LET'S LEARN

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM (DBMS)
-By Riti Kumari
 TOPICS TO BE COVERED
1 DBMS Introduction 8 Normalisation

2 DBMS Architecture 9 Denormalization

3 Data Abstraction 10 Transactions & Concurrency control

4 Types of data model 11 Indexing(B ,B+ trees)

5 ER Model 12 SQL

6 Relational Model

7 Type of keys
DATA & INFORMATION

Data : Data refers to a collection of raw facts or figures that

can be processed to derive meaning or knowledge. In easier terms
we can say any fact that can be stored. Ex- XYZ, 12

Information : Processed data is called information.

Ex- Your name, temparature, etc.
DATABASE
Collection of interrelated data is called a database.
It can be stored in the form of table
It can be any size

Multimedia database College database

img+video staff+student
EXAMPLE
ID Name subject ID Name Place

1 Rahul PHE 1 Rahul DELHI

2 Raj ECO 2 Raj KOLKATA

3 Riti IT 3 Riti MUMBAI

Collection of related data

FILE SYSTEM

An operating system's approach for organising and storing data

on storage units like hard drives is called a file system.
In a file system, data is organised into files.

The major disadvantage of file system is

Data redundancy
Poor Memory utilisation
Data inconsistency
Data security
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The acronym DBMS stands for "Database Management

System."

Users can access databases, save data, retrieve it, update it,
and manage it safely and effectively with the use of a
software program or combination of programs.

The presence of rules and regulations in the management

system is crucial as they are necessary to uphold and
maintain the database effectively.
APPLICATION OF DBMS

Schools and Colleges

Banks

Airlines
APPLICATION OF DBMS
Schools and Colleges - DBMS is used to create and
maintain a student information system that stores student
records, including personal details, academic performance,
attendance, and extracurricular activities.

Banks - DBMS is used to maintain a centralised and secure

database of customer information, including personal
details, account numbers, contact information, and
transaction history.
 TYPES OF DATABASES
1 Relational Databases (RDBMS) 8 Columnar Databases

2 NoSQL Databases 9 XML Databases

3 Object-Oriented Databases 10 NewSQL Databases

4 In-Memory Databases 11 Blockchain Databases

5 Time-Series Databases SQL

6 Spatial Databases

7 Multimedia Databases
TYPES OF DATABASES
Relational Databases (RDBMS)- These databases
structure data into organized tables that have predefined
connections between them. Data manipulation and
querying are performed using SQL (Structured Query
Language). Well-known instances encompass MySQL,
PostgreSQL, Oracle Database, and Microsoft SQL Server.

NoSQL Databases- NoSQL databases are created to

handle data that doesn't fit neatly into the strict setup of
traditional relational databases. Ex- MongoDB(Document
Oriented DB)
TYPES OF DATABASES
Object-Oriented Databases- These databases hold
objects (data and actions) utilized in object-oriented
programming. They work well for applications with
intricate data designs, like scientific simulations or
multimedia software.

In-Memory Databases- In these databases, data is kept

in the primary memory (RAM) rather than on a disk,
leading to quicker data retrieval. They're employed in
applications that demand instant data processing and
top-notch performance.
NEED OF DBMS

DBMS plays a vital role for businesses, institutions, and

organizations of all scales in effectively managing their data,
ensuring data accuracy and security, and supporting essential
decision-making processes.

It serves as the core of contemporary information systems,

facilitating efficient data management and serving as a basis
for a wide range of applications and services.
ADVANTAGE OF DBMS

Data Security- DBMS implements security mechanisms

that regulate access to sensitive information, safeguarding
it from unauthorized access and potential data breaches.

Data Redundancy and Inconsistency - DBMS removes

data redundancy, minimizing storage needs and ensuring
consistency through the maintenance of a unified version
of the data.

Data Integrity - DBMS guarantees data integrity by

enforcing rules and constraints that prohibit the entry of
incorrect or inconsistent data into the database.
ADVANTAGE OF DBMS

Data Scalability- DBMS can handle large datasets and

scale to accommodate increasing amounts of data as an
organization grows.

Data Abstraction- DBMS offers data abstraction, allowing

users and applications to interact with the database
without needing to understand its underlying
complexities.
DISADVANTAGE OF DBMS

Cost- Acquiring, deploying, and sustaining DBMS software

can incur significant costs. Furthermore, the hardware
essential for the proficient operation of a DBMS can also
lead to substantial expenses.

Scale Projects- When dealing with modest applications

and minimal data storage requirements, adopting a
comprehensive DBMS could introduce avoidable
intricacies and additional burdens. In these instances,
more streamlined data storage alternatives could be
better suited.
DISADVANTAGE OF DBMS
Vendor Lock-In- Once you've chosen a specific DBMS, it
can be challenging to switch to a different one due to
differences in data formats, query languages, and other
technical aspects. This can lead to vendor lock-in, where
you are dependent on a particular vendor's technology
and pricing.
DATA ABSTRACTION

Database systems are built with complex ways of organizing

data. To make it easier for people to use the database, the
creators hide the complicated stuff that users don't need to
worry about. This hiding of unnecessary things from users is
called data abstraction.
DATA ABSTRACTION
There are three levels of Abstraction

view 1 DBMS view 2

Introduction view 3

logical level

physical level
TYPES OF LEVEL
Physical level- This is the lowest level of data abstraction.
It describes how data is actually stored in database. You
can get the complex data structure details at this level.

Logical level- This is the middle level of 3-level data

abstraction architecture. It describes what data is stored
in database.

View level- Highest level of data abstraction. This level

describes the user interaction with database system.
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Let us first learn about some basic concepts:

Schema- A schema is a logical container or structure that

organizes and defines the structure of a database.

It defines how data is organized, what data types are used,

what constraints are applied, and the relationships between
different pieces of data. A schema acts as a blueprint for the
database, ensuring data integrity, consistency, and efficient
data retrieval.
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Types of Schema :

1. Physical Schema- A physical schema defines how data

is stored on the underlying hardware, including details
such as storage format, file organization, indexing
methods, and data placement.
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Characteristics of Physical Schema :

Its primary focus lies in enhancing the storage and

retrieval of data to boost performance.

Modifications made to the physical schema demand

meticulous planning and can potentially affect the overall
performance of the database.

Example: Deciding to use clustered indexes on specific

columns for faster retrieval.
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Types of Schema :

2. Logical Schema- A logical schema defines the database's

structure from a logical or conceptual perspective, without
considering how the data is physically stored.

Logical Schema

Conceptual Schema External Schema or

View Schema
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Types of Logical Schema :

Conceptual Schema: The conceptual schema represents

the overall view of the entire database. It defines the high-
level structure and relationships between all data
elements.

External/View Schema: An external schema defines the

user-specific views of the database. It focuses on the
portions of the database that are relevant to specific user
roles or applications.
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Characteristics of Logical Schema :

It delineates how data is structured into tables, the

interconnections between these tables, and the
restrictions placed on the data.

Logical schemas prioritize data modeling and database

design over considerations related to hardware or storage
specifics.

Example: Defining tables, specifying primary and foreign

keys, and creating views for data access.
SCHEMA & INSTANCE
Instance - The information residing within a database at a
specific point in time is referred to as the database's
"instance."

Within a given database schema, the declarations of

variables within its tables pertain to that specific database.
The term "instance" in this context denotes the current values
of these variables at a particular moment in time for that
database.
DBMS ARCHITECTURE

Database Management System architecture, refers to the

structural framework and organization of a database
management system. It defines how the various components
of the system work together to store, manage, and retrieve
data efficiently.
DBMS ARCHITECTURE
Types of DBMS ARCHITECTURE :

There are several types of DBMS Architecture.

Choice of architecture depends on factors such as the type
of database (e.g., relational, NoSQL) and the specific needs of
an application.

1-Tier Architecture
2-Tier Architecture
3-Tier Architecture
DBMS ARCHITECTURE

1-Tier Architecture - In 1 tier architecture the entire database

application, including the user interface, application logic, and
data storage, resides on a single machine or computer.

ex- An illustration of a straightforward single-tier architecture

can be seen when you install a database on your system and
use it to practice SQL queries.
DBMS ARCHITECTURE

2-Tier Architecture - In 2 Tier Architecture the presentation

layer runs on a client (PC, Mobile, Tablet, etc.), and data is
stored on a server.

Two tier architecture provides added security to the DBMS as

it is not exposed to the end-user directly. It also provides
direct and faster communication.
DBMS ARCHITECTURE
2-Tier Architecture

Client (User/Application) Server(db)

DBMS ARCHITECTURE
3-Tier Architecture - It separates the application into
three logically distinct layers presentation, application,
and data layer

Presentation layer- It handles the user interface.

ex- your PC, Tablet, Mobile, etc

Application layer - It manages business logic

ex- server

Data layer- It manages data storage and processing.

ex- Database Server
DBMS ARCHITECTURE
3-Tier Architecture

CLIENT

Presentation layer

SERVER
Application layer

DATABASE
Data layer
DBMS ARCHITECTURE
Advantages of 3-tier-architecture
Scalability: Easily adjust each tier to handle changing user
demands.
Modularity and Maintainability: Simplify maintenance by
separating responsibilities.
Security: Protect sensitive data with an additional layer.
Performance: Optimize presentation and application tiers
for better performance.

Disadvantages of 3-tier-architecture
The disadvantages of 3-Tier Architecture include increased
complexity, potential latency issues, longer development time,
resource overhead, and the possibility of bottlenecks.
DATA MODEL
A data model within a Database Management System (DBMS) serves as an abstract
representation of how data gets structured and organized within a database.

It outlines the logical arrangement of data and the connections between various data
components.

Data models play a crucial role in comprehending and shaping databases, acting as a vital
link between real-world entities and the actual storage of data within the database.
DATA MODEL
Types of Data Model

Hierarchical Data Model

Network Data Model
Relational Data Model
Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model)
Object-Oriented Data Model
NoSQL Data Models
TYPES OF DATA MODEL
Hierarchical Data Model: This model portrays data in a
manner resembling a tree structure, where each record
maintains a parent-child relationship. Its primary
application lies in older database systems.

School

department Infrastructure

Teacher Student Staff

TYPES OF DATA MODEL

Network Data Model: This model shares similarities with

the hierarchical approach, permitting records to hold
multiple parent-child relationships. It adopts a structure
akin to a graph, offering more flexibility compared to the
hierarchical model.

Playground

Lab School

Student
TYPES OF DATA MODEL
Relational Data Model: Organizing data into tables
(known as relations) consisting of rows and columns
characterizes the relational model. It stands as the most
prevalent data model, rooted in the principles of set
theory, and relies on Structured Query Language (SQL) for
data manipulation.

ID Name Place

Primary key DELHI Row/tuple

1 Rahul

2 Raj KOLKATA

3 Riti MUMBAI

Column/Attribute
TYPES OF DATA MODEL

Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model): Utilized for

crafting relational databases, the ER model represents
data through entities (objects), attributes (entity
properties), and relationships connecting these entities.

Study Student Name

Student name
Relationship Entity Attribute
TYPES OF DATA MODEL
Object-Oriented Data Model: Extending the principles of
object-oriented programming into the database domain,
this model depicts data as objects complete with
attributes and methods, fostering support for inheritance
and encapsulation.

NoSQL Data Models: NoSQL databases encompass a

diverse array of data models, such as document-oriented
(e.g., MongoDB), key-value (e.g., Redis), column-family (e.g.,
Cassandra), and graph (e.g., Neo4j). These models are
designed to offer scalability and flexibility when handling
extensive volumes of unstructured or semi-structured
data.
DATA INDEPENDENCE
Data independence is a fundamental concept within
database design and management, emphasizing the
distinction between the logical and physical dimensions
of data storage and administration in a database
management system (DBMS). This principle yields
various benefits, such as enhanced flexibility, heightened
security, and simplified maintenance.
DATA INDEPENDENCE
There are three levels of Abstraction

view 1 View
DBMS level
Introduction

Logical Data
Independence
logical level

Physical Data
Independence
physical level
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF TABLES

Row/Tuple - Rows, also known as records or tuples, represent individual entries or

instances of data within the table.

Cardinality - No of rows in a table

Column/Attribute - Columns represent the attributes of the data being stored and are
named to describe the information they hold (e.g., "ID," "Name," "Age").

Degree - No of Columns in a ta in a tableble

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF TABLES

ID Name Place

1 Rahul DELHI

2 Raj KOLKATA

3 Riti MUMBAI
 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF TABLES

Constraints - Constraints define rules or conditions that must be satisfied by the data in
the table.
Common constraints include uniqueness, nullability, default values, etc.

Unique constraint: Ensures values in a column are unique across the table.
Not null constraint: Ensures a column cannot have a null value.
Check constraint: Enforces a condition to be true for each row.
Default constraint: Provides a default value for a column if no value is specified.

Keys - A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in the table. It ensures that each
row can be uniquely identified and accessed within the table.

A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key of another table. It
establishes relationships between tables.
VIEWS IN DBMS
View is a virtual table that is derived from one or more underlying tables.
This means that it doesn't physically store data but rather provides a logical
representation of data.
Customer DB

ID. NAME phn Address Pin Age

1 Raj 456 blr 123 18

2 Ravi 123 delhi 124 21

3 Ram 789 hyd 345 22

KEYS IN DBMS
Keys in DBMS make sure of data integrity, uniqueness, and the quick retrieval of
information. Key is a attribute in table

Types of keys :

Candidate Key
Primary Key
Foreign Key
Super Key
KEYS IN DBMS
Candidate Key : A candidate key refers to a group of attributes capable of uniquely
identifying a record within a table. Among these, one is selected to serve as the
primary key.
Ex- For student possible attributes for candidate key could be

Student<ID, Roll no , Aadhar Card>

Age Name Hometown

20 Rahul KOLKATA

21 Raj KOLKATA

20 Riti DELHI
KEYS IN DBMS
Primary Key : A primary key is a key which uniquely identifies each record in a table.
It ensures that each tuple or record can be uniquely identified within the table.
It is always Unique+ Not null

ID Name Hometown

123 Rahul KOLKATA

245 Raj KOLKATA

434 Riti DELHI

KEYS IN DBMS
Foreign Key : A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key in
another table. It establishes a relationship between two tables.

Student Subject
(Base/referenced table) (referencing table)
Roll Roll
Name Hometown Name subject
no no

1 Rahul KOLKATA 1 Rahul Maths

2 Raj KOLKATA 2 Raj SST

3 Riti DELHI 3 Riti Science

Primary key Foreign key

KEYS IN DBMS
Referenced table - Table having primary key (pk)
Referencing table- Table having foreign key(fk)

Student Subject
(Base/referenced table) (referencing table)

Roll Roll subject

Name Hometown subject
no no id

1 Rahul KOLKATA 1 s1 Maths

2 Raj KOLKATA 2 s2 SST

3 Riti DELHI 3 s3 Science

Primary key Foreign key

KEYS IN DBMS
Referential Integrity in Foreign key

Referential integrity is an important concept in foreign key. We

always say foreign key maintains referential integrity.

Referential integrity ensures that the relationships between

tables remain accurate, consistent, and meaningful
within a relational database.
KEYS IN DBMS
Referential Integrity in Foreign key

Now consider there are two tables one is refrencing and other is
refrenced table .
Lets see how some operations like insert, update and delete works
here.
KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

Insertion in Referenced/base table

No violation
KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

Deletion in Referenced/base table

May cause violation if the coressponding data is present in
refrencing table.
KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

If a record in referenced table is deleted or updated , the

corresponding records in the referencing table should be deleted or
updated to maintain the integrity of the relationship.

We using action like "CASCADE DELETE" for the same. Also we can
set null for the values deleted.
KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

Updation in Referenced/base table

May cause violation if the coressponding data is present in
refrencing table. We can using action like "CASCADE UPDATE”.
KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

Insertion in Referencing table

May cause violation

KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

Deletion in Referencing table

No violation
KEYS IN DBMS
Refrential Integrity in Foreign key

Updation in Referencing table

No issues untill we are updating foreign key attribute

Voilation would be caused on updating
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS
Integrity constraints help to ensure that data remains reliable and
meaningful throughout its lifecycle.

Types of Integrity Constraint:

Domain Integrity Constraint

Entity Integrity Constraint
Referential Integrity Constraint
Key Constraint
Check Constraint
Null Constraint
Unique Constraint
Default Constraint
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Domain Integrity Constraint

It ensures the validity and appropriateness of data values

(i.e valid data types, ranges, and formats for columns)
within a specific column or attribute of a table.

Ex-> Check for date column so that it contains valid date values
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Entity Integrity Constraint

It ensures that each row/record in a table is uniquely identified

by a primary key.

It also helps in preventing duplicate or null values in the primary

key.
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Referential Integrity Constraint

It ensures that values in a foreign key column match with the

values in the corresponding primary key column in another table.
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Key Constraint

It ensures uniqueness for the primary key.

INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Check Constraint

It checks for a condition that each row in a table must satisfy.

If the condition is not met, the insertion or update of the row is

rejected.
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Null Constraint

It determines whether a column in a table can have null (i.e.,

missing or unknown) values or not.
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Unique Constraint

It ensures that values in a specified column or combination of

columns are unique across a table.

This constraint prevents duplicate values from being inserted

into the specified column(s), maintaining data consistency and
integrity.
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT IN DBMS

Default Constraint

It ensures a default value for a column, which is used if no other

value is provided
SUPER KEY IN DBMS
It is a set of one or more attributes (columns) that can uniquely
identify a tuple (a row) in a relation (table).

Superset of any candidate key.

A super key becomes a candidate key if it is minimal (i.e. no

proper subset of it can uniquely identify a tuple).
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Introduction to ER Model

Entity Attributes Relationship

Things/Object Properties of entity association among entities

Ex-person Ex-name,age Ex-Works for

ER MODEL IN DBMS
The Entity-Relationship (ER) model stands as a prevalent
conceptual modeling approach within the realm of database
design.

Its primary role is to offer a visual representation of a

database's architecture by illustrating the entities, their
respective attributes, and the interconnections between
them.

