x10"=
0- 29-9 XlO"® 0697
0- 1-
550 0-710 988-1 4-505x10-=
1-
0-9452 6-44x10" = 329x10-® 0-700
600 0-650 1004 5-214x10-= 0-0483 7-40x10"=
1- 33-9x10"® 0-704
1- 2-
2- 3-
2- 3-
3- Nitrogen 4-
200 1-711 1043 757 -x 10"= 0-0182 02x10"= 12-9x10"® 0-747
300 1-142 1041 563 -x 10"= 0-0262 2IxI0"= 17-8x10-* 0-713
400 0-854 1046 574 X 10"= 0-0333 74x10"= 220x10-® 0691
500 0-682 1056 766x10"= 00398 5-53x10-= 25-7x10-® 0684
600 0-569 1076 119x10"= OOiSS 7-49x10"= 29-1x10"® 0686
700 0-493 1097 512x10"= 0-0512 9-47x10-= 32-1 x10"® 0691
800 0428 1123 145x10"= 0-0561 11-7x10-= 34-8x10"* 0-700
900 0-380 1146 106x10"= 00607 13-9x10"= 37-5x10"® 0-711
1000 0-341 1168 11-72x10"= 0-0648 16-3x10"= 400x10"* 0-724
1100 0-311 1186 13-60x10'= 00685 18-6x10"= 42-3x10"® 0-736
1200 0-285 1204 15-61 xlO-= 00719 20-9x10"= 44-5 xlO"* 0-748

Carbon dioxide
250 2-166 803-9 0-581x10"= 0-0129 74x10"= 12-6x10"® 0-793
300 1-797 8709 832x10"= 0-0166 06x10"= 159x10"® 0-770
350 1-536 900-2 119x10"= 09205 1-48x10"= 17-2x10"® 0-755
400 1-342 942-0 1-439x10"= 09246 95x10"= 19-3x10"® 0-738
450 M92 979-7 790x10"= 0-0290 48x10"= 21-3x10"® 0-721
500 1073 1013 167x10"= 09335 08x10"= 23-3x10"® 0-702
550 0 974 1047 574x10"= 09382 75x10-= 25-1 x10"® 0-685
600 0-894 1076 002 X 10"= 0-9431 48x10"= 26-8x10"* 0-668

Carbon monoxice
250 0 841 1043 1-128x10"= 09214 I-5IxI0-= 15-4x10'* 0-750
300 1-139 1042 1-567x10"= 0-0253 2-13x10"= 17-8x 10'* 0-737
350 0-974 1043 2962x10"= 09288 2-84x10"= 20-1x10"* 0-728
400 0854 1048 2-599x10"= 09323 3-61 X 10"= 22-2 x 10'* 0-722
450 0-762 1055 3-188 xlO"= 09436 4-44x10"= 24-2x10'® 0-718
500 0-682 1063 3-819x10"= 09386 5-33x10"= 26-1x 10'* 0-718
550 0-620 1076 4-496x10"= 0-9416 6-24x10"= 27-9x10'® 0-721
600 0-568 1088 5-206 X 10"= 09445 7-19x10"= 29-6x10'® 0-724

415
 —
CONVECTIVE BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Table A.7. cont.

T A ,
CK) (kg/m*) (JAg deg C) (N s/m’) Pr

Wa
380 0 586 2060 0 216x10'* 00246 204x10-’
400 0 554 2014 0 242x10-* 00261 2 24x10-’ 13 4x10'* 1-040
450 0 490 1980 O-SII xlO'* 00299 3 07x10-’
fOO 0441 1985 0-386 X 10'* 0O3J9 3 87x10-’ 170x10'* 0 996
550 0 400 1997 0 470x10'* 00379 4-75x10-’ 188x10-* 0-991
0 365 2026 0 566x10"* 00422 5-73x10-’ 20 7x10-*
dSO 0 338 2056 0 664x10'* 0<M64 666x10-’ 22 5x10-* 0 995
700 0314 2085 0 772x10'* 00505 7-72x10'* 243 x10-* 1-000
750 0 293 2119 0888x10'* OOS49 883x10-’ 260x10-* 1-OOS
800 0274 2152 1-020x10'* 00592 100x10'* 27 9x10-* 1010
850 0 258 2186 1 152x10-* 00637 11-3x10-’ 29-7x10-* 1-019

