Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

1
Basic Machine Tools and Metal Cutting
Machine tools classification, working and auxiliary motions in machine tools, Primary cutting
motions in machines tools, Cutting tool geometry and tool signature, cutting forces and power
requirement in machining

INTRODUCTION
• Machining Processes
o Machining

Machining is the process of cold working the metals into different shapes by using
different types of machine tools. This process is mainly used to bring the metal objects
produced by means of different fabrication techniques to final dimensions.
Machinability which is defined as the ease of removing metal while maintaining
dimensions and developing a satisfactory surface finish is an important aspect affecting
the metallurgical and properties stand-point of metals. Tool wear and power consumption
are two factors which affect the metal removal rate. Greater effort and time is required to
keep the tools sharp due to rapid tool wear and frequent machine stoppage for replacing
the dull tools. Types of metal chips formed during machining operation also affect the
different characteristics. Machinability of a metal is generally indicated by machinability
ratings (which are dependent upon their techniques of determination as well as upon the
particular metal cutting operation used for their measurement).
Machining is accomplished with the use of machines known as “Machine tools”.
For production of variety of machined surfaces different types of machine tools have been
developed. The kind of surface produced depends upon the shape of cutting, the path of
the tool as it passes through the material or both. Depending on them metal cutting
processes are called either turning or planing or boring or other operations performed by
machine tools like lathe, shaper, planer, drill, miller, grinder etc. as illustrated
schematically in Figure.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Turning Drilling Milling Shaping

(e) Planing (f) Cylindrical grinding (g) Surfacing

Fig.- Principal machining methods–Tool work interaction.

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Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

• Classification of machining processes

Machining process are material removing operations in which the desired shape
and surface finish on the finished product are obtained by removing surplus material.
The machining processes are classified as follows :
1. Metal Cutting :
(i) Single point cutting :
● Turning
● Boring
● Shaping
● Planing.
(ii) Multi-point cutting :
● Milling
● Drilling
● Tapping
● Hobbing
● Broaching.
2. Grinding and finishing :
(i) Grinding :
● Surface grinding
● Cylindrical grinding
● Centreless grinding.
(ii) Finishing :
● Lapping
● Honing
● Superfinishing.
3. Unconventional Machining:
● Ultrasonic machining
● Electrodischarge machining
● Electro-chemical machining
● Laser beam machining.
● The metal cutting (machining, a generic term, refers to all material removal
processes) refers to only those processes where material removal is affected by the
relative motion between tool made of harder material and the workpiece. The tool
would be single-point cutting tool as used in operations like turning or shaping, or a
multi-point tool as used in milling or drilling operation.
● Grinding and finishing processes are those where metal is removed by a large
number of hard abrasive particles or grains which may be bonded as in
grinding wheels, or be in loose form as in lapping.
● Unconventional machining processes are those which use electrical, chemical
and other means of material removal for shaping high strength materials and
for producing complicated shapes.
• Factor influencing the selection of a suitable process.
Following are the major factors that influence the selection of a suitable process:
1. Cost consideration.
2. Material of workpiece.
3. Shape of workpiece.
4. Size of workpiece.
5. Degree of accuracy.

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Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

6. Surface finish requirement.

7. Number of products to be produced.

Machine Tools

• Definition and functions

Machines tools are the kind of *machines on which the metal cutting or metal
forming processes are carried out. They employ cutting tools to remove excess material
from the given job.
The functions of a machine tool are :
(i) To hold the tool ;
(ii) To move the tool or the workpiece or both relative to each other ;
(iii) To supply energy required to cause the metal cutting
.
• Classification of machine tools
The machine tools are classified as follows :
1. General purpose :
(i) Lathe (ii) Drilling machine
(iii) Shaping machine (iv) Planing machine
(v) Milling machine (vi) Sawing machine.
2. Special purpose :
(i) Special lathes like capstan, turret and copying lathes
(ii) Boring machine (iii) Broaching machine
(iv) Production milling machine (v) Production drilling machine.
3. Automatic machine tools :
These machine tools, also called Automatic screw cutting machines (or simply auto-
mats), are used for mass production of essentially small parts using a set of pre-designed and
job-specific cams.
4. Computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools :
Under CNC machine tools, we have CNC turning centre, which does all the work of
a lathe and CNC machining centre which does milling, drilling etc., with provision for
automatic tool changing and tool wear correction built into it.