In the process of database design, the ER model holds

significant importance, aiding in the development of an
efficient and systematically structured database schema.
ER MODEL IN DBMS
ER MODEL

ATTRIBUTE RELATIONSHIP
ENTITY
Simple Attribute one to one
Strong Entity
Composite Attribute one to many
Weak Entity
Single valued Attribute many to one
Multivalued Attribute many to many

Stored Attribute
Derived Attribute
Composite Attribute
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Symbols used in ER Model

Figures Symbols For what

Rectangle Entity

Ellipse Attribute

Diamond Relationship

Attribute to entity
Line
relationship

Multivalued
Double ellipse
attributes

Double rectangle Weak Entity

ER MODEL IN DBMS id
Name

Attributes
Professor teaches Student

Entity Entity
Relationship subject

Student name
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Entity

An entity is something from the real world, like a person, place,

event, or idea. Each entity has specific features or traits that
describe it.
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Types of Entity

Strong Entity Weak Entity

Person Entity Dependent Entity

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Entity

Strong Entity: A strong entity is an entity that has its own unique
identifier (primary key) and is not dependent on any other entity
for its existence within the database. Strong entities stand alone
and have their own set of attributes.
Ex-Person

Weak Entity: A weak entity is an entity that doesn't have a

primary key of its own. It relies on a related strong entity (known
as the "owner" entity) for its identity. The weak entity's existence
is defined by being related to the owner entity.
ex- dependent
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Attribute

Attributes represent properties or characteristics of an entity or

relationship.

They provide information about the entities and relationships in

the database.
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Simple Attribute

A simple attribute is atomic and cannot be divided any further.

Ex- First Name
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Composite Attribute

A composite attribute is made up of several smaller parts, where

each part represents a piece of the whole attribute. In simpler
terms it is composed of attributes which can be divided further.

Ex- Name( First Name, lastName)

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Single Valued Attribute

A single-value attribute is an attribute that holds a single value

for each entity

Ex- Age
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Multivalued Attribute

A multi-valued attribute in a database is an attribute that can

hold multiple values for a single entity.

Ex- Address (permanent, residential)

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Stored Attribute

Attribute that is stored as a part of a database record.

Ex- Date of birth

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Derived Attribute

A derived attribute is derived from other attributes within the

database.

Ex- Age derived from dob

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Attributes

Complex Attribute

A complex attribute is an attribute that is made up of multiple

smaller attributes

Ex- Name(Composite) FirstName

Middle Name (Simple attribute)
lastName
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

Relationship in ER Model

Relationship in ER MODEL is the connection between entities (tables) based on

related data.

Types of Relationship

Strong Relationship Weak Relationship

ER MODEL IN DBMS

Strong Relationship

A strong relationship exists when two entities are highly dependent on each other,
and one entity cannot exist without the other.

Ex-
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Weak Relationship

A weak relationship, on the other hand, exists when two entities are related, but one
entity can exist without the other.

Ex-
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Degree in DBMS

A degree in dbms refers to the number of attributes / columns that a

relation/table has.
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Types of Degree

Degree Name Defination

1 Unary Degree A relation with a single attribute

2 Binary Degree A relation with two attributes

3 Ternary Degree A relation with three attributes

n n-ary Degree A relation with more than three attributes n>3

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Null value : In databases, a null value can occur for various
reasons

Not Needed Information: Sometimes, some details are asked, but

they don't apply to everyone. For instance, asking for a "Spouse
Name" from someone who isn't married.

Don't Know the Answer: Every now and then, we're asked a
question, but we don't have an answer yet.

Forgot to Fill In: Like when you're filling out a form, and you
accidentally miss putting in some important information.
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Types of relationship in dbms (Based on degree)

There are 4 types of relationship:

one to one (1-1)
one to many (1-N)
many to one (N-1)
many to many (N-N)
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship(Cardinality)

1 to 1 Relationship(1:1)

A complex attribute is an attribute that is made up of multiple smaller attributes

Student Enrolls Course

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship(Cardinality)

1 to 1 Relationship(1:1)
Student Enrolls Course

sid sname sage sid cid edate cid cname cprof

s1 ram 14 s1 c1 jan c1 phy saurav

s2 raj 15 s2 c2 feb c2 math sanjeev

s3 riti 16 s3 c3 mar c3 bio sumit

ER MODEL IN DBMS
sid sname sage sid cid edate cid cname cprof

s1 ram 14 s1 c1 jan c1 phy saurav

s2 raj 15 s2 c2 feb c2 math sanjeev

s3 riti 16 s3 c3 mar c3 bio sumit

sna sag cid cname cprof

sid cid edate
me e
c1 phy saurav
s1 ram 14 c1 jan
c2 math sanjeev
s2 raj 15 c2 feb

c3 bio sumit
s3 riti 16 c3 mar
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship

1 to Many Relationship(1:N)

A database model where one entity (record) on one side of the

relationship is associated with multiple entities (records) on the
other side

Author Reads Books

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship

1 to Many Relationship(1:N)

Author Reads Books

aid aname aage aid bid bdate bid bname btype

a1 ram 14 a1 b1 jan b1 ab fiction

a2 raj 15 a2 b2 feb b2 cd thrill

a3 riti 16 a1 b3 mar b3 ef drama

ER MODEL IN DBMS

aid aname aage aid bid bdate bid bname btype

a1 ram 14 a1 b1 jan b1 ab fiction

a2 raj 15 a2 b2 feb b2 cd thrill

a3 riti 16 a1 b3 mar b3 ef drama

aid aname aage

bid bname btype aid bdate
a1 ram 14
b1 ab fiction a1 jan
a2 raj 15
b2 cd thrill a2 feb
a3 riti 16

b3 ef drama a1 mar
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship

Many to 1 Relationship(N:1)

A database model where multiple entities (records) on one side

of the relationship are associated with a single entity (record) on
the other side.
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship

Many to 1 Relationship(N:1)

works
Employees Department
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship

Many to many Relationship(N:N)

A database model where multiple entities (records) on one side

of the relationship are associated with multiple entities on the
other side.

Enrolls
Students Courses
 ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Relationship

Many to many Relationship(N:N) Students Enroll

Courses

sid sname sage sid bid edate cid cname cprof

s1 ram 14 s1 c1 jan c1 phy saurav

s2 raj 15 s2 c2 feb c2 math sanjeev

s3 riti 16 s3 c3 mar c3 bio sumit

ER MODEL IN DBMS

Person Pan
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Person Mobile Num

ER MODEL IN DBMS

Book Author
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Student Course
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Participation Constraints

Participation Constraints in an ER model define whether every

entity in one group must be connected with at least one entity in
another group or if the connection is optional.
 ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Participation Constraints
Total Participation(Mandatory)

In a total participation constraint, each entity in a participation set must be

associated with at least one entity in the related entity set.

works
Employees Department
 ER MODEL IN DBMS
Types of Participation Constraints
Partial Participation(Optional)

In a partial participation constraint, entities in the participating entity set may or

may not be associated with entities in the related entity set.

works
Employees Department
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Extended ER features

Why do we need?

We design ER model for relationship betwn entities

In real-world the data may exhibit some hierarchical relationships, and the
EER model provides mechanisms to represent these relationships
accurately which helps in code reusabilitilty, ensuring data integrity and
consistency and lower the complexity.
ER MODEL IN DBMS

Extended ER features

Specialization Generalization

Aggregation
 ER MODEL IN DBMS
Extended ER features

Specialization

Specialization in the ER model is like categorizing entities based on common

features.

A "Supertype" groups entities with shared attributes and relationships, while

"Subtypes" have their own unique attributes and relationships. It's a way to organize
data efficiently. It is a Top-Down approach.

We have is-a relationship between superclass and subclass.

 ER MODEL IN DBMS
Extended ER features

Generalization

Generalization is like finding things that are alike and putting them into a big group to
represent what they have in common. It helps make things simpler and organized.

It is a Bottom-Up approach.

We have is-a relationship between subclass and superclass.

ER MODEL IN DBMS
Extended ER features

Inheritance

Attribute Participation
 ER MODEL IN DBMS
Extended ER features

Aggregation

Aggregation is like stacking things on top of each other to create a structure.

It is used to create a hierarchical structure in data modeling, showing how a higher-
level entity is composed of lower-level entities.

Abstraction is employed to view relationships from a more general perspective,

focusing on a higher-level entity.
ER MODEL IN DBMS
Steps to draw an ER model

1. Recognize entities.
2. Specify entity characteristics/attributes.
3. Discover connections/relationships(also contraints like
mapping/participation)
4. Define the connection type (how entities connect)/cardinality.
5. Construct an ERD (Entity-Relationship Diagram).
6. Annotate relationships and attributes.
7. Review and refine the model.
8. Document the model.
9. Validate with stakeholders.
10. Implement the database schema.
ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram

Lets start with what is instagram?

Instagram is a social media platform that allows users to share photos and
videos.
ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram

Now what all things we can do on instagram?

Create our profile

Add profile picture and details
Connect with friends
Upload a post
Like and comment on post
Share stories
and much more
ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram

Lets start with all the steps needs to draw an ER diagram.

Step-1 : Recognize entities sets

Entities
userLikes
userProfile
userFriends
userPost
userLogin
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Specify entity characteristics/attributes

Attributes

1. userProfile (user ID, username, email, profile pic)

user ID- primary key

userName- composite attribute
email - single valued attribute
profile pic - single valued attribute
dob- stored attribute
age- derived attribute
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Specify entity characteristics/attributes

Attributes

2. userFriends (followerID, followerName, userID)

followerID- primary key

followerName - single valued attribute
userID - single valued attribute
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Specify entity characteristics/attributes

Attributes

3. userPost (post ID, caption, image, video, likesCount, timestamp)

post ID- primary key

caption - single valued attribute
image - multi valued attribute
video - multi valued attribute
likesCount - single valued attribute
timestamp - single valued attribute
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Specify entity characteristics/attributes

Attributes

4. userLogin (login ID,loginUserName,loginPassword)

login ID- primary key

loginUserName - single valued attribute
loginPassword - multi valued attribute
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Specify entity characteristics/attributes

Attributes

4. userLikes (postID, userID)

postID- primary key

userID - single valued attribute
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Discover connections/relationships(also contraints like
mapping/participation)

1.userProfile have userFriends (n:n)

2. userProfile have userPost (1:n) userPost will always be associated to a userProfile
therefore total participation
3. userProfile has userLogin (1:1)
4. userProfile has userLikes (1:n) userLikes will always be associated to a userProfile
therefore total participation
 ER MODEL IN DBMS

ER Model of Instagram
Step-2 : Discover connections/relationships(also contraints like
mapping/participation)

5. userFriends have userPost (1:n) userPost will always be associated to a userProfile

therefore total participation
6. userFriends has userLogin (1:1)
7. userFriends has userLikes (1:n) userLikes will always be associated to a userProfile
therefore total participation
RELATIONAL MODEL
It is a way of organizing data in tables.

Some terms used in relational model

1. Table - Relation
2. Row - Tuple
3. Column - Attribute
4. Record - Each row in a table
5. Domain - The type of value an attribute can hold
6. Degree - No. of columns in a relation
7. Cardinality - No of tuples
RELATIONAL MODEL
Relational model is all about:

Data being organized into tables

Establishing Relationships between tables using Foreign key
Maintaining data Integrity
A flexible and efficient way to store(SQL) and retrieve data
RELATIONAL MODEL
In relational model we take care of different things like:

1. Maintaining integrity constraints like domain, entity, referential integrity.

2. The values to be atomic i.e can’t be divided further.

3. Each row must be unique, here keys comes into picture i.e candiate, super,
primary etc
 CONVERT AN ER MODEL TO RELATIONAL MODEL
Converting an Entity-Relationship (ER) model to a relational model involves several
steps:

Step 1: Identify the entities - List down all the entities like strong and weak.

Person has Address

Strong entity Weak entity

Person (id, name , age) -> id (p.k)

Address (id , flatno, street, city)->id+flatno (p.k) , id (f.k)
CONVERT AN ER MODEL TO RELATIONAL MODEL
Step 2: Identify the attributes - For each entity, identify its attributes which
becomes a column in the table.

Multivalued attribute

Composite attribute
CONVERT AN ER MODEL TO RELATIONAL MODEL
Step 3: Key selection - Choose the primary key for each table, for some it can be
in form of composite key (Weak entity)

Step 4: If entities have relationship break it down and the reduce the tables if
possible.
1. 1-1 Relationship : 2 tables , P.K can lie on any side
2. 1-Many Relationship : 2 tables , P.K can lie on many side
3. Many -1 relationship : 2 tables , P.K can lie on many side
4. Many-Many relationship : 3 tables , P.K lie in the relation table having pk from
both the table acting as fk
CONVERT AN ER MODEL TO RELATIONAL MODEL
Step 3: Key selection - Choose the primary key for each table, for some it can be
in form of composite key (Weak entity)
LET'S LEARN

COMPLETE SQL IN ONE VIDEO

-By Riti Kumari
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Database : Collection of data is called as database.

DBMS: A software application to manage our data.

User Software Application

Database
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Database

Relational(Use tables to store data) Non-relational(Data is not stored in tables)

MySQL MongoDb
Oracle
MariaDB,
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Why SQL?

We need a language to interact with databases.

So we use SQL to interact with DB, do some CRUD operations on the data.

Then what is MySQL?

MySQL is a specific Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that uses

SQL as its querying language.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
History of SQL ( Structured Query Language)

SQL originated in the 1970s from IBM's research on relational

databases. It started as SEQUEL, later renamed SQL due to
trademark issues.

I
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL ( Structured Query Language)

SQL is a programming language that is used to communicate and

manipulate data in databases.

It helps user in performing CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete)

operations in DB.

I
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
How SQL helps us ?

SQL allows users to perform a variety of tasks related to databases

Retrieving Data: Extracting precise information from a database through

queries.
Manipulating Data: Adding, modifying, or removing records within a
database.
Defining Data: Creating and adjusting the structure of a database,
including tables, views, and indexes.
Controlling Data: Managing database access by granting or revoking
permissions.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Installation of MySQL

MySQL Server : Database server where data is stored, managed, and

accessed.

MySQL WorkBench : It is a visual tool which is used for database design,

development, administration, and management.
It provides a user interface (UI) to interact with MySQL Server.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Lets install the Server first :

Go to the MySQL Official website: https://www.mysql.com/

Go to Downloads
Select MySQL Community (GPL) Downloads at the bottom of the page.
Choose MySQL Community Server, select the version and click on
download
Follow the instructions and set the root password. This password
would be asked while creating a new connection.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Lets install the WorkBench :

Go to the MySQL Official website: https://www.mysql.com/

Go to Downloads
Select MySQL Community (GPL) Downloads at the bottom of the page.
Choose MySQL Workbench, select the version and click on download
Follow the instructions .
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Types of SQL Commands

SQL commands are divided into different categories based on their functionalities.

1.Data Query Language (DQL) Commands

2.Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands
3.Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands
4.Data Control Language (DCL) Commands
5.Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Types of SQL Commands

1.Data Query Language (DQL) Commands

DQL is used to retrieve data from the database
Commands: SELECT

2.Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands

DML is used to manipulate data stored in the database.
Commands: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Types of SQL Commands

3.Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands

DDL is used to define the structure and schema of the database.
Commands: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME

4.Data Control Language (DCL) Commands

DCL deals with the control and security of data within the database.
Commands: GRANT, REVOKE
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Types of SQL Commands

5.Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands

TCL is used to manage transactions within a database.
Commands: COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Creation of Database

Lets understand database design from an example, Consider a college

database.

Databse- School
table1- Student (Sname, Rollno)
table2-Teacher(Tname,Tid)

Sname, Rollno, Tname, Tid->attributes(characteristics)

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Creation of Database

School Hospital

Patient
Course Fees
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Creation of Database

Steps to create a Database :

1. Choose a DBMS(Database Management System )
2. Connect to the server using a command-line tool or a graphical user interface.
3. Create a new Database
4. Once the database is created, you can use the USE statement to create
tables in the database.
5. Create Tables and Insert Data
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Creation of Database
Creating a new Database
We use the CREATE DATABASE statement to create a new database
These commands are not case-sensitive.

Command: CREATE DATABASE databaseName;

Also to avoid errors we can use:

Command: CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS databaseName;

IF NOT EXISTS and IF EXISTS clauses are commonly used in conjunction with the
CREATE TABLE and DROP TABLE statements to avoid errors
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Deletion of Database

Deleting a Database
We use the DROP DATABASE statement to delete a database.
Dropping a database means deleting the entire database, including all tables,
data, and other objects within it. DROP Is a DDL Command.
These commands are not case-sensitive.

Command: DROP DATABASE databaseName;

Also to avoid errors we can use:

Command : DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS databaseName;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Using a Database

Using a Database
We use the USE DATABASE statement to use a database
These commands are not case-sensitive.

Command: USE databaseName;

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Showing all the Database

Showing a Database
We use the SHOW DATABASES statement to see all the databses present in a
server.

Command: SHOW DATABASES;

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Table
Creating a table
We use the CREATE TABLE statement to craete a table in DB.