Adapted from Table A 4, E. R. G

Eckert and R. M. Drake, }t.. Heal end Mast Transfer, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Ine.. New York (C959). {Note- At prcasures other than atmospheric, the density can be
determined from the ideal gas equation, p — ptRT. Hence at any given temperature p - po(plp») where po
IS atmospheric pressure and Pe is given m
the table, k, p, and r, may be assumed independent of pressure.
V and a are inversely proportional to (he density; hence at a given temperature are inversely proportional to
the pressure.)

Table A.8. Oiffusion CoelBcients

Water m air: D(ft*/h)

Pc • 14 2} Ibf/in *. Tp m 460‘R

Diffusion Schmidt
Diffusing Medium of Temperature coefheiept number
material diffusion CO (m’/s) (jilpD)

NH, Air 0 0216x10-* 0 634

COj Alt 0 0 120 X to-* 1 14
COj Hi 18 0 605 x10"* 0138
Hg N, 19 32 515x10-* 0 00424
0) Air 0 0153x10-* 0 895
O] 12 0 203 xlO-* 0 681
H] Air 0 0 547x10'* 0 250
H] O, 14 0 775x10-* 0182
Hx Nj 125 0 738x10"* 0 187
H,0 g 0 206x10-* 0615
H]0 Air 16 0 281 XlO"* 0 488
C.H, Air 0 0 075 X 10"* I 83
C.Hg CO, 0 0 053 KlO"* 137
CgH* H, 0 0 294x10"* 3 26
CSj Air 20 0 088x10"* I 63

Ether Air 20 0 077x10"* 1 93

Ethyl alcohol Air 0 0101x10"* 1 36
Ethyl alcohol Air 0118x10'* 1 45

Adapted from Table A*9, ERG

Eckert and R. Drake, Jr
Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc , New York (I9J9)
M , Heal and

416
 :

INDEX

Acceleration pressure gradi- introduction to convective, flow patterns in, 20-21

26,29,34
ent, 106 etseg. pressure losses in, 96-97
Annular flow, 72-83 pool, 118-129 Compressibility effects, in
in condensation in horizontal saturated nucleate, 123-124, critical heat flux, 260
tubes, 331-333 131-132 Condensation;
heat transfer in, 203-20S subcooled nucleate, 124, 131- coefiBcient, 306-310, 334-336
in horizontal flow, 13, 76-77 132 definition of, 1, 301
interrelationships in, 81-83 transition, in pool boning,I28 droplet growth, 303, 336-338
mechanism for formation in Boiling map, 132-135 droplet nucleation, 302-303,
horizontal flow, 76 Bubble detachment, 118 336-338
in two-component heat in forced convection sub- effect of electric fields, 357
transfer, 395-403 cooled boiling, 176-180 effect of vibration upon, 356-
in vertical flow, 10, 74-76 frequency of, 118 357
Aimuli, critical heat flux in, Bubble dynamics, 116-118 influence of condensation on
275-279 in pool boQing, 116-118 interfacial shear stress,
in subcooled forced con- 338-341
Baker flow pattern map; vective boiling, 162-166, influence of non-con-
as applied to condensation, 175-185 densibles, 310-314
328-329 Bubble growlh, 116-118 air in steam, 314
for horizontal two-phase Bubbly flow, 67-71 liquid formation in, 301-302
flow, 18 drift flux model, 70-71 at a planar interface, 303-314
Bankoff variable density in horizontal flow, 12 pressure gradient in, 338-343
model, 67 in vertical flow, 8 Condensation, Dropwise:
Baroczy correlation, 47-50 Burnout (see also Critical heat mechanism of, 336-338
Bends, tees, and valves: flux),135 promoting, 355-356
flow patterns in, 20-21 physii^, 135 Condensation, Filmwise:
pressure losses in, 96-97 influence of interfacial shear,
Binary liquid mixtures: Cavities (see also Nucleation 321-334
boiling heat transfer in, 214- sites):
laminar condensation, 321-
216 sizing of active, 114-116
322
critical heat flux in, 366-368 Chen correlation:
turbulent condensation,
Boiling: for saturated boiling heat
323-334
basic processes, 109-118 transfer, 208-214
improvement to Nusselt
in binary liquid mixtures, for subcooled boiling heat
theory, 317-318
214-216 transfer, 214
Nusselt la min ar film
definition of, 1 Chenoweth and Martin cor-
on horizontal tubes, 320-
film: relation, 84-85
321
in pool boiling, 128-129 Chisholm correlation, 50-54
on planar surface, 314—318
over unbounded surfaces, Chum flow, in vertical flow,
9-10 of Uquid metals, 334-336
218-219
Coils (see also Bends): turbulent condensation,
forced convection, regions of,
critical heat flux in, 358-359 318-319, 324-334
129-132