● Characteristics of ‘General purpose’ machine tools are :

(i) Less set-up and debugging time.
(ii) Less maintenance cost.
(iii) Usually less initial investment in equipment.
(iv) Less danger of obsolescence.
(v) Fewer machines may be required.
(vi) Greater machine flexibility.

● Characteristics of ‘Special purpose’ machine tools are :

(i) Higher output.
(ii) Higher product quality.
(iii) Reduced skill requirements.
(iv) Reduced inspection cost.
(v) Uniform product flow.

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(vi) Reduced manpower requirements.

(vii) Reduced factory floor space.
(viii) Reduced in-process inventory.

• Elements of machine tools

Various elements of machine tools are :
1. Structure—formed by bed, column and frame.
2. Slides and tool structure.
3. Spindles and spindle bearing.
4. Kinematics of machine tool drives.
5. Work holding, and tool holding elements.

Working and Auxiliary Motions in Machine tools

For obtaining the required shape on the workpiece it is necessary that the cutting
edge of the cutting tool should move in a particular manner with respect to the workpiece.
The relative movement between the workpiece and cutting edge can be obtained either by
the motion of the workpiece, the cutting tool, or by a combination of the motions of the
workpiece and cutting tool. These motions which are essential to impart the required
shape to the workpiece are known as working motions. Working motions can further be
classified as:

1. Drive motion or primary cutting motion

2. Feed motion
Working motions in machine tools are generally of two types: rotary & translatory.
Working motions of some important groups of machine tools are shown in figure:

1-For lathes and boring machines:

Drive motion-rotary motion of workpiece.
Feed motion-translatory motion of cutting tool in the axial or radial direction.

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2-For drilling machines:

Drive motion-translatory motion of drill.
Feed motion-translatory motion of drill.

3-For milling machines:

Drive motion-rotary motion of the cutter
Feed motion-translatory motion of the workpiece,
4-For shaping, planning and slotting machines:
Drive motion-reciprocating motion of cutting tool.
Feed motion-intermittent translatory motion of the workpiece.

5-For grinding machines:

Drive motion-rotary motion of the grind wheel.
Feed motion-rotary as well as translatory motion of the workpiece.

Beside the working motions, a machine tool, tool also has provision for Auxiliary motions do not
participate in the process for motion of the required surface but are none the less necessary to
make the working motions, Examples of the auxiliary motions in machine tools are clamping and
unclamping of the workpiece, idle travel of the cutting tool to the position from where cutting is to
proceed. change the speed of drive and feed motion, engaging and disengaging of working motions,
etc.

Parameters defining working motions of a machine tool.

The working motion of machine tool are numerically defined by their velocity, the velocity of the
primary cutting motion or drive motion is known as cutting speed, while the velocity of feed motion
as known as feed:
1-mm/rev in machine tools with rotary drive motion,eg lathe, boring,etc.
2-mm/tooth in machine tools using multiple tool cutters,eg.milling mach ine.
3-mm/stroke in machine tools with reciprocating-drive motion,eg. Shaping and planning machines.
4-mm/min in machine tools with have a separate power source for feed motion eg.milling
machines.

In machine tools with rotary primary cutting motion, the cutting speed is determined by the
relationship: V=Dn/1000 m/min

Where, D-diameter of workpiece (as in lathe). Or cutter (as in milling machine).

n-revolution per minute (r.p.m).of the workpiece or cutter.