Command:

CREATE TABLE TableName (

Column1 DataType1 Constraint1,
Column2 DataType2 Constraint2,
Column3 DataType3 Constraint3,
-- additional columns if needed
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Creating a table
employee
CREATE- DDL Command
empId name salary
Example:

CREATE TABLE employee (

empId INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
salary INT
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Inserting values into table

INSERT- DML Command

INSERT INTO tableName (Column1, Column2... ColumnN)

VALUES (value1,value2.......valuen)
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Inserting values into table

employee
INSERT- DML Command
empId name salary
Example:
1 Raj 1200
INSERT INTO employee
(empId,name,salary) 2 Rahul 1100
VALUES
3 Ram 1100
(1,”Raj”,1200),
(2,”Rahul”,1100),
(3,”Riti”,1100);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Inserting values into table

employee
INSERT- DML Command
empId name salary
Example:
1 Raj 1200
INSERT INTO employee VALUES
(1,”Raj”,1200), 2 Rahul 1100
(2,”Rahul”,1100),
3 Ram 1100
(3,”Riti”,1100);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Seeing tables in a given Database

employee
SHOW
empId name salary
Example:
1 Raj 1200
SHOW TABLES;
2 Rahul 1100

It helps us to see all the tables in a

3 Ram 1100
given databse.
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

To see all the values in table

employee

SELECT empId name salary

Example: 1 Raj 1200

To see specific values of a column:
SELECT empId FROM employee; 2 Rahul 1100

To see all the values or the entire table 3 Ram 1100

SELECT * FROM employee;

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Let’s Create a Database for Instagram

Step 1: Create a database

CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS instagramDb;

Step 2: Use the database to create tables

USE instagramDb;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Step 3 : Create tables into the db

CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (

userId INT PRIMARY KEY,
userName VARCHAR(50)
email VARCHAR(100)
);

CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS posts (

postId INT PRIMARY KEY,
userId INT,
caption VARCHAR(100) ,
);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Step 3 : Insert Values in the tables

INSERT INTO users (userId, userName, email)

VALUES
(1, “riti“, “[email protected]),
(1, “raj“, “[email protected]),
(1, “rahul“, “[email protected]);

INSERT INTO posts (postId, userId, caption)

VALUES
(101, 561, ”light”),
(102, 562, ”air”),
(103, 563, ”water”);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Step 4 : You can see all the tables in the db

USE DATABASE instagramDb;

SHOW TABLES;

Step 5: All the values in a specific table

SELECT * FROM users;

SELECT * FROM posts;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes in SQL
Data types are used to specify the type of data that a column can store.

Numeric Character/ String Date & Time Boolean Binary

INTEGER/ INT CHAR(n) DATE BOOLEAN BINARY(n)

SMALLINT VARCHAR(n) TIME VARBINARY(n)
BIGINT TEXT DATETIME BLOB
DECIMAL TIMESTAMP
FLOAT
DOUBLE
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Numeric Datatypes
1. INT - Used for storing whole numbers without decimal points.
(-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 (signed integer)

2. BIGINT - Used for storing large whole numbers. (-9,223,372,036,854,775,808

to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807)

3. FLOAT- Used for storing decimal numbers. (4-byte)

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Numeric Datatypes
3. FLOAT- Used for storing decimal numbers. (4-byte)

4. DOUBLE- Used for storing decimal numbers. (8-byte)

5. DECIMAL(p, s) - Used for exact numeric representation. p is the precision and s is the
scale.

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

id INT
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Numeric Datatypes
By default all the numeric datatypes can have negative as well as positive values. This
restrict the range so if we know there is only +ve values which is stored we use UNSIGNED
attribute (0-255).
for eg- salary can never be in negative or age

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

id INT UNSIGNED
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Character Datatypes
1. CHAR(n)- Fixed-length character strings can be stored. (0-255)

2.VARCHAR(n) - Variable-length character strings can be stored.(0-255)

3.TEXT- Variable-length character string with no specified limit.

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

name VARCHAR(50)
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Date & Time Datatypes
1. DATE- Used for storing date values. (YYYY-MM-DD)

2.TIME - Used for storing time values. (hh:mm:ss)

3.DATETIME/TIMESTAMP- Used for storing date and time values. (yyyy-mm-dd

hh:mm:ss)

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

createdTs TIMESTAMP
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Boolean Datatypes
1. BOOLEAN- Used to store a true or false value.

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

isActive BOOLEAN
);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Datatypes
Binary Datatypes
1. BINARY(n)- Used for fixed-length binary data.

2.VARBINARY(n)- Used for storing variable-length binary data.

3.BLOB (Binary Large Object)- Used for storing large amounts of binary data.(var len)

Command :

CREATE TABLE document (

data BLOB
);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Constraints in SQL
Constraints - Constraints define rules or conditions that must be satisfied by the
data in the table.
Common constraints include uniqueness, nullability, default values, etc.

Unique constraint: Ensures values in a column are unique across the table.
Not null constraint: Ensures a column cannot have a null value.
Check constraint: Enforces a condition to be true for each row.
Default constraint: Provides a default value for a column if no value is specified.
Primary key : Enforces the uniqueness of values in one or more columns
Foreign key: Enforces a link between two tables by referencing a column in one
table that is a primary key in another table.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Constraints in SQL
Unique constraint:
CREATE TABLE example1 (
phoneNbr INT UNIQUE);

Not null constraint:

CREATE TABLE example1 (
address VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL );

Check constraint:
CREATE TABLE example1 (
age INT CHECK (age >= 18));

Default constraint:
CREATE TABLE example1 (
enrolled VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT 'no' );
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Constraints in SQL

Primary key constraint:

CREATE TABLE employee ( id INT PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(255) );
or
CREATE TABLE employee (
id INT ,
name VARCHAR(255)
PRIMARY KEY (id)
);

Foreign key constraint:

CREATE TABLE orders (
orderItemNo INT PRIMARY KEY,
custId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (custId) REFERENCES customer(custId) );
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Keys in SQL

Primary key- A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in the table.
It ensures that each row can be uniquely identified and accessed within the
table.

Foreign key-A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key of
another table. It establishes relationships between tables.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Primary Key : A primary key is a key which uniquely identifies each record in a table.
It ensures that each tuple or record can be uniquely identified within the table.
It is always Unique+ Not null

ID Name Hometown

123 Rahul KOLKATA

245 Raj KOLKATA

434 Riti DELHI

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Foreign Key : A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key in
another table. It establishes a relationship between two tables.

Student Subject
(Base/referenced table) (referencing table)
Roll Roll
Name Hometown Name subject
no no

1 Rahul KOLKATA 1 Rahul Maths

2 Raj KOLKATA 2 Raj SST

3 Riti DELHI 3 Riti Science

Primary key Foreign key

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Referenced table - Table having primary key (pk)
Referencing table- Table having foreign key(fk)

Student Subject
(Base/referenced table) (referencing table)

Roll Roll subject

Name Hometown subject
no no id

1 Rahul KOLKATA 1 s1 Maths

2 Raj KOLKATA 2 s2 SST

3 Riti DELHI 3 s3 Science

Primary key Foreign key

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Foreign Key

id Name course_id course_id name teacher id

100 Hindi Ram 1

1 Rahul 100

101 Maths Mohan 2

2 Raj 101

102 English Priya 3

3 Riti 102

Student Course
Base/referenced/parent table Refrencing/child table
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Foreign Key

Foreign key helps to perform operations related to the parent table, such as joining
tables or ensuring referential integrity.

Query :

CREATE TABLE childtableName (

childId INT PRIMARY KEY,
baseId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (baseId) REFERENCES baseTableName(baseId)
);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Cascading in Foreign Key
Cascading are a set of rules which dictate what actions should be taken
automatically when a referenced row in the parent table is modified or deleted.

1.CASCADE: If a row in the parent table is updated or deleted, all related

rows in the child table will be automatically updated or deleted.

2.SET NULL: If a row in the parent table is updated or deleted, all

corresponding foreign key values in the child table will be set to NULL.

3.RESTRICT or NO ACTION: Blocks the modification or deletion of a

referenced row in the parent table if related rows exist in the child table,
thus maintaining referential integrity.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Cascading in Foreign Key

These cascading actions help maintain the integrity of the data across related
tables in the database.

1.ON DELETE CASCADE

2.ON UPDATE CASCADE
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Cascading in Foreign Key

1.ON DELETE CASCADE : The ON DELETE CASCADE clause indicates that if a

row in the parent table (parent_table) is deleted, all corresponding rows in the
child table (child_table) will be automatically deleted as well.

QUERY:
CREATE TABLE childtableName (
childId INT PRIMARY KEY,
baseId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (baseId) REFERENCES baseTableName(baseId)
ON DELETE CASCADE
);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Cascading in Foreign Key

2.ON UPDATE CASCADE : The ON UPDATE CASCADE clause indicates that if a

row in the parent table (parent_table) is updated, all corresponding rows in the
child table (child_table) will be automatically updated as well.

QUERY :
CREATE TABLE childtableName (
childId INT PRIMARY KEY,
baseId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (baseId) REFERENCES parenttableName(childId)
ON UPDATE CASCADE
);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Lets make a database for all SQL commands
Let‘s make a Database for a Company
Requirements :

1. Make a database for a company xyz

CREATE DATABASE xyz;

2.Make an employee table in the xyz database.

CREATE TABLE employee(

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
age INT,
department VARCHAR(50)
city VARCHAR(50),
salary INT);
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Retrieving data from table

3. Fill details in the table

INSERT INTO employee(id,name,age,department,city,salary)

VALUES
(1, ”rahul” , 25 , “IT” , ”Mumbai”, 1500),
(2, ”afsara” , 26 , “HR” , “Pune, 2000),
(3, “abhimanyu” , 27 , “IT” , “Mumbai” , 2500),
(4, “aditya” , 25 , “Marketing” , “Surat” , 2400),
(5, “raj” , 24, “Finance” , “Indore”, 1500);

4. See all the data in the table

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UPDATE Command

The UPDATE command in SQL is used to modify existing records in a table.

If you get a safe mode error while executing queries run this query

QUERY: SET SQL_SAFE_UPDATES=0;

QUERY :
UPDATE table_name
SET columnName1= value1(to be set) , columnName2 =value2(to be set)
WHERE condition;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UPDATE Command (Practice Question)

1.Write a query to update the salary for all employees in the 'HR’ department to 50000.

QUERY :
UPDATE employee
SET salary = 50000
WHERE department = “HR”;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UPDATE Command (Practice Question)

2. Write a query to update the name of an employee from raaj to raj .

QUERY :
UPDATE employee
SET name = “raj”
WHERE name = “raaj”;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
DELETE Command

The DELETE command in SQL is used to remove records from a table.

QUERY:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
DELETE Command (Practice Question)

1. Write a query to DELETE all records from the employee table where the department is
'HR'

QUERY :
DELETE FROM employee
WHERE department = “HR”;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
DELETE Command (Practice Question)

2. Write a query to DELETE the record of an employee having name as raj

QUERY :
DELETE FROM employee
WHERE name = “raj”;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Retrieving data from table

SELECT command - Select is a DQL(Data Query Language) Command. It is

used to retrieve data from a database.

We can provide specific columns from which we can retrive data.

SELECT colmn1 , colmn2 FROM tableName; -> to retrieve data present in

specific column in a table

SELECT * FROM tableName; -> to retrieve all the data present in table
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Filtering data using the WHERE clause

WHERE clause - It filters the rows based on specified conditions.

QUERY : SELECT col1 col2 FROM tableName WHERE condition;

ex : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Commands

DQL DML DDL

INSERT CREATE
SELECT
UPDATE ALTER
DELETE DROP
TRUNCATE
RENAME
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

ALTER Command

ALTER command - ALTER is a DDL command used to modify(change)

existing database objects, such as tables, indexes, or constraints(schema)

Let’s see all the things ALTER can help us to do. So mostly it is used to modify
the schema, so we will mostly see how it can help in modification of columns
like - addition of new column, deletion of column, modification of column and
much more
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

ALTER Command
1. ADD a column

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
ADD columnName datatype constraint ;

2. Drop a column

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
DROP COLUMN columnName ;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

ALTER Command
3. Modify the data type of an existing column
MODIFY clause : The MODIFY clause is oftenly used within an ALTER TABLE
statement in SQL. It allows us to change the definition or properties of an
existing column in a table.

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
MODIFY columnName newdatatype ;

The above command modifies columnName to a new dataType.

LET’S START WITH SQL :)

ALTER Command
4. Change the name of an existing columng
CHANGE : The CHANGE command is oftenly used within an ALTER TABLE
statement in SQL. It helps to change the name or data type of a column
within a table.

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
CHANGE oldcolumnName newcolumnName newdatatype;

The above command changes the oldcolumnName to newcolumnName and

also its datatype
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

ALTER Command
4. Rename the name of an existing columng
RENAME COMMAND : RENAME command is used to change the name of an
existing database object, such as a table, column, index, or constraint.

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
RENAME COLUMN oldcolumnName TO newcolumnName ;

The above command renames the oldcolumnN th to newcolumnName

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RENAME Command
RENAME : RENAME command is used to change the name of an existing
database object, such as a table, column, index, or constraint.

Query (Table Renaming) :

RENAME TABLE oldTableName TO newTableName ;

The above command renames the oldTableName to newTableName

LET’S START WITH SQL :)

RENAME Command
Query (Column Renaming ) :
ALTER TABLE tablename
RENAME COLUMN oldcolumnname TO newcolumnname;

The above command renames the oldcolumnName to newcolumnName

Query (Database Renaming) :

RENAME DATABASE olddatabasename TO newdatabasename;
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TRUNCATE Command

TRUNCATE command - This command removes all rows from the given
table, leaving the table empty but preserving its structure,

QUERY :
TRUNCATE TABLE tableName;
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Difference Between TRUNCATE, DELETE and DROP

TRUNCATE DELETE DROP

Used to remove specific rows from

remove all rows from a table Used to completely remove table
a table based on a condition

TRUNCATE TABLE tablename; DELETE FROM tablename

DROP TABLE tablename;
WHERE condition;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Using DISTINCT to retrieve unique values

DISTINCT - DISTINCT keyword is used within the SELECT statement to retrieve unique
values from a column or combination of columns.

Query :
SELECT DISTINCT col1
-> retrieve a list of unique values for col1
FROM tableName;

SELECT DISTINCT col1, col2 ->return unique combinations of col1 & col2
FROM tableName;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Operators in SQL

To perform operations on data in SQL we use operators.

QUERY : SELECT col1 col2 FROM tableName WHERE condition(use operator);

Types of operators in SQL:

Arithmetic Operators : addition (+) ,subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division

(/) , modulus (%)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age+1 =60;

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Operators in SQL

Comparison Operators : equal to (=) , not equal to (<> or !=) , greater than (>)
less than (<), greater than or equal to (>=), less than or equal to (<=)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Operators in SQL
Logical Operators

1. AND : It combines two conditions and returns true if both are true

QUERY: SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city= 'Pune' AND age > 18;

2. OR : It combines two conditions and returns true if either is true

QUERY: SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city= 'Pune' OR age > 18;

3. NOT: It reverses the result of a condition, returns true if the condition is false

QUERY: SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department NOT IN ('IT', 'HR');

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Operators in SQL

IN Operator : IN(Checks if a value matches in a list of values)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department IN ('IT', 'HR');

IS NULL / IS NOT NULL Operators : IS NULL (checks for null values) , IS NOT
NULL(checks for not null values)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department IS NOT NULL;

Bitwise Operators: AND(&), OR(|)

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Operators in SQL

LIKE & Wildcard Operators : LIKE operator is used to search for a specified
pattern in a column. It uses wildcard operators for matching patterns.

1. % (percent sign): It matches for any sequence of zero or more characters.

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE name LIKE 'A%';

2. _ (underscore): It matches for any single character.

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE name LIKE '_A%';

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Operators in SQL

BETWEEN Operator : Checks if a value is within a range of values.

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary BETWEEN 1200 AND 1500;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Clauses in SQL

Clauses are like tools/conditions that helps us to make queries more specific
or decide what data to fetch.

Ex- WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING , ORDER BY, LIMIT

QUERY : SELECT col1 ,col2

FROM tableName
clause condition;
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WHERE clause

WHERE clause - It filters the rows based on specified conditions.

QUERY : SELECT col1 ,col2

FROM tableName
WHERE condition;

ex : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

LET’S START WITH SQL :)

LIMIT CLAUSE

LIMIT clause - The LIMIT clause in SQL is used to restrict the number of rows
returned by a query.

This query retrieves the first n rows from the table.

QUERY :
SELECT col1 , col2 FROM tableName
LIMIT noOfRows;

ex : SELECT * FROM employee LIMIT 2;

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Sorting data with the ORDER BY clause.

ORDER BY clause - It is used to sort the results in ascending or descending

order. By default it returns the result in ascending order

This query retrieves the first n rows from the table.

QUERY :
SELECT col1 , col2 FROM tableName
ORDER BY col1 (ASC/DESC), col2 (ASC/DESC)

ex : SELECT * FROM employee ORDER BY salary DESC;

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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having id as 1

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE id=1;
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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having id as 1 and city
as MUMBAI

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE id=1 AND city = “MUMBAI”;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having salary greater
than 1200 and city as MUMBA a.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE salary>1200 AND city = “MUMBAI”;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees who are not from
MUMBAI.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE city NOT IN ( “MUMBAI”);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having the maximum
salary.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
ORDER BY salary DESC;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)

Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of 2 employees having the

maximum salary.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
ORDER BY salary DESC
LIMIT 2;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Aggregate Functions
Aggregate functions performs some operations on a set of rows and then returns a
single value summarizing the data. These are used with SELECT statements to
perform calculations

Types of Aggregate functions :

COUNT()
SUM()
AVG()
MIN()
MAX()
GROUP_CONCAT()
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Aggregate Functions

COUNT() - It counts the number of rows in a table or the number of non-null values
in a column.
This counts how many things are in a list or a group.

Query : SELECT count(name) FROM employee ; -> this will tell the number of
employees in a company
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Aggregate Functions

SUM() - It calculates the sum of all values in a numeric column.

This adds up all the numbers in a list.

Query : SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the total amount
company is paying to its employees
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Aggregate Functions

AVG() - It computes the average of all values in a numeric column.

It finds the average, or the "middle" number, of all the numbers in a list.

Query : SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the avg amount
company is paying to its employees
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Aggregate Functions

MIN() - It helps to find the smallest number in a list.

Query : SELECT MIN(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the minimumn
salary company is paying to its employees
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Aggregate Functions

MAX() - It finds the maximum value in a column.

Query : SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the max salary
company is paying to its employees
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Grouping data with the GROUP BY clause.
GROUP BY clause - This is used to group rows that have the same values into together. It
helps to organize data into groups so that you can do calculations, like finding totals or
averages, for each group

This query retrieves the first n rows from the table.

QUERY :
SELECT col1, aggregateFun(col2)
FROM tableName
GROUP BY col1 ;

ex: SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avgsal FROM employee

GROUP BY department;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
HAVING clause.
HAVING clause - The HAVING clause is just like clause but the main
difference is it works on aggregated data. It is used with the GROUP BY
clause. It helps to filter groups based on given con conditions.ditions.