417
 INDEX
Condensation (coitt.) the local conditions hypo- Dropwise condensation (see
within a horizontal tube, thesis. 250 Condensation, dropwise)
328-333 in water for vertical upflow, Dryout (see also Cntical heat
within a vertical tube, 323- 237 et seq. flux), 132
328 influenceofdeposiiionon,261 definition of, 132
Condensers (set Condensa- influence of surface finish and description of, 221-223
tion) wall thideness, 260-261 mechanism of, 287-292
Contractions; mechanism of. ^5 et seq
Electric fields;
Flow patterns in, 19 in saturated region. 287-292
tn subcooled region, 285-
elfecl on condensing heat
pressure losses in, 88-90
357
transfer,
Convective boiling, 139-135 287
effecton critical beat flux,
regimes of heat transfer in, methods of improving. 357-
365
129-132 368
Energy equations:
under transient conditions,
Corrosion, at boiling heat for homogeneous model, 28
284-285
transfer surfaces, 373-374 for separated flow model, 27
under unstable hydro-
Critical Heat Flux (CHFO. for two-phase flow, 26-27
dynamic conditions, 284
236 e/ Sfg Entrainment:
in annular channels, 275-279 in annular flow, 78-81
Deposits:
critical vapour velocity for, 80
in cases where liquid-vapour effect on boiling heat
mature at channel inlet, in wispy annular flow, 80-81
transfer, 374-376
280-284 Entrainment fraction:
effect on dryout, 376
in annular flow, 80
in coils. 358-359 effect on pressure drop. 374
tn wispy annular flow, 80-81
correlation of experimental influence on CHF, 261
Equilibrium:
data. 2SO-2S7 Dissolved gases-
at curved surfaces, 108-109
effect of trace additives on effect on nucleation In sub-
meiastable, 107-108, 301-302
boiling heal transfer, 366- cooled boding. 149
at a planar interface, 303-309
368 effect on superheat for suble, 106
in fluids other than water, 280 nucleation. 112-113
thermodynamic, 6
m Freon. 257-258, 280 influence on boiling curve,
unstable. fOS, 301-302
in forced convection, 135, 160-16)
vapour-liquid, 106-109
236 el se^. DNB {Departure from Evaporation, at planar inter-
heat transfer, after the. 216- Nucleate Boiling) (see also face. 303-309
229 Critical heat flux) Expansions;
in non<ircular geometries, definition of. 135. 236 flow patterns in, 19
273-280 uturated, 135 pressure losses m> 86-88
in non-uniform heated tubes. subcooled. 135
263-273 Down flow *P factor method for CHF in
non-uniform axial profiles, tion-umform heal flux
critical heat flux in. 25S-259
263-269 flow patterns in, 18-19 profiles. 267-271
non-uniform circumferential heat transfer in film boiling, Film boiling heat transfer:
profiles. 271-273 221 in a circular tube, 219-221
the overall power hypo- saturated forced convection,
Drift flux, 65
thesis, 266-267 219-221
Dnft flux model. 65-67, 70-72
the ‘F factor method', 267- subcooled forced con-
for bubbly flow, 70-71
269 vection, 219-221
for subcwled boding, 184-
the local conditions hypo-
185
m pool boiling, 128-129
thesis, 263-266 over unbounded surfaces,
influence of 'hot' and 'cold'
Dnft velocity, 66 218-219
patches, 269-271 Droplet flow; Film thickness:
in pool boiling, 127-128 entrainment (see Entrain- relationship to interfacial
in rod clusters, 279-280 ment) roughness, 78
in swirl flow, 359-362 heal transfer to evaporating, triangular relationship, 73-76
m uniformly heated round 227-229 Filmwise condensation (see
tubes, 236 et seq in vertical heated channels, Condensation, filmwise)
sources of expenmental n-12 Finned surfaces:
data, 240 Droplet nucleation: boiling upon, 363-364
relationship between inde- in condensation, 301-303 condensation upon. 354
pendent vanables, 24<1- Droplet growth: critical heat flux upon, 363-
250 incoadessatios.SQI, 336-338 364