In machine tool with reciprocating primary cutting motion, the cutting speed is determined as:
V=L/1000T cm/min

Metal Cutting
The metal cutting (machining, a generic term, refers to all material removal
processes) refers to only those processes where material removal is affected by the
relative motion between tool made of harder material and the workpiece. The tool would

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Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

be single-point cutting tool as used in operations like turning or shaping, or a multi-point

tool as used in milling or drilling operation.
● The conditions which have an important influence on metal cutting are :

(i) Work material ;

(ii) Cutting tool material ;
(iii) Cutting tool geometry ;
(iv) Cutting speed ;
(v) Feed rate ;
(vi) Depth of cut ;
(vii) Cutting fluid used.
● Metal cutting processes are performed on metal cutting machines, more commonly
termed as ‘‘Machine tools’’ by means of various types of ‘‘cutting tools’’.
● One major drawback of metal cutting or machining process is the loss of material
in the form of chips.

CHIP FORMATION
The cutting tool removes the metal from the workpiece in the form of ‘‘chips’’. As
the tool advances into the workpiece, the metal infront of the tool is compressed and
when the compression limit of the metal has been exceeded, it is separated from the
workpiece and flows plastically in the form of chip. The plastic flow of the metal takes place
in a localised region called shear plane, which extends from the cutting edge obliquely upto
the uncut surface infront of the tool. The cutting tool causes shearing action bearing the
metal along the plane.

Chip Plastic Chip

Shear plane Shear
zone N Chip
plane M
Tool Tool Tool
P
L
Workpiece Workpiece Workpiece

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. Chip formation.

The shearing of the metal in the process of chip formation does not however, occur
sharply across a straight line. The grains of the metal infront of the cutting edge of the tool
start elongating along the line LM and continues to do so until they are completely
deformed along the line NP. The region between the lines LM and NP is called shear zone.
After passing out the shear zone, the deformed metal in the form of chip, slides along the
tool face due to the velocity of the tool. This shear zone is treated as a shear plane for
the mathematical analysis.
● Every machining operation involves the formation of chips, the nature of which
depends upon the operation, properties of the workpiece material and cutting
conditions.

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Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

TYPES OF CHIPS
The chips produced, whatever the cutting conditions be, may belong to one of the
following
three types :
1. Continuous chip
2. Discontinuous chip
3. Built-up chip

1. Continuous chip : Refer to Fig.

● These chips are produced while machining more ductile materials. This type of
chip is
most desirable.
● The continuous chip which is like a ribbon flows along the rake face. Production of
con- tinuous chips is possible because of ductility of metal.
● About 95% of the power expended for metal removal is used in the deformation
taking place in the shear zone. This is the work required to form and remove the
chip and incidental plastic deformation of the surface layer of the finished
workpiece. The remaining power consumed, about 5% of the total, is expended in
stored elastic energy or residual stresses in the workpiece and friction.

2. Discontinuous chip : Refer to Fig.

● These chips are usually produced while cutting more brittle materials like grey
cast-iron, bronze and hard brass.
● In this type the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segments (deformed
material instead of flowing continuously) gets ruptured periodically.
● Discontinuous chips are easier from the view point of chip disposal. However, the
cutting force becomes unstable with the variation coinciding with the fracturing
cycle. Also they generally provide better surface finish. However, in case of ductile
materials they cause poor surface finish and low tool life.
● Discontinuous chips are likely to be produced under the following conditions :

— Low cutting speeds ;

— Small rake angles ;
— Higher depths of cut (large chip thickness).

3. Built-up chip : Refer to Fig

When machining ductile materials, conditions of high local temperature and
extreme pres- sure in the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool-chip interface may
cause the work material to adhere or weld to the cutting edge of the tool forming the
built-up edge (BUE). This causes the finished surface to be rough. However, since the
cutting is being carried by the BUE and not the actual tool tip, the life of the cutting tool
increases while cutting with BUE. That way BUE is not harmful while rough machining.
● In general low cutting speed, high feed and small rake angle are conducive to BUE
formation.
● Presence of BUE increases power consumption.

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Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

CUTTING TOOLS
Classification
Cutting tools are classified as follows:
1. Single point cutting tools:
● These tools have only one cutting edge; such as lathe tools, shaper tools, planer
tools, boring tools, etc

2. Multi-point cutting tools :

(i) Solid tool.
(ii) Brazed tool.
(iii) Inserted bit tool.
● These tools have more than one cutting edges ; such as milling cutters, drills,
broaches, grinding wheels, etc.