QUERY :
SELECT col1, col2 aggregateFun(col3)
FROM tableName
GROUP BY col1 col2
HAVING condition;

ex : SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avgsal

FROM employe
GROUP BY department
HAVING avgsal>1500;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
GROUP BY and HAVING clause.
These queries demonstrate how to use

a. GROUP BY to categorize data and

b. HAVING to filter grouped data based on specific conditions in SQL.

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Difference Between WHERE and HAVING Clause

WHERE HAVING

used to filter rows from the result based on used to filter rows from the result based on
condition applied to a row before the aggregation condition applied to a row after the aggregation

It is used with SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE It is used with GROUP BY and aggregate
commands functions

SELECT col1, col2 aggregateFun(col3)

FROM tableName
SELECT * FROM tableName WHERE condition; GROUP BY col1 col2
HAVING condition;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

1. Write a query to find the total number of employees in each city

Query :
Select city, COUNT(name) AS no_of_emp
FROM employee
GROUP BY city;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

2. Write a query to find the maximum salary of employees in each city in descending
order

Query :
Select city, max(salary) AS max_salary
FROM employee
GROUP BY city
ORDER BY DESC;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

3. Write a query to display the department names alongside the total count
of employees in each department, sorting the results by the total number of
employees in descending order.

Query :

SELECT department, COUNT(id) AS totalemployees

FROM employee
GROUP BY department
ORDER BY totalemployees DESC;
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Practice Questions

4. Write a query to list the departments where the average salary is greater
than 1200, also display the department name and the average salary.

Query :

SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avgsalary

FROM employee
GROUP BY department
HAVING AVG(salary) > 50000;
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The general order of SQL commands

Sno Command Usecase

1. SELECT Retrieve from the database

2. FROM Identify the table

3. WHERE Filter rows based on some conditions

4. GROUP BY Group rows that have the same values

5. HAVING Filter groups based on some conditions

6. ORDER BY Sort the result set either aesc/desc

7. LIMIT Limit the number of rows returned

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related or
shared or common column between them. There are commonly 4 types of joins
including INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN, SELF JOIN , CROSS
JOIN.

id Name Age id course_id course_name

1 Riya 17 1 101 Eng

2 Rahul 18 2 102 Hin

3 103 PhE
3 Ram 17

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Q. Is Foreign Key important for performing joins?

->Joins can be performed based on any columns that establish a relationship

between tables, not just FK constraints, so its not necessary.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

1. Inner Join
rollno name rollno c_name

Left Right 1 Ram

2 Hindi
table table

3 Eng
2 Rahul

A B 3 Riti 4 Maths

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

2. Left Join/Left Outer Join

rollno name rollno c_name

2 Hindi
Left Right 1 Ram
table table
3 Eng
2 Rahul

4 Maths
A B 3 Riti

Student Course
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

3. Right Join/ Right Outer Join

rollno name rollno c_name

Left Right 1 Ram

2 Hindi
table table

3 Eng
2 Rahul

A B 3 Riti 4 Maths

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

4. Full Join/Full Outer Join

rollno name rollno c_name

Left Right
2 Hindi
table table 1 Ram

3 Eng
2 Rahul

A B 3 Riti 4 Maths

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

5. Self Join
rollno name

1 Ram

2 Rahul

A 3 Riti

Student
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

6. Cross Join
rollno name rollno c_name

2 Hindi
1 1 1 Ram
2 2
3 3 3 Eng
2 Rahul

3 Riti 4 Maths
A B

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

1. Inner Join : It helps us in getting the rows that have matching values in both
tables, according to the given join condition.

Query: id name id o_name

102 Fruit
SELECT columns 101 Ram

FROM table1
103 Ball
INNER JOIN table2 102 Rahul

ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
103 Riti 104 Utensils

Customer Order
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query: It only returns rows where there is a
matching id in both tables id name id o_name

102 Fruit
SELECT * 101 Ram

FROM customer
103 Ball
INNER JOIN order 102 Rahul

ON customer.id = order.id;
103 Riti 104 Utensils

id name id o_name

customer Order
102 Rahul 102 Fruit

103 Riti 103 Ball

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

2. Left Join/Left Outer Join : It is used to fetch all the records from the left
table along with matched records from the right table.
If there are no matching records in the right table, NULL values are returned for
the columns of the right table.
Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;

Left table : the table specified before the LEFT JOIN keyword
Right table : the table specified after the LEFT JOIN keyword
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query:
id name id o_name

SELECT *
FROM customer 101 Ram 102 Fruit

LEFT JOIN order

ON customer.id = order.id; 102 Rahul 103 Ball

103 Riti 104 Utensils

id name id o_name

101 Ram null null

customer Order
102 Rahul 102 Fruit

103 Riti 103 Ball

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

3. Right Join/ Right Outer Join : It is used to fetch all the records from the right
table along with matched records from the left table.
If there are no matching records in the left table, NULL values are returned for
the columns of the left table.
Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;

Left table : the table specified before the RIGHT JOIN keyword
Right table : the table specified after the RIGHT JOIN keyword
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query:

SELECT * id name id o_name

FROM customer
102 Fruit
RIGHT JOIN order 101 Ram

ON customer.id = order.id;
102 Rahul 103 Ball

id o_name id name 103 Riti 104 Utensils

102 Fruit 102 Rahul

customer
Order
103 Ball 103 Riti

104 utensils null null

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

4. Full Join/Full Outer Join: It returns the matching rows of both left and right
table and also includes all rows from both tables even if they don’t have
matching rows.

If there is no match, NULL values are returned for the columns of the missing
table.

In MySQL, the syntax for a full join is different compared to other SQL databases like
PostgreSQL or SQL Server.

MySQL does not support the FULL JOIN keyword directly. So we use a combination of
LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and UNION to achieve the result.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

4. Full Join/Full Outer Join:

Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;

UNION

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query:

SELECT * id name id o_name

FROM customer 102 Fruit

101 Ram
LEFT JOIN order
ON customer.id = order.id; 102 Rahul 103 Ball

UNION
SELECT * 103 Riti 104 Utensils
FROM customer
RIGHT JOIN order
customer
ON customer.id = order.id; Order
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

id name id o_name

101 Ram null null

Result :
102 Rahul 102 Fruit

103 Riti 103 Ball

null null 104 Utensils

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

5. CrossJoin: It combines each row of the first table with every row of the
second table.
id name o_id o_name

Query:
101 Ram 1 Fruit

SELECT *
FROM table1 102 Rahul 2 Ball

CROSS JOIN table2;

Customer Order

It results in a new table where the number of rows is equal to the product of
the number of rows in each table. (m*n)
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

id name o_id o_name

Result : 101 Ram 1 Fruit

101 Ram 2 Ball

102 Rahul 1 Fruit

102 Rahu 2 Ball

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

6. Self Join: A self join in SQL is a type of join where a table is joined with itself.
It is a type of inner join.

Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table as t1
JOIN table as t2
ON t1.colName = t2.colName

t1 and t2 are aliases for the table, used to distinguish between the order rows.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Ram (Mentor)
s_id name mentor_id

Rahul Riti (Mentor)

(Mentor) 1 Ram null

Riya (student) 2 Rahul 1

3 Riti 1
Query :
SELECT s1.name as mentor_name, s2.name 4 Riya 3

as name
FROM student as s1
JOIN student as s2
WHERE s1.s_id=s2.mentor_id
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

mentor_name name

Result : Ram Riti

Ram Rahul

Riti Riya
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Exclusive joins are used when we want to retrieve data from two tables excluding matched
rows. They are a part of outer joins or full outer join.

Types :

1. Left Exclusive JOIN 2.Right Exclusive JOIN 3.Full Exclusive JOIN

Left Right Left Right Left Right

table table table table table table

A B A B A B
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Left Exclusive JOIN: When we retrive records from the left table excluding the ones
matching in both left and right table .
id name id o_name

Query:
101 Ram 102 Fruit

SELECT columns
102 Rahul 103 Ball
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
103 Riti 104 Utensils
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
WHERE table2.colName IS NULL;
customer
Order
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Right Exclusive JOIN: When we retrive records from the right table excluding the ones
matching in both left and right table .
id name id o_name
Query:
101 Ram 102 Fruit

SELECT columns
FROM table1 102 Rahul 103 Ball

RIGHT JOIN table2

ON table1.colName = table2.colName; 103 Riti 104 Utensils

WHERE table1.colName IS NULL;

customer
Order
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Full Exclusive JOIN: When we retrive records from the right table and left table excluding
the ones matching in both left and right table .
Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
WHERE table2.colName IS NULL;
UNION
SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
WHERE table1.colName IS NULL;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION Operator in SQL

UNION: UNION operator in SQL is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
queries into a single result set and gives unique rows by removing duplicate rows.

Things to keep in mind:

1. Each SELECT command within the UNION must Left Right
retrieve the same number of columns. table table

2. The data types of columns in corresponding

positions across SELECT statements should
match. A B
3. Columns should be listed in the same order
across all SELECT statements.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION Operator in SQL

QUERY:
id id id
SELECT columns
FROM table1 1 2 1

UNION
SELECT columns 2 3 2

FROM table2;
3 4 3

4
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION ALL Operator in SQL

UNION ALL: UNION operator in SQL is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
queries into a single result set and gives all rows by not removing duplicate rows.

QUERY:
SELECT columns
FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT columns
FROM table2;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION ALL Operator in SQL

id id id

1 2 1

2 3 2

3 4 3

4
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Subqueries/Inner Queries/Nested Queries: SQL subquery is a query nested

within another SQL statement. Whenever we want to retrieve data based on the
result of another query we use nested queries.

Outer Query

Inner Query
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

How can we use Subqueries?

Subqueries can be used in multiple ways :

Subqueries can be used with clauses such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or

DELETE to perform complex data retrieval.

QUERY:
SELECT columns, (subquery)
FROM tableName;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

How can we use Subqueries?

Subqueries can be used in multiple ways :

Subqueries can be used with WHERE clause to filter data based on

conditions.

QUERY:
SELECT *
FROM tableName
WHERE column name operator (subquery);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

How can we use Subqueries?

Subqueries can be used in multiple ways :

Subqueries can also be used in the FROM clause.

QUERY:
SELECT *
FROM subquery AS altName ;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

1. Find all the employees who have salary greater than the min salary

id name age departmen city salary

Find the min salary 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Find employee having salary greater 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

than min salary 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

To find the min salary

QUERY:
SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employee

To find all the employees having salary greater than min salary

QUERY:
SELECT name, salary
FROM employee
WHERE salary > (subquery)
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

2. Find the employees with the minimum age

id name age departmen city salary

Find the min age 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Find employee having the min age 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

To find the min age

QUERY:
SELECT MIN(age) FROM employee

To find all the employees having min age

QUERY:
SELECT name, age
FROM employee
WHERE age =(subquery);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in FROM:

1. Find the employees who is having age greater than min_age

id name age departmen city salary

Find the min age 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Find employee having age> min age 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

To Find the min age

QUERY:
SELECT min(age) AS min_age FROM employee;

Find employee having age> min age

QUERY:
SELECT emp.name
FROM employee emp, (subquery) AS subquery
WHERE emp.age > subquery.min_age;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in SELECT:

1. Print the employees with the average age and age of employees

id name age departmen city salary

Find the avg age 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Print the employee age and avg_age 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in SELECT:

Find the avg age

QUERY:
SELECT AVG(age) FROM employee

Print the employee age and avg_age

QUERY:
SELECT (subquery)AS avg_age , age
FROM employee;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Nth Highest Salary

Q. Find the nth highest salary in a given dataset.

Steps to find the nth highest salary:

Step 1: Select the column which you want to show the final result i.e salary.

Step 2: Order the salary in descending order so that you have the max at the first.

Step 3: Now the value of n could 1,2,3....till n, so we have to make the query in such a
way so that whatever be the value of n it can provide the result.

Step 4: So at the end of the query we will provide a LIMIT so that on the data set
which we have got after ordering the salary in descending order, we can fetch the
nth highest one.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Nth Highest Salary

Q. Find the nth highest salary in a given dataset.

LIMIT- LIMIT clause is used to restrict the number of rows returned by a query.

LIMIT n - It helps to retrieve a maximum of n rows from the beginning of the

result set.

LIMIT m, n- It helps to retrieve a specific range of rows where

m- number of rows to skip from the beginning

n- number of rows to fetch after skipping
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Nth Highest Salary

Q. Find the nth highest salary in a given dataset.

QUERY:
SELECT DISTINCT Salary
FROM tableName
ORDER BY Salary DESC
LIMIT n-1, 1;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Stored Procedure- These are programs that can perform specific tasks
based on the stored query. It is basically a collection of pre-written SQL
statements grouped together under a specific name.
Query: (to create a procedure)
CREATE PROCEDURE procedureName()
BEGIN
Query
END;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL procedureName();
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Examples: Stored procedure without params

Query 1:
CREATE PROCEDURE getAllOrderDetails()
BEGIN
Select * from orders;
END;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL getAllOrderDetails();
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Sometimes we encounter an issue in SQL workbench so we use delimiter there

Query 1:

DELIMITER /
CREATE PROCEDURE getAllOrderDetails()
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM orders;
END/
DELIMITER ;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL getAllOrderDetails();
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Examples: Return the details of the order by id (Stored procedure with params)

Query 2:
CREATE PROCEDURE getAllOrderDetailsById(IN id int)
BEGIN
SELECT *FROM Orders WHERE id = id;
END;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL getAllOrderDetailsById(2);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Views In SQL

A view is a virtual table in SQL. It helps in providing a filtered view

of data for security purposes.

QUERY:
CREATE VIEW viewName AS
SELECT columns FROM baseTableName; (Specify the columns to be
included in the view)

It helps in Data Abstraction, Security and simplify complex queries.

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Views In SQL

To see all the data in view

QUERY:
SELECT * FROM viewName ;

To drop a view

QUERY:
DROP VIEW IF EXISTS viewName;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
CASE AND IF IN SQL

CASE: It allows you to perform conditional logic within a query. It can be used in
both SELECT and UPDATE statements to evaluate conditions and return specific
values based on those conditions.
QUERY:
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1 WHEN
condition2 THEN result2 ... ELSE resultN
END
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
CASE with Select statement

Q. Categorise the students on basis of their percentage to Top, Pass and fail in a new
column category

QUERY:
SELECT sid, name, percentage,
CASE
WHEN percentage > 90 THEN ’Top’
WHEN percentage BETWEEN 89 AND 34 THEN ‘Pass’
ELSE ‘Fail’
END AS category
FROM student;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
CASE with Update statement

Q. Students have got some grace marks so update their grades. Where its A update to A+
and where its B update to A.

QUERY:
UPDATE student
SET grade = CASE
WHEN grade= = ‘B’ THEN ‘A’
WHEN grade = ‘A’ THEN ‘A+’
END;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
IF IN SQL

IF: It is used to return one of two values depending on whether a condition is true or
false. It is not supported in may DB but supported in MySQL

QUERY:
IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false)
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
IF with Select statement

Q. Categorise the students on basis of their percentage to Top, Pass and fail in a new
column category

QUERY:
SELECT sid, name, percentage,
IF(percentage > 90, ’Top’ , IF(percentage BETWEEN 89 AND 34, ‘Pass’, ‘Fail’)) AS category
FROM student;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
IF with Update statement

Q. Swap all 'f' and 'm' values (i.e., change all 'f' values to 'm' and vice versa) with a single
update statement and no intermediate temporary tables.

QUERY:
UPDATE employee
SET gender = if(gender = 'm', 'f', 'm')
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a database Company, 2.create a table employee in it
delete/drop the database

1.Create a Database Company

CREATE DATABASE company;

2. Create a table Employee

USE company; -> to tell the server to create table in this DB

CREATE TABLE employee(

employee_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(50),
last_name VARCHAR(50));
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write the SQL Query to 1.create a database Company, 2.create a table employee in it,
delete/drop the database

3. Delete the Database company

DROP DATABASE company;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews
Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a table employee, 2.Insert data into the table employe
3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000 4. Delete data for employee
having empId =1 5. Delete the entire table
1. Create a table employee
CREATE TABLE employee(
empId INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
department VARCHAR(50),
salary INT);

2. Insert data into the table employee

INSERT INTO employee(empId,name,department,salary)
VALUES(1, ’Riti’, ’IT’, 30000),
(2, ’Rahul’, ’HR’ , 15000);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a table employee, 2.Insert data into the table employ
3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000 4. Delete data for employee
having empId =1 5. Delete the entire table

3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000

UPDATE employees
SET salary = 20000
WHERE department=’HR’

4. Delete data for employee having empId =1

DELETE FROM employee
WHERE empId = 1;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a table employee, 2.Insert data into the table employ
3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000 4. Delete data for employee
having empId =1 5. Delete the entire table

5. Delete the entire table

DROP TABLE employee;

To delete all the data

DELETE FROM employee;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the total number of employees working in the ‘IT’ department’.

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employee
2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
WHERE department = 'IT';
3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

COUNT(*) is a SQL aggregate function that returns the total number of rows in a
specified table or query. It counts all the rows, regardless of whether they contain NULL
values or not.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find all the employees that have their name starting from ‘R’

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
name LIKE 'R%'; 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LIKE- It is used to search for a specified pattern in a column

We use ‘%’ and ‘_’ for searching patterns
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Condition Query

Name start with A LIKE ‘A%’

Name contain ra LIKE '%ra%'

Name start with 'A' and have exactly five

LIKE ‘A____’
characters

Name has a as second character LIKE '_a%'

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find unique salaries in employee table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT DISTINCT salary 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee; 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

DISTINCT- It is used to retrieve unique records from a table

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the second highest salary in a table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT MAX(salary) 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
WHERE salary <> (SELECT
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
MAX(salary) FROM employee);
5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

MAX- gives the aggregated max value from a column

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the nth highest salary in a table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT DISTINCT Salary 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
ORDER BY Salary DESC
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
LIMIT n-1, 1;
5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

ORDER BY - Order the salary in descending/ascending order

LIMIT m, n- It helps to retrieve a specific range of rows
m- number of rows to skip from the beginning
n- number of rows to fetch after skipping
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the top 2 salaries from a table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT salary 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
ORDER BY salary DESC
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
LIMIT 2;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to calculate the total salary and average salary in a department

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT department, SUM(salary) AS 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

total_salary, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

FROM employee 4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

GROUP BY department; 5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the rows where a department has NULL values

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT *FROM employee 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
WHERE department IS NULL; 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the duplicate rows in employee for column department.