418
 INDEX
Flashing, 1 in regions where the critical Interfacial heat transfer, 303
Flooding, 16-17 heat flux has been et seg.
Flow patterns, 7-21 exceeded, 216 et seg. Interfacial roughness, in
in horizontal co-current saturated nucleate boiling, annular flow, 77-78
flow, 12-13 131, 201-202 Interfacial shear stress, 77-78
in horizontal heated subcooled nucleate boiling, influence of condensation on,
channels, 13-14 131, ii9etseg. 338-341
techniques for the study of, through annular liquid film,
8 205-208 Liquid deficient region (of
in vertical co-current flow, in two-component systems, heat transfer), 132-135,
8-10 382 et seg. 221 el seg.
in vertical heated channels, two-phase forced convection, in two-component heat
10-12 132,205-216 transfer, 403-404
Flow pattern maps, 14-18 Heat transfer coefficient (see Liquid film:
Baker map, 18 Heat transfer) analysis of flow in, 72-77
in condensation, 328-329 Holdup (see also Void distribution in horizontal
in horizontal flow, 18 fraction); flow, 76-77
14-18
in vertical flow, relationship with heat heat transfer through, 206-208
Flow pattern models, 7, 67 et transfer coefficient in
inannular flow, 72-77
seg. annular flow, 206 influence of gravitational
Flow pattern transitions, 16- Homogeneous model, 7, 28-32 forces, 74-76

18 basic equations for, 28-30 laminar, in condensation,

annular to wispy-annular derivation of model, 28-30 3I4-3I8
flow transition, 17-18 energy equation, 28 triangular relationship in,

bubbly to slug flow tran- friction factor, 30-31 73, 81-83

sition, 16 momentum equation, 28
turbulent, in condensation,
chum to annular flow pressure drop, 32
318-319
transition, 17 pressure gradient for, 30 Liquid metals;
slug to chum flow transition, Horizontal flow; condensation of, 334-336
16-17 annular flow in, 76-77 forced convection boiling of,
Friction factor; critical heat flux, 258-259, 149, 280