Single Point Cutting Tool :

● Fig shows a single point right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have
traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been so largely
replaced by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes (b).

Fig. Single point right-hand cutting tool.

● Fig. shows the various angles of a single point cutting tool.

Tool Elements and Tool Angles :

Tool elements. The definitions of various tool elements are :
(i) Shank. It is the main body of the tool at one end of which the cutting portion is
formed.
(ii) Flank. The surface (or surfaces) below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called
the flank
of the tool.
(iii) Face. The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
(iv) Heel. It is the intersection of the flank and base of the tool.
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(v) Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
(vi) Neck. The portion which is reduced in section to form necessary cutting edges and
angles is called neck.
(vii) Cutting edge. It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material
from the workpiece.

Tool Angles:

(i) Side cutting edge angle. It is angle between the side cutting edge and the side
of the tool shank.
— It is also known as ‘lead angle’.
— Its complementary angle is called ‘Approach angle’.
● This angle prevents interference as the tool enters the work material.
● Its satisfactory values vary from 15° to 30° for general machining.
(ii) End cutting edge angle. This is the angle between the end cutting edge and a
line normal to the tool shank.
● This angle provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting edge to
prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the trailing part of the
cutting edge. Only a small angle is sufficient for the purpose.
● An angle of 8° to 15° has been found satisfactory in most cases on side cutting tools,
like boring and turning tools.
● End cutting tools, like cut off and necking tools often have no end cutting-edge
angle.

(iii) Side relief angle. It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately
below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and
measured at right angle to the side flank.
(iv) End relief angle. It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
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below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and
measured at right angle to the end flank.
● The side and relief angles are provided so that the flank of the tool clears the
workpiece surface and there is no rubbing action between the two.
— These angles range from 5° to 15° for general turning.
— Small relief angles are necessary to give strength to the cutting edge when
machining
hard and strong materials.
— Tools with increased values of relief angles penetrate and cut the workpiece
material more efficiently and this reduces the cutting forces.
— Too large relief angles weaken the cutting edge and there is less mass to absorb and
conduct the heat away from the cutting edge.
(v) Back rake angle. It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel
to the base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side
cutting edge.
— This angle is positive, if the side cutting edge slopes downwards from the point
towards the shank and is negative if the slope of the side cutting edge is reverse.
(vi) Side rake angle. It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base
of the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting
edge.
— This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from the cutting edge.
The side rake is negative if the slope is towards the cutting edge and positive if
the slope is away from the cutting edge.
● The ‘‘rake angle’’ specifies the ease with which a metal is cut.
— Higher the rake angle, better is the cutting and less are the cutting forces. There
is a maxi- mum limit to the rake angle and this is generally of the order of 15° for
high speed steel tools cutting mild steel (increase in rake angle reduces the
strength of the tool chip as well as the heat dissipation).
— It is possible to have rake angle as zero or negative. These are generally used in
case of highly brittle tool materials such as carbides or diamonds for giving extra
strength to the tool tip.

Fig. Tool cutting at different rake angles.

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(vii) Clearance angle. This is the angle between the machined surface and underside
of the tool called the flank face.
● The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will not rub the machined
surface thus spoiling the surface and increasing the cutting forces.
● A very large clearance angle reduces the strength of the tool lip, and hence
normally an angle of the order of 5°–6° is used.
(viii) Nose angle. It is the angle between the side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
● Nose radius is provided to remove the fragile corner of the tool ; it increases the
tool life and improves surface finish. Too large a nose radius will induce chatter.

Tool Signature (or Tool Designation)

The seven important elements comprise the signature of the cutting tool and are
always stated in the following order :
(i) Back rake angle ;
(ii) Side rake angle ;
(iii) End relief angle ;
(iv) Side relief angle ;
(v) End cutting edge angle ;
(vi) Side cutting edge angle ;
(vii) Nose radius.
It is usual to omit the symbols for degrees and mm, simply listing the numerical value
of each component :
● A typical tool designation (signature) is :

0—10—6—6—8—90—1 mm.

ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING

In the metal cutting operation, the tool is wedge-shaped and has a straight cutting
edge. Basically, there are two methods of metal cutting, depending upon the arrangement of
the cutting edge with respect to the direction of relative work-tool motion :
1. Orthogonal cutting or two dimensional cutting.
2. Oblique cutting or three dimensional cutting.
1. Orthogonal cutting : Refer to Figure
● When the tool is pushed into the workpiece, a layer of material is removed from

the workpiece and it slides over the front face of the tool called rake face. When
the cutting edge of wedge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity, the process is
called orthogonal cutting.
●In this case, the material gets deformed under plane strain conditions ; the chip
slides directly up the tool face.
— Rarely in practice, however, is the cutting edge at right angles to the direction of
cutting (i.e., orthogonal cutting).

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90° Tool
Tool
Workpiece

Fig. Orthogonal cutting. Fig. Oblique cutting.

2. Oblique cutting : Refer to Figure.

● In most practical metal-cutting processes, the cutting edge of the tool is not
perpendicular
to the cutting velocity but set at angle with the normal to the cutting velocity.
● Cutting in this case takes place in three-dimensions (turning or milling) and
represents the general case of oblique cutting.
● In oblique cutting a lateral direction of chip movement is obtained.

Comparison between ‘Orthogonal cutting’ and ‘Oblique cutting’

S. No. Aspects Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting

1. Inclination of the Perpendicular to the Inclined at an angle with the
cutting edge of the direction of tool travel. normal to the direction of tool
tool. travel.
2. Clearance of the The cutting edge clears the The cutting edge may or may not
workpiece width by width of the workpiece on clear the width of the work-
the cutting edge. either ends. piece.
3. The chip movement. The chip flows over the tool The chip flows on the tool face
face and direction of chip making an angle with the
flow velocity is normal to normal on the cutting edge. The
the cut- ting edge. The chip chip flows sideways in a long
coils in a tight flat spiral. curl.
4. Number of Only two components of the Three components of the forces
components of cutting force act on the tool. (mutually perpendicular) act at
cutting force acting These two components are the cutting edge.
on the tool. perpendicular to each other
and can be represented in a
plane.
5. Maximum chip Maximum chip thickness The maximum chip thickness
thickness occurs at its middle. may not occur at middle.
occurrence.
6. Tool Life. Less More.

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FORCE OF A SINGLE-POINT TOOL

The work material offers resistance to the cutting tool, during metal cutting. This
resistance is overcome by the cutting force applied to the tool face. The work done by this
force in cutting is expended in shearing the chip from the work, deforming the chip and
overcoming the friction of the chip on the tool face and tool flank on the cutting surface.
The magnitude of the cutting force depends upon following factors :
— Material being machined ;
— Rate of feed ;
— Depth of cut ;
— Tool angles ;
— Cutting speed ;
— Coolant used, etc.
Figure shows forces acting on a single-point cutting tool.

Fig. Forces acting on a cutting tool.

Orthogonal cutting : Resultant, R =

Oblique cutting : Resultant, R =

Where Fa, Fr and Ft are axial (feed) radial and
tangential forces respectively.
— Force, Fa acts in horizontal plane parallel to the work axis.
— Force, Fr acts in horizontal plane along a radius of the work.
— Force, Ft acts in a vertical plane tangent to the cutting surface.
● Ft is always the largest of the three components. It develops torque on the
workpiece.
● Fa due to feed motion is about 35 to 55% of Ft.
● Fr which tends to push the tool back out of the work is about 25 to 30% of Ft.

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Torque developed on the workpiece,

Ft ´ D
T= Nm (neglecting the components Fa and Fr )
2 ´ 1000

where, D = Diameter of the workpiece in mm.