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT department, COUNT(*) 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
GROUP BY department
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;
5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is SQL?
-> SQL stands for Structured Query Language
It is a standard language used for managing and manipulating databases.

Q. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE

-> DELETE removes rows from a table based on a condition and can be rolled
back.

while, TRUNCATE removes all rows from a table without logging individual row
deletions and cannot be rolled back.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is UNION and UNION ALL.

-> UNION combines the results of two queries and removes duplicate rows.

while, UNION ALL combines the results of two queries and includes all duplicates.

Q. What is a stored procedure?

-> A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save and reuse in
other queries.

Q. What is difference between CHAR() and VARCHAR()

-> CHAR is used when we have data with a fixed length
while, VARCHAR is used when we have data with variable length
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Explain the types of JOINS in SQL?

INNER JOIN: It returns all records that have matching values in both tables.
LEFT OUTER JOIN: It returns all records from the left table, and the matched
records from the right table.
RIGHT OUTER JOIN : It returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table.
FULL OUTER JOIN: It returns all records when there is a match in either left or right
table.
CROSS JOIN: It returns the Cartesian product of the two tables.
SELF JOIN : A join where a table is joined with itself.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is NULL in SQL?

-> It is used to handle NULL values. It is used to indicate that a data value does not
exist in the database.

Q. What is a foreign key?

-> A foreign key is a key that helps in establishing a relationship between the two
tables.
It uniquely identifies a row of another table. A foreign key is a key in one table,
that refers to the primary key in another table.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is a primary key?

-> A primary key is a unique identifier/key which uniquely identifies all record in a
table/relation.
It must contain unique values and cannot contain NULL values.(UNIQUE+NOT NULL)

Q. What is the difference between WHERE and HAVING

-> WHERE is used to filter records before any groupings are made.

while, HAVING is used to filter records after groupings are made.

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is the view in SQL?

-> Views are a kind of virtual table in SQL

Q. What is DEFAULT constraint

-> Whenever we need to fill a column with default and fixed values we use
DEFAULT, like set the default salary as 0 where salary is null.

Q. What is an ALIAS command in SQL

-> These are temporary names given to a table or column which is just a
temporary change i.e the table name does not change in the original database.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

How to think on what SQL clause/operator/function to choose?

1.Data retrival
SELECT: Use for retrieving data from one or more tables.

2. Data Filtering
WHERE: Filter records based on specific conditions
AND, OR, NOT: Combine multiple conditions.
BETWEEN : Range search
IN: Checks whether a specified value matches any value in a subquery or a list
LIKE : Pattern matching(%, _)
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)
How to think on what SQL clause/operator/function to choose?

3. Aggregation on data
AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.
MIN(): Returns the minimum value in a column.
MAX(): Returns the maximum value in a column.
SUM(): Returns the total sum of a numeric column.
COUNT(): Counts the number of non-NULL values in a specified column
COUNT(*) : Counts the total number of rows in a table, including rows with
NULL values.

4. Grouping and Filtering Groups

GROUP BY: Groups rows that have the same values in specified columns
HAVING: Filters groups based on specified conditions (used with GROUP BY).
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)
How to think on what SQL clause/operator/function to choose?

5. Sorting data
ORDER BY: Sorts the result set by one or more columns.

6. Data retrival from combination of 2 or more tables

INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN: Combine rows from two or more tables
based on related columns.

7. Conditional logic
CASE : Perform conditional logic within a query using WHEN, THEN and ELSE
IF : Return values depending on whether a condition is true or false.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

How to solve SQL questions

Step 1: Understand what the question says?

Retrieving data, aggregating results, joining tables, or performing updates/deletes.

Step 2: Check data types, constraints ,primary key, foreign keys, and relationships
between tables

Step 3: Use the Appropriate SQL Clauses and Functions

Step 4: Ensure appropriate indexes on columns used in WHERE, JOIN, and ORDER
BY clauses.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions

1. Swap Salary : https://leetcode.com/problems/swap-salary/description/

2. Duplicate Emails : https://leetcode.com/problems/duplicate-emails/description/
3. Employees Earning More Than Their Managers :
https://leetcode.com/problems/employees-earning-more-than-their-
managers/description/
4. Not Boring Movies : https://leetcode.com/problems/not-boring-
movies/description/
5. Classes More Than 5 Students: https://leetcode.com/problems/classes-more-
than-5-students/description/
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Swap Salary

Q. Write a solution to swap all 'f' and 'm' values (i.e., change all 'f'
values to 'm' and vice versa) with a single update statement and
no intermediate temporary tables.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Duplicate Emails

Q.Write a solution to report all the duplicate emails. Note that it's guaranteed that the
email field is not NULL.
Return the result table in any order.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Employees Earning More Than Their Managers

Q. Write a solution to find the employees who earn more than their managers.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Not Boring Movies

Q. Write a solution to report the movies with an odd-numbered ID and a description that
is not "boring".
Return the result table ordered by rating in descending order.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Classes More Than 5 Students

Write a solution to find all the classes that have at least five students.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Intension and Extension in DataBase
Intension in Database :
The intension defines what kind of data can be stored and the relationships
between them. This is basically the blueprint or definition of the database
structure. It doesn't change frequently and its the permanent definition of the
database structure.

It includes:
Table definitions( name of tables, their columns, and the data types allowed in
each column)
Constraints(Rules that govern the data, such as primary keys, foreign keys, and
data validation rules)
Relationships between tables( how tables are connected through shared
columns)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Intension and Extension in DataBase
Intension in Database
Example:

customer(
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50))
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Intension and Extension in DataBase
Extension in Database :
The extension is the actual data stored in the database at a given instance in time.
Basically the data which is stored in tuples/rows at a given instance of time.
When there are more tuples added the data can change .
Employee
Employee Employee
id name departmen
id name departmen id name departmen
1 Rahul 'IT'
1 Rahul 'IT' 1 Rahul 'IT'
2 Afsara 'HR'
2 Afsara 'HR' 2 Afsara 'HR'
3 Abhimanyu 'IT'
3 Abhimanyu 'IT' 3 Abhimanyu 'IT'
4 Aditya 'Marketing'
4 Aditya 'Marketing'
5 Raj 'Finance'
Data at instance t1 Data at instance t2
Data at instance t3
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
RDBMS

What is RDBMS ?

Database : Collection of data is called as database.

DBMS: A software application to manage our data.

User Software Application

Database
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
RDBMS

What is RDBMS ?
Database

Relational(Use tables to store data) Non-relational(Data is not stored in tables)

MySQL MongoDb
Oracle
MariaDB,
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
RDBMS

What is RDBMS ?
These databases structure data into organized tables that have predefined
connections between them.

Data manipulation and querying are performed using SQL (Structured Query
Language).

User Software Application

Database
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Normalisation
Normalization is a process in which we organize data to reduce
redundancy(duplicacy) and improve data consistency. It involves dividing a database
into two or more tables

What is data redundancy and consistency and why its important

When there is same set of data repeated each and every time it results in
duplicacy of data (either in row or column)
Now row level duplicacy can be remove by using primary key for unique
values.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Now when we have same data for some set of columns , it leads to different
anomalies (inconsistencies or errors that occur when manipulating or
querying data in a database)

1. Insertion Anomaly
2. Updation Anomaly
3. Deletion Anomaly

Also it also increases the size of database with the same data.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Insertion Anomaly: Employee

id name age department Manager salary

It occurs when it is difficult to insert 1 Rahul 25 'IT' Raj 1500

data into the database due to the 2 Afsara 26 'HR' Avinash 1000

absence of other required data. 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' Raj 1500

4 Aditya 25 'HR' Avinash 1000

Consider you want to add a new
5 Raj 24 'HR' Avinash 1000
department but there is no employee in
that dept yet.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Deletion Anomaly: Employee

id name age department Manager salary

It occurs when deleting data removes 1 Rahul 25 'IT' Raj 1500

other valuable data. 2 Afsara 26 'HR' Avinash 1000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' Raj 1500

Consider if you delete all the record in 4 Aditya 25 'HR' Avinash 1000
the table, you will loose the track of
5 Raj 24 'HR' Avinash 1000
dept, their manager and salaries.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Updation Anomaly: Employee

id name age department Manager salary

It occurs when changes to data require 1 Rahul 25 'IT' Raj 1500

multiple updates 2 Afsara 26 'HR' Avinash 1000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' Raj 1500

Consider you want to change the salary 4 Aditya 25 'HR' Avinash 1000
for people working in HR department,
5 Raj 24 'HR' Avinash 1000
you need to update it at 3 place .
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

How normalisation helps here?

Using normalisation we can divide the employee table in two tables

1. Employee
2. Department
Employee Department
id name age department department Manager salary

1 Rahul 25 IT IT Raj 1500

2 Afsara 26 HR HR Avinash 1000

Abhimany
3 27 IT
u

4 Aditya 25 HR

5 Raj 24 HR
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Types of Normalisation

First Normal Form (1NF)

Second Normal Form (2NF)
Third Normal Form (3NF)
Boyce-Codd Normal Form(BCNF)
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Denormalization
This is the opposite of normalization. It involves intentionally introducing some
redundancy into a well-normalized database schema to improve query
performance. Employee
id name age department Employee
1 Rahul 25 IT id name age department Manager salary

Consider if you wish to find the 2 Afsara 26 HR 1 Rahul 25 'IT' Raj 1500

Abhimany 2 Afsara 26 'HR' Avinash 1000

salary of Rahul
3 27 IT
u
3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' Raj 1500
4 Aditya 25 HR

so first you have to make a query in 5 Raj 24 HR

4

5
Aditya

Raj
25

24
'HR'

'HR'
Avinash

Avinash
1000

1000

employee table to find department Department

of Rahul and then in department department Manager salary

IT Raj 1500
table to find the salary of Rahul HR Avinash 1000
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Denormalization

Benifits
Faster Queries : It can reduce the need for complex joins between tables
during queries which can eventually improve the speed of retrieving frequently
accessed data.
Simpler Queries: It can simplify queries by allowing them to be executed on a
single table instead of requiring joins across multiple tables.

Disadvantages

Increased Data Redundancy

Less Data Consistency
Denormalization can make the database schema less flexible for future changes. like
adding/modifying new data elements
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Functional Dependecy

Functional dependency describes the relationship between attributes in a

relation.

A FD is a constraint between two sets of attributes in a relation from a

database

For a Relation(table) R, if there are two attributes X and Y then

R
FD : X(determinant) -> Y(dependent)
X Y

Attribute Y is functionally dependent on attribute X.

 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Functional Dependecy

If x=1, we can find the value of y.

F.D : X->Y (X,Y is a subset of R) What is subset?

EmpID EmpFirstName EmpLastNmae Let A={1,2,3}

Let B={1,2,3,4,5}
1 Riti Kumari
A is a subset of B because every
element of A is also an element of
2 Rahul Kumar
B.
3 Suraj Singh

FD: EmpId-> EmpFirstName (EmpFirstName is functionally dependent on EmpId)

EmpId->EmpLastNmae
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Functional Dependecy

Properties of Functional Dependencies:

1. Reflexivity: If Y is a subset of X, then X -> Y . (X->X)
2. Augmentation: If X -> Y, then XZ -> YZ for any Z.
3. Transitivity: If X -> Y and Y -> Z, then X -> Z.
4. Union: If X -> Y and X -> Z, then X -> YZ.
5. Decomposition: If X -> YZ, then X -> Y and X -> Z.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Functional Dependecy
Types of Functional Dependency
1. Trivial dependency
2. Non-trivial dependency

EmpID EmpFirstName EmpLastNmae

1 Riti Kumari

2 Rahul Kumar

3 Suraj Singh
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Functional Dependecy
Trivial dependency
A functional dependency X -> Y is trivial if Y is a subset of X
We can also say it as X->X .
{EmpID, EmpFirstName} -> {EmpID}
is trivial because {EmpID} is a subset of {EmpID, EmpFirstName}.
X Y =Y
EmpID EmpFirstName EmpLastNmae

1 Riti Kumari

2 Rahul Kumar

3 Suraj Singh
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Functional Dependecy
Non-Trivial dependency
A functional dependency X -> Y is non-trivial if Y is not a subset of X i.e X Y=
{EmpID} -> {EmpFirstName}
is trivial because {EmpFirstName} is not a subset of {EmpID}.

X Y = empty
EmpID EmpFirstName EmpLastNmae

1 Riti Kumari

2 Rahul Kumar

3 Suraj Singh
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure/closure set

Attribute closure helps us for identifying candidate keys, checking for functional
dependencies, and in normalisation.

where x is an attribute or set of attribute which have all the attributes in a

X
relation which can determine X.

Ques : Consider we have a relation R with atrributes A,B,C,D,E and FD are

A-> B, B-> C ,C-> D, D-> E
1. Now according to the rule of Reflexivity all the attributes can determine theirself.
A->A, B->B , C->C , D->D, E->E
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure/closure set

Ques : Consider we have a relation R with atrributes A,B,C,D,E and FD are

A-> B, B-> C ,C-> D, D-> E

1. Now according to the rule of Reflexivity all the attributes can determine theirself.
A->A, B->B , C->C , D->D, E->E

2. Now according to the rule of transivity if A determines B and B determines C, then A

can also determine C and same for all other attributes.
A->C, A-> D, A->E
B->D , B->E
C->E
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure

Ques : Consider we have a relation R with atrributes A,B,C,D,E and FD are

A-> B, B-> C, C-> D, D-> E

3. Now according to the rule of UNION if as the determinant is same we can combine
dependent
For A For C For E
A-> B , A->C, A-> D, A->E , A->A C-> D, C->E , C->C E->E
A->ABCDE C->DEC

For B For D
B-> C , B->D , B->E , B->B D-> E , D->D
B->CDEB D->ED
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure
Ques : Consider we have a relation R with atrributes A,B,C,D,E and FD are
A-> B, B-> C, C-> D, D-> E

4. Now lets find the closure set of attributes

A- {A,B,C,D,E}
B- {B,C,D,E}
C-{C,D,E}
D- {D,E}
E- {E}
AB - {A,B,C,D,E}
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure
5. Now lets find candidate key, super key , prime and non-prime attributes

Super key : Set of attributes whose closure contains all the attributes given in a relation
Super set of any candidate key is super key. A key(combination of all possible attributes)
which can uniquely identify two tuples.

How to find Super Key?

Identify All Attributes

2. Analyze the functional dependencies and find closure.
Generate Power Set : If A has n attributes, the power set will have 2^n subsets.
Check for Super Key Property : For each subset in the power set, check if it can uniquely
identify each tuple in the relation.
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Attribute closure

Q. Find all the superkeys for the relation R(A, B, C) and FD : A → B, B → C.

1.Identify All Attributes:

A={A,B,C}

2. Analyze the functional dependencies and find closure.

From A → B and B → C, we can infer A → C

A+={A,B,C}
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Attribute closure

B+ = {B,C} because B → C, but B does not determine A.

C+ ={C}

Clsoure of A gives or determins all the attributes in the table so we can say its s
auper key.

3. How to find all the super keys?

Find the power subset
The power set of {A,B,C} is 2^3=8
{}, {A}, {B}, {C}, {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C}
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure

A power set is the set of all subsets of a given set, including the empty set and
the set itself. If you have a set X, the power set of X is denoted as 2^X

Example:

Let's take a simple set X={a,b}

The power set of X would include the following subsets:
1. The empty set: ∅
2. The single-element subsets: {a} & {b}
3. The full set itself: {a,b}
So, the power set P(X) would be: P(X)={∅,{a},{b},{a,b}}
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Attribute closure

4. Verify each subset to see if it is a super key

1. {}: Not a super key.
2. {A}: Super key (as its closure determines all the attributes in relation).
3. {B}: Not a super key (does not determine A).
4. {C}: Not a super key (does not determine A or B).
5. {A, B}: Super key (A is already a super key, so adding B still keeps it a super
key).
6. {A, C}: Super key (A is already a super key, so adding C still keeps it a super
key).
7. {B, C}: Not a super key (B determines C, but does not determine A).
8. {A, B, C}: Super key (A is already a super key, so adding B and C keeps it a
super key).
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Attribute closure

5. Super keys are : {A}, {A, B}, {A, C}, {A, B, C}

We can also say to find max number of super keys we can use the formula

where 2^n-k
k- candidate key with k attributes (k < n) in a relation
n- total no of attributes in a relation

When 1 C.K is there = 2^n-1

When 2 C.K is there = 2^n-1(for 1st ck)+2^n-1(for 2nd ck)-2^n-2(for combination
of both)
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Attribute closure
5. Now lets find candidate key, super key , prime and non-prime attributes

Candidate key : A superkey whose proper subset is not a super key

A set A is considered a proper subset of set B

All elements of A are also elements of B
Set B has at least one element that is NOT in A.

Prime Attribute: An attribute that is part of any candidate key.

Non-Prime Attribute:An attribute that is not part of any candidate key.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure

How to find the number of candidate keys?

1. Take the closure of the entire attribute set

2. Discard the dependents if their deteminants are present
3. After discarding the final combination you get is a candidate key if its subset doesnt
have a super key and mention them in prime attribute
4. Now check all the functional dependencies and see if in the right hand side is there a
attribute which has a determinant present in the prime attribute, if yes mention that
as well in the prime attribute and replace the dependent attribute with detrminant
and check if its candidate key.
5. If no prime attribute is available in teh right hand side of the functional dependency
we can say there are no more candidate key and the one key we made after
discarding dependent and checking for super key, that is the only candidate key.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Attribute closure

Q. Find no of candidate and super key for the given relation R (A,B,C,D) and functional
dependency A->B, B->C, C->D , B->A

1. Lets find the minimal superkeys

2. We will get the value of k and n ,where k- candidate key with k
attributes (k < n) in a relation , n- total no of attributes in a relation
3. Use this to get the super keys in the relation 2^n-k
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

First Normal Form (1NF)

First normal form is the first step in the normalisation process which helps us to
reduce data redudancy. Every table should have atomic values i.e there shouldn’t be
any multivalued attributes

It ensures the following set of rules is followed in a table:

Atomicity(Attributes should have single valuse)
Uniqueness of rows (Each row should be uniquely identifiable)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

First Normal Form (1NF)

Atomicity: Each column contains only indivisible (atomic) values, meaning each
attribute holds a single value.