homogeneous model, 30- 357-358 Local conditions hypothesis,

for
32 film boiling, heat transfer in,
for CHF, 250, 263-266
Lockhart-Martinelli correla-
Interfacial, in annular flow, 220
tion, 35-38
77-78 flow patterns in, 12-14
triangular relationship in nucleate boiling, heat transfer CHF for
Macbeth correlation,
annular flow, 72-76 in, 213-214 uniformly heated round
Fully developed boiling; Horizontal tubes; tubes, water, vertical up-
correlations for wail super- condensation on, laminar flow, 250 et seg.
heat, 156, 158, 160 filmwise, 320-321 Marchaterre and Hoglund
in subcooled boiling of condensation within, 328 et void fraction correlation,
water, 156-166 seg. 69-70
in saturated, forced con- critical heat flux in, 258-259, Martinelli-Nelson correla-
vection, 201-202 357-358 tion, 38-40
in subcooled, forced con- Hughmark void fraction Momentum equation;
vection, 15^166 correlation, 68-69 for homogeneous flow, 28
for separated flow model, 25-
Heat transfer; Improvements in 26
convective, to single phase boiling heat transfer co- for two-phase flow, 25-26
liquid, 131, 139-141 efficient, 348-354
convective, to single phase condensing heat transfer Non-condensible gases, influ-
vapour, 133 coefficient, 354-357 ence on condensation heat
effect of trace additives upon, critical heat flux, 357-368 transfer, 310-314
366-368 Inclined channels, flow Non-Newtonian systems, 392
in film boiling over un- patterns in, 19 Nozzles and venturis;
bounded surfaces, 218-219 Industrial applications, 1 pressure losses in, 95-96
221-229
liquid deficient, 132, Information sources, 2-3 Nucleate boiling, 123-127
in non-Newtonian two- for critical heat flux data, 240 in saturated forced con-
component systems, 392 Instabilities, critical heat flux vection region, 201-202
at planar interface, 303-314 during, 284 subcooled, onset of, 142-150

419
 INDEX
Nucleation: for homogeneous flow model, Special surfaces;
at solid surfaces, 113, 302- 30 improved boiling heat
303 for separated flow model, 34 transfer, 351-354
heterogeneous, 1 12, 302-303 accelerational, 26, 29. 34 porous coatings, 351-352
homogeneous, III, 301 frictional. 26, 29, 34 Teflon coatings, 352-354
302
rate of, 112, static head. 26, 29, 34 promoting dropwise con-
in a temperature gradient, in condensing systems. 338- densation, 355-336
121-123 343 Stephan and Komer correla-
onset in subcooled boiling, in subcooled boiling, I8S el tion. for beat transfer in
142-130 seq. telling binary liquid
superheat requirements for, in vapour core of annular mixtures, 214-216
110-111 flow, 77-7g Stratified flow:
suppression in saturated boil' triangular relationship in cntical heat flux in, 357-359
ing, 202-203 annular flow, g|-83 in condensation in horizontal
Nucleation sites, 113 tubes. 328-330
in saturated boiling. 203 Quality; in horizontal flow, 12
in subcooled boiling, 147 alternative definition of Subcooled boiling:
of liquid droplets in con- thermodynamic quality. 6 critical heat flux in
densation, 302 definition of. 5 mechanism, 285-287
sizing of active, 114-116 fully developed boiling in
Nusselt theory for laminar forced convection, 156-166
Rectangular channels: mechanism 164-166
condensation, 314-317 of.
critical heat flux in. 27i~ns
improvements to theory, onset of. in forced con-
flow paiiems in, 19
317-318 veclion, 142-150
void fraction in. 71 parrial boiling in forced con-
Reynolds analogy, in suS- vection. I51-I55
Onset of boiling (see also cooled telling, 190 pool telling, 124
Nucleation): Rod clusters, critical heat flux
pressure drop in, 185 el seq.
in subcooled telling, 142-130 in. 279-280
void fraction in, 173 etseq.
Orifices, pressure losses In. Roughened surfaces:
Subcooling’
90-93 telling upon, 349-351
at onset of bubble detach-
Overall power hypothesis, for effect on critical best flux. 363 ment in subcooled boding,
CHF, 266-267. 269 176-180
Saturated poo) boiling. III el at onset of fully developed
Partial boiling in subcooled sf^- subCDoled telling, 152-lSS
region, 142, 131-133 Saturated forced convective St onset of subcooled boding,
Plug flow: 131-132. 200 ei
telling, 142-150
in condensation in horizontal seq definition of, 6
flow, 330-331 Separated flow model, 7, 33-47 effect on critical heat flux,
in horizontal flow, 12 basic equations for. 24-27 240-250
in vertical flow (zee Slug flow) derivation of model, 33-34 Superheat:
Pool boiling (see boiling) energy equation for. 26-27 definition of, 6
Porous Coatings (see aho momentum equation for, 23- requirements for vapour
Deposits), improved boil- 26 nucleation, 110-111
ing heat transfer, 331-353 pressure drop, 35 where range of active cavities
Pressure drop, 6 pressure gradient for, 34 IS rtstneted, 149