Heat produced ( = work done in metal cutting)
Ft ´ V
= kN m/s or kJ/s or kW
60 ´ 1000
where, V = Cutting speed in m/min.
F ´V
Power required = t kW
60 ´ 1000 ´ h
where, h = Efficiency of the machine.

The approximate values of efficiencies of the different machines when working at

full loads are :
1. Lathes ........................................................... 80 to 90%
2. Drilling machines ................................... 85 to 90%
3. Milling machines .................................... 80 to 90%
4. Shapers and planers ........................... 65 to 75%
5. Grinding machines .............................. 80 to 85%.
The following points about the component forces (Fa, Fr and Ft) are worth noting :
● The forces are not changed significantly by a change in cutting speed.

● The greater the ‘feed’, of the tool, the larger the forces.

● The greater the ‘depth’ of the cut, the larger the forces.

● Tangential force increases with chip size.

Measurement of cutting forces :

Although an indirect method of measuring cutting forces acting on the tool is with
the aid of
a ‘‘wattmeter’’, yet a more exact method is with the aid of a tool dynamometer.
The total force during metal cutting, in most metal cutting dynamometers, is
determined by measuring the deflections or strains in the elements supporting the
cutting tool. The design of the dynamometer should be such as to give strains or
displacements large enough to be measured accurately.
The commonly used tool dynamometer are :
1. Mechanical dial gauge type.
2. Strain gauge dynamometer.
● A strain gauge dynamometer is more accurate than a mechanical dial gauge.
3. Pneumatic and hydraulic dynamometers.
4. Electrical dynamometers.
5. Piezoelectrical dynamometers.

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QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

Q.1. What are the advantages of providing side cutting edge angle (lead
angle or principal edge angle) on the cutting tools?
Ans :
● Large side cutting edge angle decreases the chip thickness, measured perpendicular
to the cutting edge. Smaller chip thickness means less load on the tool and
decreased wear. Or for keeping the same loading and wear conditions, feed can be
increased and thus production rate will be high.
● Further if side cutting edge is more than 0, then the tool will first make contact at
a point only which will gradually keep on increasing, thus load comes gradually
on the tool. Also the first contact is at a position back of the point where the tool
is quite strong. Due to gradual pick-up of load, it is specially advantageous when
hard surfaces as of castings are to be machined. On the other hand, a tool with side
cutting edge angle of 0 will pick-up the full load on the first contact, resulting in a
shock or impact loading and reduced tool life. Increasing side cutting edge angle
too much is also not desirable as it would result in increase of radial force which
can bend the work and cause chattering unless the work is stiff or well
supported.
Q.2. Why can relief or clearance angles never be zero or negative?
Ans. Relief (or clearance) angles are provided to prevent the end which is parallel
to work and the side, which is at the cutting edge, from rubbing on the work. If these are
made zero or negative or even very small, then these will wear down and rubbing starts.
This will lead to heating up of tool, chatter marks and marking up of smeared surfaces on the
work. Thus relief or clearance angle can never be made zero or negative.
Q.3. Why a built-up edge on a tool is undesirable?
Ans. A built up edge on a tool increases the frictional resistance to chip flow across
the face of the tool. It results in increased heat at chip-tool interface, absorption of more
power and poor surface finish on the workpiece.

Q.4. What are the factors influencing in the selection of cutting speeds and
feeds for a machining operation?
Ans. Important factors influencing speeds and feeds for metal cutting are :
1. Machinability of workpiece material.
2. Material of cutting tool.
3. Objective criteria, i.e., whether cost or time or surface finish/tolerance are of
priority.
4. Cutting fluid used.

Q.5. What is the effect of cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate on the
force on cutting tool?
Ans. Forces on the cutting tool increases only slightly with increase in speed
though the friction is less at higher speeds. With negative rake tools and carbides, the
forces actually decrease at very high speeds. Both depth of cut and feed rate also lead to
increase in forces on cutting tool, but forces due to increase in feed rate are less than due to
increase in depth.

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Q.6. Why are chip breakers used?