ID PersonName Order

1 Raj Muffin,Sugar

2 Riti Muffin

3 Rahul Sugar,Egg

Here, Order is a multivalued attribute(having more than on evalue)

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) ID PersonName Order

Normalisation and its types 1 Raj Muffin,Sugar

First Normal Form (1NF) 2 Riti Muffin

How to achieve atomicity? 3 Rahul Sugar,Egg

1. Repeat the values in id and PersonName column twice to store single value of
multivauled attribute order

ID PersonName Order

1 Raj Muffin

1 Raj Sugar PK - Order+ ID

2 Riti Muffin

3 Rahul Sugar

3 Rahul Egg
LET’S START WITH DBMS :) ID PersonName Order

Normalisation and its types 1 Raj Muffin,Sugar

First Normal Form (1NF) 2 Riti Muffin

How to achieve atomicity? 3 Rahul Sugar,Egg

2. Make new columns for each multivalue present.

ID PersonName Order1 Order2

1 Raj Muffin Sugar

2 Riti Muffin Null

3 Rahul Sugar Egg

PK - ID
LET’S START WITH DBMS :) ID PersonName Order

Normalisation and its types 1 Raj Muffin,Sugar

First Normal Form (1NF) 2 Riti Muffin

How to achieve atomicity? 3 Rahul Sugar,Egg

3. Divide the table into student(base) and order(referencing) table based on the
multivalued attribute order.
pk fk
ID PersonName ID Order

1 Raj 1 Muffin

2 Riti 1 Sugar

3 Rahul 2 Muffin

3 Sugar

3 Egg
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Normalisation and its types

Second Normal Form (2NF)

A relation is in 2NF if it satisfies the following conditions:

1. It is in First Normal Form (1NF).

2. It has no partial dependency, which means no non-prime attribute is dependent
on a part of any candidate key.

When partial dependency is there in a table?

(LHS is a proper subset of Candidate key AND RHS is a non-prime attribute)

non-prime : an attribute that is not part of any candidate key

 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Second Normal Form (2NF) CustomerId OrderId OrderName

1 1 Muffin
Candidate key : CustomerId+OrderId
2 1 Muffin
Prime attribute :{CustomerId,OrderId}
Non-prime attribute : {OrderName} 1 2 Sugar

4 2 Sugar

In this relation OrderName is dependent on OrderId

only, according to OrderId we provide the OrderName

OrderName is determined by only OrderId.

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

CustomerId OrderId OrderName

1 1 Muffin
2NF
2 1 Muffin

1 2 Sugar

4 2 Sugar

CustomerId OrderId OrderId OrderName

1 1 1 Muffin

2 1 1 Muffin

1 2 2 Sugar

4 2 2 Sugar
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Normalisation and its types

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Consider there is a relation R(A,B,C,D) with FD : AB->C, AB->D, B->C. Find if this is in
2NF?

1.Identify the Candidate Key

A+={A}
B+={B,C}
C+={C}
D+={D}
AB+={A,B,C,D}

So, AB is a candidate key here.

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types
Second Normal Form (2NF)
2. Check for Partial Dependencies
1. LHS is a proper subset of Candidate key AND
2. RHS is a non-prime attribute

FD: AB->C, AB->D, B->C

CK : AB
prime attribute : {A,B} non-prime : {C,D}

a. AB->C (fully dependent, AB is not a proper subset of candidate key)

b.AB->D (fully dependent, AB is not a proper subset of candidate key
c.B->C (partial dependency as B is a proper subset of CK and C is non-prime)

Not in 2NF.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Third Normal Form (3NF)

1. It is in Second Normal Form (2NF).
2. It has no transitive dependency, which means no non-prime attribute is
transitively dependent on a candidate key.

Transitive dependent: no non-prime attribute should be dependent on another non-

prime attribute

For any functional dependency X→Y, one of the following conditions must be true to be in
3rd normal form.
X is a superkey or candidate key(LHS)
Y is a prime attribute (i.e., part of some candidate key). (RHS)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Consider there is a relation R(A,B,C,D) with FD : AB->C, C->D. Find if this is in 3NF?

1.Identify the Candidate Key

A+={A}
B+={B}
C+={C,D}
D+={D}
AB+={A,B,C,D}

So, AB is a candidate key here.

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

Third Normal Form (3NF)

2. Check for transitive dependency

-> no non-prime attribute should be dependent on another non-prime attribute

FD: AB->C, C->D

CK : AB
prime attribute : {A,B} non-prime : {C,D}

a. AB->C (no transitive as AB is a C.K)

b.C->D (transitive as C is not a superkey or candidate key or D is a prime attribute)

Not in 3NF.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

BCNF(Boyce Codd Normal Form)

A relation is in BCNF if it satisfies the following conditions:

1. It is in Third Normal Form (3NF).
2. For a given FD X->Y should always have CK or SK, and should only determine non-prime
attributes
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

BCNF(Boyce Codd Normal Form)

Consider there is a relation R(A,B,C,D) with FD : AB->C, AB->D. Find if this is in BCNF?

1.Identify the Candidate Key

A+={A}
B+={B}
C+={C}
D+={D}
AB+={A,B,C,D}

So, AB is a candidate key here.

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

BCNF(Boyce Codd Normal Form)

2. Check for C.K or S.K in LHS

FD: AB->C, AB->D

CK : AB

a. AB->C (LHS i.e AB is a CK)

b.AB->D (LHS i.e AB is a CK)

It is in BCNF.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Dependency Preserving decomposition

Dependency preserving decomposition ensures that the functional dependencies are

preserved/maintained after decomposing a relation into two or more smaller relations.

Consider a relation R(A, B, C) with FD : A->B, B->C, find if its dependency preserving when
divided into R1(AB) and R2(BC)
R1(AB) : A → B
R2(BC) : B → C
The decomposition is dependency preserving because the functional dependencies A → B
and B → C are preserved in R1 and R2
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Dependency Preserving decomposition

Consider a relation R(A, B, C, D) with FD : A → B, A → C, C → D, find if its dependency

preserving when divided into R1(A, B, C) and R2(C,D)

R1(A, B, C): A → B, A → C(Functional dependency preserved)

R2(C, D): C → D(Functional dependency preserved)

The decomposition is dependency preserving because the functional dependencies A → B

and B → C are preserved in R1 and R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Lossy and Lossless decomposition

Lossy Decomposition

In normalisation we generally break/decompose the table into 2 or more tables.

Consider there is a relation R,

Lossy decomposition occurs when a relation R is decomposed or broken into two
or more relations, but data is lost, and the original relation R can't be
reconstructed by joining these decomposed relations.

There are 2 rules for a decomposition to be lossy

1. Some data from the original relation R is lost after decomposition
2. Join of the decomposed relations(R1, R2..Rn) is not equal to the original relation
R
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A B C

Lossy and Lossless decomposition 1 2 3

Lossy decomposition 4 2 6

There is a relation R(A,B,C) R

Step 1: Lets decompose the relation based on any attribute and keep that
attribute as common, for now lets use B as common attribute
Decomposed relations: R1(A,B) and R2(B,C)

A B B C

1 2 2 3

4 2 2 6

R1 R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
A B C

Lossy and Lossless decomposition 1 2 3

Lossy decomposition 4 5 6

Step 2: Lets perform a natural join between R1 and R2 R

When we do R1 natural join R2 we won’t get the original relation back(lossy)

A B C
We can see some additional
1 2 3
tuples that were not in the
1 2 6 original relation R (lossy
decomposition)
4 2 3

4 2 6

R1 natural join R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Lossy and Lossless decomposition

Lossy decomposition
How to ensure a decomposition is lossless
1. Divide or decompose the table on basis of CK or SK present in the relation
so that there is no duplicacy
2. For a decomposition to be lossless
a. R1 U R2= R
b. R1 R2 = common attribute
3. To ensure that a decomposition is lossless, a common approach is to use
the dependency preservation property
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Lossy and Lossless decomposition

Lossless Decomposition

In normalisation we generally break/decompose the table into 2 or more tables.

Consider there is a relation R,

Lossless decomposition ensures that when a relation R is decomposed/breaked
into two or more relations, no data is lost, and the original relation R can be again
reconstructed by joining these decomposed relations.

There are 2 rules for a decomposition to be lossless

1. All data in the original relation R should be preserved after decomposition
2. Join of the decomposed relations(R1, R2..Rn)= original relation R
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Lossy and Lossless decomposition

Lossless Decomposition

So if the table is decomposed and we want to query the attributes present in both the
tables we will use the join operation.

Natural Join :
The natural join operation combines tuples(rows) from two relations based on
common attributes.
It only includes those combinations of tuples that have the same values for the
common attributes.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
A B C

Lossy and Lossless decomposition 1 2 3

Lossless decomposition 4 5 6

There is a relation R(A,B,C) with CK as A R

Step 1: Lets decompose the relation based on the CK or SK of the given R

Decomposed relations: R1(A,B) and R2(A,C)

A B A C

1 2 1 3

4 5 4 6

R1 R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
A B C

Lossy and Lossless decomposition 1 2 3

Lossless decomposition 4 5 6

There is a relation R(A,B,C) with CK as A R

Step 2: Lets perform a natural join between R1 and R2

When we do R1 natural join R2 we get the original relation back(lossless)

A B C

1 2 3

4 5 6

R1 natural join R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

4NF(Fourth Normal Form)

A relation is in 4NF if it satisfies the following conditions:

1. It is in BCNF
2. It has no multi-valued dependencies

Multivalued dependency :
A multi-valued dependency X→→Y X→→Z in a relation R(X,Y,Z) implies that for each value
of X, there is a set of values for Y and a set of values for Z that are independent of each
other.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

FourthNormal Form (4NF)

StudentId Course PhoneNbr

Student (StudentID, Course, PhoneNbr) 1 Math 123

1 Sci 123

StudentID->->Course (A student can take multiple 1 Math 345

courses)
1 Sci 345
StudentID->->PhoneNbr (A student can have
2 Hin 678
multiple PhoneNbr)
2 Eng 678

2 Hin 910

2 Eng 910
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
StudentId Course

StudentId Course PhoneNbr 1 Math

1 Math 123 1 Sci

1 Sci 123 2 Hin

1 Math 345 2 Eng

1 Sci 345

2 Hin 678
StudentId PhoneNbr
2 Eng 678
1 123
2 Hin 910
1 345
2 Eng 910
2 678

2 910

4NF
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

5NF(Fifth Normal Form) or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF)

A relation is in 5NF if it satisfies the following conditions:

1. It is in 4NF
2. The decomposition should be lossless.

Lossless decomposition : It ensures that when a relation R is decomposed/breaked into

two or more relations, no data is lost, and the original relation R can be again reconstructed
by joining these decomposed relations.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
A B C

Normalisation and its types 1 2 3

5NF(Fifth Normal Form) 4 5 6

There is a relation R(A,B,C) with CK as A R

Step 1: Lets decompose the relation based on the CK or SK of the given R

Decomposed relations: R1(A,B) and R2(A,C)

A B A C

1 2 1 3

4 5 4 6

R1 R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
A B C

Normalisation and its types 1 2 3

5NF(Fifth Normal Form) 4 5 6

There is a relation R(A,B,C) with CK as A R

Step 2: Lets perform a natural join between R1 and R2

When we do R1 natural join R2 we get the original relation back(lossless)

A B C

1 2 3

4 5 6

R1 natural join R2
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

How to find the highest Normal form of a given relation?

Step 1: Identify the candidate key for the given relation using FD and
closure method.
Step 2: Find the prime and non-prime attributes.
Step 3: Start checking for normal forms one by one according to their rule

BCNF
3NF
2NF
1NF
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Normalisation and its types

For a given relation R(A,B,C) with the following functional dependencies:

A→BC, B→C ,A→B, AB→C, B→A , find the highest normal form.

1. Find the CK for the given relation

C.K : A,B

2. Find prime and non-prime attributes

P.A={A,B}
N.P.A={C}

3. Checking for normal forms one by one according to their rule

 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
1. First Normal Form (1NF)
A relation is in 1NF if it contains only atomic values (no multivalued attributes).
Since we are assuming our relation R is in a standard relational model, it is already
in 1NF.

2. Second Normal Form (2NF)

A relation is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute is fully functionally
dependent on every candidate key of the relation(P.D ->LHS is a proper subset of
Candidate key AND RHS is a non-prime attribute).

A→BC = no partial dependency (A is a CK)

B→C = no partial dependency (B is a CK)
A→B= no partial dependency (A is a CK)
AB→C= no partial dependency (AB is a combination of candidate keys, Its SK)
B→A= no partial dependency (B is a CK) , R is in 2NF.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
3. Third Normal Form (3NF)
A relation is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transitive dependency exists.
X->Y (X is a superkey OR Y is a prime attribute if true no transitive dependency)

A→BC = no transitive dependency (A is a CK)

B→C = no transitive dependency (B is a CK)
A→B= no transitive dependency (A is a CK)
AB→C= no transitive dependency (AB is a combination of candidate keys, Its SK)
B→A= no transitive dependency (B is a CK) , R is in 3NF.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
4. BCNF
A relation is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and for every functional dependency X→Y, X is a
superkey.

A→BC = A is a CK
B→C = B is a CK
A→B= A is a CK
AB→C= AB is a combination of candidate keys, Its SK
B→A= B is a CK , R is in BCNF.

The highest normal form for the given relation R(A,B,C,D) is BCNF.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
How to normalise table

In normalisation we generally break/decompose the table into 2 or more tables.

Steps to normalize a table

1.Write down all the attributes of table, CK, Prime and non-prime attributes and start
analyzing with the FD.
2. For table to be in 1NF : Table should have atomic (indivisible) values and a primary key
3.For table to be in 2NF : No Partial dependency(LHS proper subset of CK and RHS non-
prime attribute should be false)
4. For table to be in 3NF : No transitive dependency(LHS must be a CK or RHS a prime
attribute should be true)
5. For table to be in BCNF : LHS must be a CK or SK
6. If it fails at any of these steps decompose the table on a common attribute which is CK
(lossless)
 1.Write down all the attributes of table, CK, PA,NPA and start analyzing with the FD.
2. For table to be in 1NF : Table should have atomic (indivisible) values and a primary key
3.For table to be in 2NF : No Partial dependency(LHS proper subset of CK and RHS non-
LET’S START WITH DBMS :) prime attribute should be false)
4. For table to be in 3NF : No transitive dependency(LHS must be a CK or RHS a prime
attribute should be true)

How to normalise table 5. For table to be in BCNF : LHS must be a CK or SK

6. If it fails at any of these steps decompose the table on a common attribute which is CK
(lossless)

R(A,B,C,D) and assume we have the following functional dependencies:

A→B, B→C, C->D
Step 1 : ABCD , CK-> A , Prime Attribute={A} , Non-Prime Attribute ={B,C,D}

Step 2: ABCDE, Since we are assuming our relation R is in a standard relational model, it is
already in 1NF

Step 3 : Check for 2NF

A→B=(no pd as A is not a proper subset of CK and B is non prime(False and True=false))
B→C=(no pd as B is not a proper subset of CK and C is non prime (False and True=false))
C->D=(no pd as C is not a proper subset of CK and D is non prime (False and True=false))
 1.Write down all the attributes of table, CK, PA,NPA and start analyzing with the FD.
2. For table to be in 1NF : Table should have atomic (indivisible) values and a primary key
3.For table to be in 2NF : No Partial dependency(LHS proper subset of CK and RHS non-
LET’S START WITH DBMS :) prime attribute should be false)
4. For table to be in 3NF : No transitive dependency(LHS must be a CK or RHS a prime
attribute should be true)

How to normalise table 5. For table to be in BCNF : LHS must be a CK or SK

6. If it fails at any of these steps decompose the table on a common attribute which is CK
(lossless)

ABCD , CK-> A , Prime Attribute={A} , Non-Prime Attribute ={B,C,D}

Step 4 : Check for 3NF

A→B=(no td as LHS is a CK)
B→C=(td is there as LHS is not CK and RHS non-prime)
C->D=(td is there as LHS is not CK and RHS non-prime)

So lets decompose the table

R1(A,B), R2(B,C), R3(C,D)
 1.Write down all the attributes of table, CK, PA,NPA and start analyzing with the FD.
2. For table to be in 1NF : Table should have atomic (indivisible) values and a primary key
3.For table to be in 2NF : No Partial dependency(LHS proper subset of CK and RHS non-
LET’S START WITH DBMS :) prime attribute should be false)
4. For table to be in 3NF : No transitive dependency(LHS must be a CK or RHS a prime
attribute should be true)

How to normalise table 5. For table to be in BCNF : LHS must be a CK or SK

6. If it fails at any of these steps decompose the table on a common attribute which is CK
(lossless)

ABCD , CK-> A , Prime Attribute={A} , Non-Prime Attribute ={B,C,D}

Step 4 : Check for BCNF

R1(AB) A→B=(A is a candidate key OR a super key, so R1 is in BCNF)
R2(BC) B→C=(B is a candidate key OR a super key, so R2 is in BCNF)
R3(CD) C->D=(C is a candidate key OR a super key, so R3 is in BCNF)

Now, all decomposed relations R1, R2, and R3 are in BCNF

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Minimal cover of Functional Dependency

Why Do We Need to Find Minimal Cover?

It is a simplified version of the original set of functional dependencies

1. It helps to remove redundant functional dependencies.
2. It reduces the complexity of the functional dependencies.
3. It ensures that there are no unnecessary dependencies, which can lead to
anomalies in database operations (insertion, deletion, and update).
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Minimal cover of Functional Dependency

How to Find Minimal Cover?

Step 1: Decompose FDs (RHS) i.e X->AB can be written as X->A, X->B

Step 2: Remove Redudant FD.

a. Make a new FD set excluding the one you feel is redudant
b. Now find the closure of LHS from the rest of the FD and see if it determines
all the attributes of a table, if yes you can remove that, if no jump to the next
one.