at a contraction, 88-90 two-phase multiplier, 35 el Suppression of nucleation, in

at an expansion. 86-88 seq. saturated nucleate boiling,
at an orifice, 90-95 Shear stress: 202-205
for homogeneous model, 32 in annular flow. 73-76 Switl flow, cntical heal flux in,
in bends, lees, coils, and 77-78, 338-341
interfactal, 359-362
valves, 96-97 zero wan, 73
in condenser tube banks, Slip ratio, definition of. 5-6 Tecs (see Bends)
341-343 Slug flew. 71-72 Thcnnodytianuc equilibrium,
in condensing systems, 338- drift flux model. 71-72 6, 106-109
343 in horizontal flow, 13 at curved surfaces, 108-109
in nozzles and venturis, 95-96 in vertical flow, 8-9 in saturated nucleate boiling.
in slug flow, 72 pressure drop lo, 72 200
Pressure gradient: two-component beat transfer lack of, in liquid-deficient
effect of heat flux upon, 54 in, 387-395 region, 223

420
 INDEX
Thermodynamic (cont.) Two-phase forced convection effect on critical heat flux,
lack of, in subcooled boiling, heat transfer, 132, 205-211 365-366
181 er seg. Two-phase friction multiplier, Void fraction;
metastable, 107-108, 301 31, 35 et seg. definition, 4
stable, 106-107 effect of heat flux upon, 54 effect of mass velocity upon,
unstable, 108-109, 301 effect of mass velocity upon, 47
Thermodynamics, of vapour/ 41 et seg. Hughmark correlation, 68-69
liquid system, 106-109 in homogeneous flow model,
Thom correlation, 40-41 Units, 3-4 29
Transients, critical heat flux British Engineering, 3-4 in Lockhart-Martinelli
during, 284-285 Systeme International (SI), model, 38
Triangular relationship, in 3-4 in Martinelli-Nelson model,
annular flow, 73, 81 el seg. 40
Twisted tapes, inserts, Valves (see Bends) in subcooled boiling, 173 et
influence on critical heat Vapour core, in annular flow, seg.
flux, 359-362 n-iz Marchaterre and Hughmark
Two-component two-phase Vapour velocity, critical value correlation, 69-70
heat transfer, 382 el seg. for entrainment, 80-81 Volumetric flux, definition of,
in annular flow, 395-403 Velocity, superficial, definition 5
in bubbly flow, 382-387 of, 5 Volumetric quality definition
in cross flow, 404-405 Venturis (see Nozzles) of, 5

in liquid-deficient region, Vertical flow;

403^04 critical heat flux in uniformly Wavy flow;

in slug flow, 387-395 heat channels, 236-261 in condensation in horizontal

flow patterns 8-12 tubes, 330-331
Two-phase flow; in,
in horizontal Bow, 12
Basic equations of, 24-27 Vibration:
on condensing heat Wispy-atmular flow, 84
energy equation, 26-27 effect
356-357 in vertical flow, 10
momentum equation, 25-26 transfer,

421