Ans. A continuous type of chip from a long cut is usually quite troublesome. Such chips
foul the tools, clutter up the machine and workpiece, besides being extremely difficult to
remove from the swarf tray. They should be broken into comparatively small pieces for ease
of handling and to prevent it from being a work hazard. Hence chip breakers are used to
reduce the swarf into small pieces as they are formed. The fact that the metal is already work
hardened helps the chip breaker to perform effectively. Various types of chip breakers are
made, but all of them consist mainly of a step or groove ground into the leading edge of the
tool or a piece of cutting tool material clamped on top of the cutting tool.

Q.7. What should be done to remove maximum material per minute with the
same tool life and at the same time keeping good finish?
Ans. The best method to increase material removal rate is to increase depth of cut, as
tool life is least affected by increase in depth of cut. If depth of cut is increased, speed
needs to be decreased for same tool life. However, depth of cut is also restricted by the
strength of the workpiece and amount of stock to be removed. Increase in feed rate has
smallest decrease in tool life in relation to the increased metal removal rate. Increasing feed
rate beyond finish requirements is not possible. Thus increase in feed is best method, of
course, within limits of allowable finish.

Q.8. State the conditions under which positive and negative rake angles
are recommended.
Ans. Following are the conditions under which positive and negative rake angles are
recom mended:
Positive rake angles:
1. When cutting at low cutting speeds.
2. When machining long shafts of small diameters.
3. When machining low strength ferrous and non-ferrous materials and work-
hardening materials.
4. When using low power machines.
5. When the set up lacks strength and rigidity.
Negative rake angles:
1. For rigid set-ups and when cutting at high speeds.
2. When machining high strength alloys.
3. When there are heavy impact loads such as in interrupted machining.

Q. 9. Give four examples each of orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting.

Ans. Orthogonal cutting :
— Sawing ;
— Broaching ;
— Slotting cutter ;
— Lathe cut-off tool.
Oblique cutting :
— Lathe tools ;
— Milling cutters ;
— Drills ;
— Planers.

Prepared by: Mr. Vipal R Panchal

Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

Q.1 0 . Explain briefly the effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on
the finish obtainable.
Ans :
● In general, increase in cutting speed tends to improve the finish.

— With carbide tools particularly, slow speed is not at all desirable since it means
wastage of time and money and tools wear out faster.
● The increase in depth of cut influences the finish slightly, but greater depth
makes the finish poor, of course, slightly.
● As the feed rate increases, finish gets poorest because the tool marks show on
the work. However, its effect is modified by the nose radius of the tool bit.
Q.11. Give in summary form the factors influencing formation of various
types of
chips.
Ans. The factors influencing formation of various types of chips is given in
summary form below:

Type of chip
Factors Continuous Continuous Discontinuous
with BUE
(i) Work material Ductile Ductile Brittle
(ii) Cutting speed High Medium Low
(iii) Feed High Low Low
(iv) Rake angle Large Small Small
(v) Cutting edge Sharp Dull —
(vi) Friction Low High —
(vii) Cutting fluid Efficient Poor —

Q.12. List some extremely severe cutting conditions to which the cutting
tools are subjected.
Ans. Cutting tools are subjected to extremely severe cuttings conditions such as :
1. Very high temperature.
2. Metal-to-metal contact with work and chip.
3. Very high stress.
4. Very high temperature gradients.
5. Very high stress gradients

Prepared by: Mr. Vipal R Panchal

Chapter-1 10010303 (MP)

Q. 13. State the conditions under which use of positive and negative rake
angles are recommended.
Ans :
● The use of positive rake angles is recommended under the following conditions:

(i) When cutting at low cutting speeds.

(ii) When using low power machines.
(iii) When machining low strength ferrous and non-ferrous materials and work-
hardening materials.
(iv) When machining long shafts of small diameters.
(v) When the set-up lacks strength and rigidity.
● The use of negative rake angles in recommended under the following conditions:
(i) For rigid set-ups and when cutting at high speeds.
(ii) When machining high strength alloys.
(iii) When there are heavy impact loads such as interrupted machining.

Prepared by: Mr. Vipal R Panchal