Step 3: Remove unnecessary attributes from LHS, if the determinant is a super

key, it can be reduced to CK (minimal super key)
 Step 1: Decompose FDs (RHS) i.e X->AB can be written as X->A, X->B

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) Step 2: Remove Redudant FD.

a. Make a new FD set excluding the one you feel is redudant
b. Now find the closure of LHS from the rest of the FD and see if it determines

Find Minimal Cover FD: A→BC , B→C, A→B, AB→C all the attributes of a table, if yes you can remove that, if no jump to the next
one.

Step 1 : A->B, A->C, B->C, A->B, AB->C Step 3: Remove unnecessary attributes from LHS, if the determinant is a super
key, it can be reduced to CK (minimal super key)
FD: A->B, A->C, B->C, AB->C
3. For B->C
Step 2 : FD: A->B, AB->C
1. For A->B B+={B},since B+ doesn’t have all the
FD: A->C, B->C, AB->C attributes we shouldn’t discard this
A+={A,C} since A+ doesn’t have all the attributes we
shouldn’t discard this 4. For AB->C
FD: A->B, B->C
2. For A->C
AB+={A,B,C} since AB+ have all the
FD: A->B, B->C, AB->C
attributes we can discard this
A+={A,B,C}, since A+ have all the attributes we can
discard this

Therefore, the minimal cover of the given functional dependencies is:

{A→B,B→C}
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Equivalence of Functional Dependencies

Equivalence of Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependency: A functional dependency X→Y holds on a relation

R if, for any two tuples t1 and t2 in R, whenever
t1[X]=t2[X], then t1[Y]=t2[Y]

Two sets of functional dependencies, F and G, are equivalent if the following

conditions hold:
1. F implies G : Every functional dependency in G can be derived from F.
2. G implies F: Every functional dependency in F can be derived from G.
If both conditions are true, then we say that F and G are equivalent.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Equivalence of Functional Dependencies

How to find if two FD are equivalent

Step 1: Compute the Closure of both the sets

Step 2: Ensure that every functional dependency in set1 is in set2 closure
Step 3: Ensure that every functional dependency in set2 is in set1 closure
Step 4: If both subset checks pass, then set1 and set2 are equivalent.
 Step 1: Compute the Closure of both the sets
Step 2: Ensure that every functional dependency in set1 is in set2 closure

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) Step 3: Ensure that every functional dependency in set2 is in set1 closure
Step 4: If both subset checks pass, then set1 and set2 are equivalent.

Equivalence of Functional Dependencies

Consider two sets of functional dependencies: F={A→B,B→C} , G={A→C,A→B}

Check if F and G are equivalent

F={A→B,B→C} G={A→C,A→B}
Closure of F, attributes -> A,B,C Closure of G, attributes -> A,B,C
A+={A,B,C} A+={A,C,B}
B+={B,C} B+={B}
C+={C} C+={C}

F and G are not equivalent because B→C is not implied by G

 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Transaction And Concurrency control

Transaction is a logical unit of work that comprises one or more database operations(like
Read/write/commit/rollback) . In a transaction both read and write operations are
fundamental actions that ensure ACID properties of transactions (data consistency and
integrity)
Read(R)-> A read operation involves retrieving/fetching data from the database.
Write(W)->A write operation in a transaction involves modifying data in the database

Swiggy Order Payment page enter bank details otp network failure rollback
/issues

Order done No network failure

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Consider an example of a banking application where a customer Ram wants to
transfer 100rs to Shyam
Step 1: Begin Transaction
Step 2: The application will fetch/read the current bal of the Ram-> R(Ram)
Step 3: The application will calculate the new balances after the transfer ->
Ram=Ram-100
Step 4: Update it in the temporary Storage/transaction logs-> W(Ram)
Step 5: The application will fetch/read the current bal of the Shyam-> R(Shyam)
Step 6: The application will calculate the new balances after the transfer->
Shyam=Shyam+100
Step 7 : Update it in the temporary Storage /transaction logs-> W(Shyam)
Step 8: If all updates are successful and there are no errors, commit the transaction
to make the changes permanent. Logs are maintain till the occurence of commit, after
that log files are deleted and database is updated till step7 ->COMMIT
Step 9: If an error occurs during any step rollback the transaction to revert changes
made within the transaction.-> ROLLBACK
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Transaction states
Case-1 Case-2
BEGIN
R(Ram) ACTIVE ACTIVE
Ram=Ram-100
W(Ram)
R(Shyam)
Shyam=Shyam+100
W(Shyam) PARTIALLY COMMITED
COMMIT SUCCESSFUL FAILED
ROLLBACK CANCELLED/ROLLBACK
COMPLETED COMPLETED
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Transaction And Concurrency control

Concurrency control ensures that multiple transactions can run concurrently without
compromising data consistency.

Example : Consider a banking system where two transactions are happening concurrently
1. Ram giving Shyam 100rs
2. Shyam giving Ram 50rs , the data should be consistent for both transactions

Some techniques used here are:

Locking
Two-Phase Locking (2PL)
Timestamp Ordering
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
ACID Properties

ACID properties are the properties which ensures that transactions are processed reliably
and accurately, even in complex situations(sytem failures/network issues)

A-> Atomicity (Either execute all operations or none)

C-> Consistency (Read should fetch upto date data and write shouldn’t voilate
integrity constraints)
I-> Isolation (One transaction should be independent of other transaction)
D-> Durability (The commited transaction should remain even after a failure/crash)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
ACID Properties

A-> Atomicity: It ensures that a transaction is treated as a single unit of work

Either all operations are completed successfully (commit) or none of them are applied
(rollback).

This guarantees that the database remains in a consistent state despite any failures or
interruptions during the transaction.

Ex :Consider Ram is transferring money to Shyam. The transaction must deduct the amount from
the Ram’s account and add it to the Shyam's account as a single operation.
If at any moment or at any part, this transaction fails (e.g., due to insufficient funds/system
error/network error), the entire transaction is rolled back, ensuring that none of the accounts is
affected partially.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
ACID Properties

C-> Consistency: It ensures that

1.Read operations retrieve consistent and up-to-date data from the database, and
2.Write operations ensure that data modifications maintain database constraints( such as
foreign key relationships or unique constraints so that that data remains accurate)

It guarantees that the database remains in a consistent state before and after the
execution of each transaction.

Ex: Consider you had 100rs in your account but you want 50rs cash, so you
transferred 50rs to a person X and he gave you 50rs cash.
Before transaction- 100rs(in acc)
After transaction- 100rs( 50rs in acc+ 50 rs cash)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
ACID Properties

I-> Isolation : It ensures that if there are two transactions 1 and 2, then the changes
made by Transaction 1 are not visible to Transaction 2 until Transaction 1 commits.

While the transaction is reading data, the dbms ensures that the data is consistent and
isolated from other transactions. This means that other transactions cannot modify the
data being read by the current transaction until it is committed or rolled back.

Ex : A= 40rs (in DB)

Transaction 1 : Update value of A to 50rs
Transaction 2 : Read/get/Fetch value of A

If Transaction 1 is committed acc to Transaction 2 the value of A=50rs

If Transaction 1 is PENDING/RUNNING acc to Transaction 2 the value of A=40rs
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
ACID Properties
D-> Durability : It ensures that once you save your data (commit a transaction), it stays
saved, even if the system crashes or there is a power failure. Your data is always safe and
won't disappear after you save as committed transactions are not lost.

Most DBMS use a technique called Write-Ahead Logging (WAL) to ensure durability.
Before modifying data in the database, the DBMS writes the changes to a transaction log
(often stored on disk) in a sequential manner. This ensures that if there is a failure event, the
database can recover to a consistent state.

Ex : Consider if your are transferring 100rs to your friend and there is a sudden power outage
or the system crashes right after the transaction is committed, the changes (the transfer of
100) will still be saved in the database. When the system is back up, both your account and
your friend's account will reflect the updated balances.
 T1 T2

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R R

Isolation levels and its types R W

W R

W W

Why do we need to learn about isolation level?

In systems where multiple transactions are executed concurrently, isolation levels manage
the extent to which the operations of one transaction are isolated from those of other
transactions.

Isolation levels help prevent common transactional anomalies:

Dirty Read: Reading uncommitted data from another transaction.
Non-repeatable Read: Data changes after it has been read within the same transaction.
Phantom Read: New rows are added or removed by another transaction after a query.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Isolation level : It determines the degree to which the operations in one transaction are
isolated from those in other transactions.

T2

Application

T1
DB
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Anamolies/Voilations to Isolation level

1. Dirty Read : Reading data written by a transaction that has not yet committed
Consider if T2 reads the data written by T1 and if T1 fails, it becomes irrelevant.

T1 T2

W(A)

R(A)
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Anamolies/Voilations to Isolation level

2. Non-Repeatable Read : Reading the same row twice within a transaction and getting
different values because another transaction modified the row and committed.

Consider if T2 modifies the data which T1 already Read and if T1 continue the transaction the
data will be changed T1 T2

R(A)

R(A)

W(A)

Commit

R(A)
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Anamolies/Voilations to Isolation level

3. Phantom Read : Getting different sets of rows in subsequent queries within the same
transaction because another transaction inserted or deleted rows and committed.

T1(Query(id))->Fetch the name

T2(Query(id)) -> Insert a new entry
T1(Query(id))->Fetch the name
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

There are 4 isolation levels which helps us with these anamolies:

Types of Isolation Levels
Read Uncommitted
Read Committed
Repeatable Read
Serializable
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Read Uncommitted: The lowest isolation level where transactions can see uncommitted
changes made by other transactions. If Transaction T1 is writing a value to a table,
Transaction T2 can read this value before T1 commits.

Dirty Reads: Yes

Non-Repeatable Reads: Yes
Phantom Reads: Yes
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Read Committed: It ensures that any data read during the transaction is committed at the
moment it is read. If T1 has done some write operation T2 can only read the data when T1 is
commited

Dirty Reads: No
Non-Repeatable Reads: Yes
Phantom Reads: Yes
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Repeatable Read: It ensures that if a transaction reads a row, it will see the same values for
that row during the entire transaction, even if other transactions modify the data and
commit. If Transaction T1 reads a value, Transaction T2 cannot modify that value until T1
completes. But T2 can insert new rows that T1 can see on subsequent reads.

Dirty Reads: No
Non-Repeatable Reads: No
Phantom Reads: Yes
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Isolation levels and its types

Serializable: It ensures a serial transaction execution, so that there is complete isolation.

If Transaction T1 is executing, Transaction T2 must wait until T1 completes

Dirty Reads: No
Non-Repeatable Reads: No
Phantom Reads: No
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
Schedule : It refers to the sequence in which a set of concurrent/multiple transactions are
executed. You can also say it as a sequence in which the operations (such as read, write,
commit, and abort) of multiple transactions are executed. It is really helpful to ensure data
consistency and integrity.
If there are T1, T2, T3....TN (n) transactions then the possible schedules= n! ( n factorial)

Ex : Schedule sc1 T1 T2

R(A)

R(A)

W(A)

Commit

Commit
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
Incomplete schedule : An incomplete schedule is one where not all transactions have
reached their final state of either commit or abort.
T1 T2

T1:Read(A) R(A)

T1:Write(A)
W(A)
T2:Read(B)
T2:Write(B) R(B)

T2:COMMIT W(B)

Commit
Here, T1 is still in progress as there is no COMMIT for transaction T1.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
Complete schedule : A complete schedule is one where all the transactions in the schedule
have either committed or aborted.
T1 T2

T1:Read(A) R(A)

T1:Write(A)
W(A)
T1:COMMIT
T2:Read(B) Commit

T2:Write(B) R(B)
T2:COMMIT
W(B)

Commit
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
Types of Schedule
1. Serial Schedule
2. Concurrent or Non-Serial Schedule
3. Conflict-Serializable Schedule
4. View-Serializable Schedule
5. Recoverable Schedule
6. Irrecoverable Schedule
7. Cascadeless Schedule
8. Cascading Schedule
9. Strict Schedule
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
1.Serial Schedule : A serial schedule is one where transactions are executed one after
another. We can say it like if there are two transactions T1 and T2, T1 should commit to
completeion before T2 starts.
T1 T2

Example : T1->T2 R(A)

T1:Read(A) W(A)
T1:Write(A)
T1:COMMIT(T1) Commit

T2:Read(B) R(B)

T2:Write(B)
W(B)
T2:COMMIT(T2)
Commit

T2 starts only after T1 is completed/ commited.

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
Serial Schedule
Advantages :
1. It follows the ACID properties. Transactions are isolated from each other.
2. It maintains consistency.

Challenges:
1. Since there is poor throughput(no of transactions completed per unit time) and memory
utilisation, this is not suggested as it can be can be inefficient.
2. Since wait time is high, less no of transactions are completed.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
2. Non-Serial/Concurrent Schedule : A non-serial schedule is one where multiple
transactions can execute simultaneously(operations of multiple transactions are
alternate/interleaved executions). We can say it like if there are two transactions T1 and T2,
T2 doesn’t need to wait for T1 to commit, it can start at any point.

T1 T2 T3
Example : T1 ,T2, T3
R(A)

R(A)

R(B)

W(A)

COMMIT

T2 didn’t waited for T1 to commit COMMIT

LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
Non-Serial Schedule
Advantages :
1. Better resource utilization
2. Wait time is not involved. One transaction doesn’t needs to wait for the running one to
finish.
3. Throughput(no of transactions completed per unit time) is high

Challenges:
1. Consistentcy issue may arise because of non-serial execution. It requires robust
concurrency control mechanisms to ensure data consistency and integrity.
2. We can use Serializability and Concurrency Control Mechanisms to ensure consistency.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
3. Conflict-Serializable Schedule : A schedule is conflict-serializable if it can be
transformed into a serial schedule by swapping adjacent non-conflicting operations.

R(A) T1 & R(A) T2: No conflict (both reads) T1 T2

R(A) T1 & W(A) T2: RW conflict (T2 reads A after T1 writes A)

R(A)
W(A) T1 & W(A) T2: WW conflict (both write to A)
R(A)

Conflict pairs : Read-Write, Write-Read , Write- W(A)

Write(perfomed on the same data item)

W(A)
Non-conflict pairs :
Read-Read (perfomed on the same data item), W(B)

Read-Read (perfomed on the different data item),

Write-Write(perfomed on the different data item)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
4. View-Serializable Schedule :
View serializability ensures that the database state
seen by transactions in a concurrent schedule can be T1 T2
replicated by some serial execution of those
R(A)
transactions.
R(A)

When we find cycle in our conflict graph, we don’t know

W(B)
if our schedule is serializable or not, so we use the view
serializability here. W(A)

A schedule is view serializable if it’s view equivalent is

equal to a serial schedule/execution.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
5. Recoverable Schedule : A recoverable schedule ensures that if a transaction reads
data from another transaction, it should not commit until the transaction from which it
read has committed. This helps in maintaining the integrity of the database in case a
transaction fails.
T1 T2

R(A)

W(A)

R(A)

W(A)

COMMIT

COMMIT
Recoverable Schedule
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
6. Irrecoverable Schedule : An irrecoverable schedule allows a transaction to commit even
if it has read data from another uncommitted transaction. This can lead to inconsistencies
and make it impossible to recover from certain failures.
T1 T2

R(A)

W(A)

R(A)

W(A)

COMMIT

FAIL

Irrecoverable Schedule
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
7. Cascading Schedule : This schedule happens when the failure or abort of one transaction
causes a series of other transactions to also abort.
T1 T2 T3
T1 Writes to A: T1 writes to data item A
T2 Reads A: T2 reads the uncommitted value of A R(A)

written by T1 W(A)

R(A)
Now, if T1 fails and aborts, T2 must also abort because it
has read an uncommitted value from T1. R(A)

Consequently, T3 must abort as well Fail

Cascading Schedule
Issues:
1. Performance degradation because multiple transactions need to be rolled back
2. Improper CPU resource utilisation
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
8. Cascadeless Schedule : It ensures transactions only read committed data, such that the
abort of one transaction does not lead to the abort of other transactions that have already
read its uncommitted changes. T1 T2 T3
T1 Writes to A: T1 writes to data item A
T2 Reads A: T2 reads the committed value of A R(A)

Ensuring there is no write read problem(dirty read) W(A)

Also, T2 does not read any uncommitted data,

Commit
there are no cascading aborts in this schedule.
R(A)

Issues : R(A)

1. Write-Write problem is encountered.

2. Performance overhead is there Cascadeless Schedule
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Schedule and its Types
9. Strict Schedule : It ensures transaction is not allowed to read or write a data item that
another transaction has written until the first transaction has either committed or aborted.
It prevents cascading aborts.
T1 T2

T2 cannot read or write the value of A until R(A)

T1 has committed. W(A)

This ensures that T2 only sees the committed value

Commit
of A
R(A)

W(A)

COMMIT

Strict Schedule
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Concurrent VS Parallel Schedule

For Concurrent Parallel

Parallel scheduling runs multiple tasks

Concurrent scheduling manages multiple tasks at the same
simultaneously using multiple cores or
Defination time. Tasks can overlap in their execution periods but do not
processors. Each task is executed on a separate
run exactly simultaneously.
core or processor at the same time.

Achieved on a single-core processor through context Requires a multi-core processor or multiple

Execution switching, where the CPU rapidly alternates between tasks, processors, with each core/processor handling a
creating the illusion of simultaneous execution. different task concurrently.

Multi-threading on a single-core CPU, where threads take Multi-threading on a multi-core CPU, where
Example
turns using the CPU. threads run concurrently on different cores.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Serializability and its types
Serializability: It ensures that concurrent transactions yield results that are consistent with
some serial execution i.e the final state of the database after executing a set of transactions
concurrently should be the same as if the transactions had been executed one after another
in some order.

In case of concurrent schedule consistentcy issue may arise because of non-serial

execution and we do serializability there, serial schedules are aready serial
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Consider nodes as transactions, and edges represent conflicts and detect if the
resulting graph has cycles.
T1 T2 T1 T2 Nodes: T1, T2
Edges : T1->T2,
R(A) R(A)
T2->T1
W(A) R(A)
Cycle : Yes
Commit W(A)

R(A) W(A) T1 T2

W(A)

Coomit
SERIAL SCHEDULE CONCURRENT SCHEDULE
A concurrent schedule does not always have a cycle.
A concurrent schedule can be conflict-serializable, meaning that it is equivalent to some serial schedule of
transactions and its conflict graph does not have any cycles.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Now, since a cycle is detected we need to serialize them
T1 T2
So, we use the serializibilty here
R(A)
T1 T2 Conflict-Serializability-> to detect the cycle using
conflict graph
R(A)
View-Serializability-> to check if schedule is
W(A)
serializable after a cycle is detected.
W(A)

Why serializing them?

To avoid consistentcy issue which may arise because
CONCURRENT SCHEDULE of non-serial execution
Nodes: T1, T2
Edges : T1->T2, T2->T1
Cycle : Yes
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Serializability and its types
Types of Serializability
Conflict-Serializability
View-Serializability
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Conflict-Serializability
Serializibility : Serializability is a property of a schedule where the outcome is equivalent to
some serial execution of the transactions.

Conflict-Serializability : A schedule is said to be conflict serializable when one of its

conflict equivalent is serializabe. So basically, if a schedule can be transformed into a serial
schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations, then the schedule is conflict serializable.

Conflict equivalent : If a schedule S1 is formed after swapping adjacent non-conflicting

operations/pairs in a given schedule S, then S1 and S are conflict equivalent.

Conflict pairs : Read-Write, Write-Read , Write-Write(perfomed on the same data item)

Non-conflict pairs : Read-Read (perfomed on the same data item), Read-Read (perfomed on
the different data item), Write-Write(perfomed on the different data item)
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Conflict-Serializability

Non- Conflict pairs Conflict pairs

R(A) R(A) R(A) W(A)

R(B) R(A) W(A) R(A)

W(A) R(A) W(A)

W(B) W(B) W(A)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Conflict-Serializability
How to achieve conflict equivalent schedule :
When a schedule can be transformed into a serial schedule by swapping adjacent non-
conflicting operations. Conflicts arise when two transactions access the same data item, and
at least one of them is a write operations.

Now, why are we only swapping the non-conflict pairs and not the conflict ones?
So if we swap the conflict pairs, the order of exceution if it was
T1 : R(A)
T2: W(A)
the results values may change as first we were reading A and then writing/modifying it, but
now it will be writing A and then reading the modified value so the result might change if we
change the order of execution.
LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Conflict-Serializability

Q. Find a conflict equivalent for a schedule S1

T1 T2

R(X)

W(X)

S1
R(X)

R(Y)

W(Y)

R(Y)
 T1 T2

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R(X)

Conflict-Serializability W(X)

R(X)
Q. Find a conflict equivalent for a schedule S1
R(Y)

1. Find the adjacent non-conflicting pairs and do a swap W(Y)

T2 : R(X) T1: R(Y) T1 T2 R(Y)

R(X)

S1
W(X)

R(Y)

R(X)

W(Y)

R(Y)
 T1 T2

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R(X)

Conflict-Serializability W(X)

R(Y)

Q. Find a conflict equivalent for a schedule S1

R(X)

2. After the first swap again search for adjacent non-conflicting W(Y)

pairs and swap if any T1 T2

R(Y)

T2 : R(X) T1: W(Y)

R(X)
S1 after swap
W(X)
So, S1 is a serializable
schedule R(Y)

as S1' has a serial W(Y)

execution(i.e its conflict

R(X)
equivalent)
R(Y)
 When done on the same data item

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) Read-Write (RW) Conflict

Write-Read (WR) Conflict
Conflict-Serializability Write-Write (WW) Conflict

How to check whether a schedule is conflict-serializable or not?

Conflicts occur when two operations from different transactions access the same
data item and at least one of them is a write operation.

Conflict graph/ precedence graph : A conflict graph, or precedence graph, is a

directed graph used to determine conflict serializability. The nodes represent
transactions, and the edges represent conflicts between transactions
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Conflict-Serializability

Conflict graph/ precedence graph:

Nodes: Each transaction in the schedule is represented as a node in the graph.

Edges: An edge from transaction T(X) to transaction T(Y)(denoted T(X)→T(Y)) is added if

a. an operation of T(X) conflicts with an operation of T(Y) and
b.T(X) operation precedes T(Y) operation in the schedule.

Cycle Detection: The schedule is conflict-serializable if and only if the conflict graph is
acyclic. If there are no cycles in the graph, it means that the schedule can be serialized
without violating the order of conflicting operations.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
Conflict-Serializability

Q. Check if the given schedule is conflict-serializable or not?

T1 T2 T3 T1 reads A
T2 reads A
R(A)
T1 writes A
R(A) T3 writes A
W(A)
T2 writes B
T3 reads B
W(A)

W(B)

R(B)
 T1 T2 T3

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R(A)

Conflict-Serializability R(A)

Q. Check if the given schedule is conflict-serializable or not? W(A)

Step 1: Find the conflict in the schedule W(A)

RW Conflict (T1, T3) on A

W(B)
RW Conflict (T2, T3) on A
RW Conflict (T2.T1) on A R(B)
WW Conflict (T1, T3) on A
WR Conflict( T2.T3) on B
Write-Write conflict Write-Read conflict
Step 2: Find the nodes W(B) - W(B) W(B) - R(B)
W(A)-W(A) W(A)-R(A)
Each transaction T1 T2, T3 is a node in the graph
Read-write conflict
Step 3: Find the edges/conflicts R(B) - W(B)
R(A)-W(A)
T1→T3: Because T1 reads A before T3 writes A.
T2→T3: Because T2 reads A before T3 writes A
T1→T3: Because T1 writes A before T3 writes A.
T2→T3: Because T2 writes B before T3 reads B.
T2->T1 : Because T2 reads A before T1 writes A.
 T1 T2 T3

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R(A)

Conflict-Serializability R(A)

Q. Check if the given schedule is conflict-serializable or not? W(A)

Step 4 : Draw the graph W(A)

edges
T2→T1 W(B)
T1 T2 T1→T3
T2→T3 R(B)

T3

Step 5 : If the graph has cycle it is not confliict-serializable or serializable, if not

lets find the serial execution of transactions

Since the conflict graph is acyclic, the schedule is conflict-serializable

 T1 T2 T3

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R(A)

Conflict-Serializability R(A)

Q. Check if the given schedule is conflict-serializable or not? W(A)

Step 6 : Lets find the serial execution of transactions T1 T2 W(A)

Possible combinations are : edges
W(B)
T1->T2->T3 T3 T2→T1
T1->T3->T2 T1→T3 R(B)
T2->T1->T3 T2→T3
T2->T3->T1
T3->T2->T1
T3->T1->T2

Find the indegree(the number of edges directed into that node) and if its 0 it can be the first in serial
execution
T1 - 1 ,T2- 0, T3- 2 , T2 would be the first as indegree is 0
T2 must precede T1
T1 must precede T3
Therefore, one possible equivalent serial schedule is T2→T1→T3.
 T1 T2

LET’S START WITH DBMS :) R(A)

View-Serializability R(A)

View serializability ensures that the database state seen by W(A)

transactions in a concurrent schedule can be replicated by some W(A)

serial execution of those transactions.

When we find cycle in our conflict graph, we don’t know if our

schedule is serializable or not, so we use the view serializability here.

A schedule is view serializable if it’s view equivalent is equal to a serial

schedule/execution.
 LET’S START WITH DBMS :)
View-Serializability

Conditions for View Equivalent schedule

For a schedule to be view-Equivalent it should follow the following conditions
1.Initial Read Values:
An initial read of both schedules must be identical. For example, consider two schedules, S and S’. If, in
schedule S, transaction T1 reads the data item A, then in schedule S’, transaction T1 should also read A.

T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3

R(A) W(A)

S W(A) R(A) S’

W(B) W(B)
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View-Serializability

Conditions for View Equivalent schedule

2.Updated Read:
In schedule S, if Ti is reading B which is updated by Tj then in S’ also, Ti should read B which is updated
by Tj.

T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3

W(B) R(A)

S S’
R(B) W(B)

R(A) R(B)
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View-Serializability

Conditions for View Equivalent schedule

3. Final Update
A final write must be identical in both schedules. If, in schedule S, transaction Ti is the last to update A,
then in schedule S’, the final write operation on A should also be performed by Ti

T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3

W(A) R(A)

S S’
R(A) W(A)

W(A) W(A)
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View-Serializability

The number of possible serial schedules for n transactions is given by the number of permutations of the
transactions: n!

Q.Find the view equivalent schedule

T1 T2 T3

R(A)

W(A)

W(A)

W(A)
LET’S START WITH DBMS :) T1 T2 T3

R(A)
View-Serializability
W(A)
Step 1: Find if conflict serializable or not.
W(A)
Step 2: Find the possible serial schedules -> 3!
Step 3: Choose one possibility and check for view equivalent W(A)

conditions (T1->T2->T3)

1. Initial Read -> T1

2. Update Read-> No read performed after update so no need to
check
3. Final Update-> T3
Step 4: If the view equivalent schedule matches the condition, it is
view serializable.
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Concurrency control -> It is a process of mananging multiple users access and

modification in data simultaneously in shared or multi-user database systems.

How it helps?
1. Data Consistency: Ensures that data remains accurate and reliable despite
concurrent access.
2. Isolation: Maintains the isolation property of transactions, so the outcome of a
transaction is not affected by other concurrently executing transactions.
3. Serializability: Ensures that the result of concurrent transactions is the same as if
the transactions had been executed serially
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Concurrency control mechanisms are techniques used in DBMS to ensure that

transactions are executed concurrently without leading to inconsistencies in the
database. In serializability we check if a schedule is serializable or not but in concurrency
control we use certain techniques to make a schedule serializable.

Why its needed?

Lost Updates: When two or more transactions update the same data simultaneously,
one of the updates might be lost. For example, if two users modify the same record
at the same time, the changes made by one user could overwrite the changes made
by the other. (WW)

Dirty Reads: When a transaction reads data that has been modified by another
transaction but not yet committed. If the first transaction rolls back, the other
transaction will have read invalid data. (WR)
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Uncommitted Dependency (Dirty Writes): When a transaction modifies data that

has been read by another transaction, leading to inconsistencies if one of the
transactions rolls back.

Inconsistent Retrievals (Non-repeatable Reads): Happens when a transaction

reads the same data multiple times and gets different values each time because
another transaction is modifying the data in between the reads.

Phantom Reads: Occurs when a transaction reads a set of rows that satisfy a
condition, but another transaction inserts or deletes rows that affect the set
before the first transaction completes. This results in the first transaction reading
different sets of rows if it re-executes the query.
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Some common concurrency control mechanisms are :

Lock-Based Protocols(2PL, Strict 2PL, Rigorous 2PL , Conservative 2PL)
Timestamp-Based Protocols (Basic Timestamp Ordering (TO))
Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC)
Multiversion Concurrency Control (MVCC)
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Concurrency control mechanisms
Lock-Based Protocols
Types of Locks

a. Binary Locks: A simple mechanism where a data item can be either locked (in use) or
unlocked.If a thread tries to acquire the lock when it's already locked, it must wait until the
lock is released by the thread currently holding it.

b. Shared and Exclusive Locks

Shared Lock (S-lock): Allows multiple transactions to read a data item simultaneously
but prevents any of them from modifying it. Multiple transactions can hold a shared
lock on the same data item at the same time.

Exclusive Lock (X-lock): Allows a transaction to both read and modify a data item.
When an exclusive lock is held by a transaction, no other transaction can read or
modify the data item.
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Concurrency control mechanisms
Note : When a transaction acquires a shared lock on a data item, other transactions can also
acquire shared locks on that same item, enabling concurrent reads. However, no transaction
can acquire an exclusive lock on that item as long as one or more shared locks are held.

When a transaction acquires an exclusive lock on a data item, it has full control over that
item, meaning it can both read and modify it. No other transaction can acquire a lock on the
same data item until the exclusive lock is released.

Shared lock -> any no of transactions

Exclusive lock -> only one transaction should hold it at one time

While shared and exclusive locks are vital for maintaining data integrity and consistency in
concurrent environments, they can introduce significant challenges in terms of performance,
deadlocks, reduced concurrency, and system complexity.
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Concurrency control mechanisms
Drawbacks of shared-exclusive locks

Performance issues : Managing locks requires additional CPU and memory resources. The
process of acquiring, releasing, and managing locks can introduce significant overhead

Concurrency issues : Exclusive locks prevent other transactions from accessing locked
data, which can significantly reduce concurrency.

Starvation: Some transactions may be delayed if higher-priority transactions consistently

acquire locks before them, leading to starvation where a transaction never gets to proceed.

Deadlocks : Shared and exclusive locks can lead to deadlocks, where two or more
transactions hold locks that the other transactions need.

Irrecoverable : If Transaction B commits after the lock is release based on a modified value
in transaction A which fails after sometime.
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Concurrency control mechanisms
Deadlock : It is a situtaion when 2 or more transactions wait for one another to give up
the locks.
R1
Assigned to Waiting for

P1 P2

Waiting for Assigned to

R2
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Two-Phase Locking (2PL) : This protocol ensures serializability by dividing the execution
of a transaction into two distinct phases

Growing Phase: A transaction can acquire locks but cannot

release any. This phase continues until the transaction has
obtained all the locks it needs.

Shrinking Phase: After the transaction releases its first lock, it

can no longer acquire any new locks. During this phase, the
transaction releases all the locks it holds.

Any transaction which is following 2PL locking achieves serializability and consistency.
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Concurrency control mechanisms
Two-Phase Locking (2PL)

Advantages :
1. It guarantees that the schedule of transactions will be serializable, meaning the
results of executing transactions concurrently will be the same as if they were
executed in some serial order.
2. By ensuring that transactions are serializable, 2PL helps maintain data integrity and
consistency, which is critical in environments where data accuracy is essential.

Disadvantages :
1. Deadlocks, starvation and cascading rollbacks
2. Transactions must wait for locks to be released by other transactions. This can lead
to increased waiting times and lower system throughput.
3. In case of a system failure, recovering from a crash can be complex
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Strict Two-Phase Locking (Strict 2PL):

A stricter variant where exclusive locks are held until the transaction commits or aborts.
This helps prevent cascading rollbacks (where one transaction's rollback causes other
transactions to roll back).

Advantages:
Prevents Cascading Aborts
Ensures Strict Serializability

Disadvantages:
Since write locks are held until the end of the transaction, other transactions may be
blocked for extended periods
Transactions may experience longer wait times to acquire locks
Deadlocks and starvation is there
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Rigorous Two-Phase Locking:

An even stricter version where all locks (both shared and exclusive) are held until the
transaction commits. This guarantees strict serializability.

Advantages:
Since all locks are held until the end of the transaction, the system can easily ensure
that transactions are serializable and can be recovered
Prevents Cascading Aborts and Dirty Reads

Disadvantages:
Performance bottlenecks
Increased Transaction Duration
Deadlocks and starvation is there
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Conservative Two-Phase Locking:

Conservative Two-Phase Locking(Static Two-Phase Locking) is a variant of the standard
2PL protocol that aims to prevent deadlocks entirely by requiring a transaction to
acquire all the locks it needs before it begins execution.

If the transaction is unable to acquire all the required locks (because some are already
held by other transactions), it waits and retries. The transaction only starts execution
once it has successfully acquired all the necessary locks.

Since a transaction never starts executing until it has all the locks it needs, deadlocks
cannot occur because no transaction will ever hold some locks and wait for others

In this scenario, deadlocks cannot occur because neither T1 nor T2 starts execution until
it has all the locks it needs.
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Timestamp-Based Protocols: It assign a unique timestamp

Every transaction is assigned a unique timestamp when it enters the system. It is
used to order the transactions based on their Timestamps.

There are two important timestamps for each data item:

Read Timestamp (RTS): The last timestamp of any transaction that has
successfully read the data item.

Write Timestamp (WTS): The last timestamp of any transaction that has
successfully written the data item.

Transaction with smaller timestamp(Old) -> Transaction with larger timestamp(young)

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Concurrency control mechanisms
Timestamp-Based Protocols: It assign a unique timestamp
Rules : Consider if there are transactions performed on data item A.
R_TS(A) -> Read time-stamp of data-item A.
W_TS(A)-> Write time-stamp of data-item A.

1.Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Read (X) operation:
If W_TS(A) >TS(Ti) then the operation is rejected. (rollback Ti)
If W_TS(A) <= TS(Ti) then the operation is executed. (set R_TS(A) as the
max of (R_TS(A), TS(Ti)

2. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Write(X) operation:

If TS(Ti) < R_TS(A) then the operation is rejected. (rollback Ti)
If TS(Ti) < W_TS(A) then the operation is rejected and Ti is rolled back otherwise the
operation is executed. Set W_TS(A)=TS(Ti)
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Concurrency control mechanisms

Timestamp-Based Protocols: It assign a unique timestamp

Let's assume there are two transactions T1 and T2. Suppose the transaction T1 has entered
the system at 7:00PM and transaction T2 has entered the system at 7:05pm then T1 has
the higher priority, so it executes first as it is entered the system first. T1->T2
If younger has done a Read/Write and older wants to do Read/Write, thats a rollback case.
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Database recovery management

It involves strategies and processes to restore a database to a consistent

state after a failure or crash.

Types of Database Failures

Transaction Failure: Occurs when a transaction cannot complete successfully
due to logical errors or system issues (like deadlocks).

System Failure: Occurs when the entire system crashes due to hardware or
software failures, leading to loss of in-memory data.

Media Failure: Occurs when the physical storage (e.g., hard drives) is damaged,
resulting in data loss or corruption.
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Database recovery management
Recovery Phases
Analysis Phase: Identifies the point of failure and the transactions that were
active at that time.

Redo Phase: Reapplies changes from committed transactions to ensure the

database reflects all completed operations.

Undo Phase: Reverts the effects of incomplete transactions to maintain

consistency.
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Database recovery management

Recovery Techniques
Backup and Restore: Regular backups are taken to ensure data can be
restored. Full, incremental, and differential backups are common types.

Logging: Keeps a record of all transactions. The Write-Ahead Logging (WAL)

protocol ensures that logs are written before any changes are applied to the
database.

Shadow Paging: Maintains two copies of the database pages; one is

updated, and the other remains unchanged until the transaction commits.