Introduction to IT Ch-III

CHAPTER THREE
ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Objectives:
 What a computer system is and how it works to process data
What is a system?
System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a coordination fashion to achieve
some objective.
A computer system composed of components that are classified either as Computer hardware or Computer software.

Computer Hardware
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer hardware
refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data
storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc.
all of which are physical objects that can be touched.
What a computer in general does is, that
 It takes input(in various forms)
 Process it (according to a given set of instructions) and
 Produce an output (in required form).
Based on this the hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts. The different
hardware parts of a computer which are responsible for these operations are illustrated by the following model

Central Processing unit

INPUT ALU Control Unit

UNIT OUTPUT
UNIT

Registers

ROM
Primary Memory

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1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

At the center of computer hardware is the CPU, sometimes called the processor, which executes program instructions and
performs the computer’s processing actions. It is the part of a computer hardware that executes program instructions.
The CPU is the collection of electronic circuits made up of millions of transistors placed onto integrated circuits. Is the most
costly and main component of the computer system; Integrated circuits are also called chips or microchips.
Each transistor is an electrical switch that can be in one of two states “on” or “off”. Small transistors allow more transforms
to be packed on to one chip. This process, called integrating, brought about “PC revolution in the 1980’s. Integrating means
more of the CPU components can be placed onto a single chip, thus, eliminating the need for separate chips. Computer
processing is electronic. Hence we don’t see what is happening inside even if the cover is removed. No moving parts are
observed.
The CPU consists of:
 The Control Unit
 The Arithmetic Logic Unit and
 Main memory;
The three parts work together to electronically control the function of the computer. The different parts are interconnected by
a cable like device called BUS, which is used to facilitate communications between the parts. Buses are used to transfer data,
address and control code (signal).

The Control Unit

The control unit is like the human brain and it oversees and controls all of the activities of the computer. All computer
activities are carried out according to instructions the control unit receives. Instructions are detailed descriptions of the
actions to be carried out during input, processing, output, storage and transmission. As the name implies, it performs all the
control functions of the computer. It retrieves the instruction from memory. Translates those instructions into computer
functions and sends signals to other computer hardware units to carry out those functions. It is also responsible for
determining the next instruction to be executed by the computer.
In general it serves as the computer traffic cope. The control unit does not actually execute the instructions (just as the brain
does not do the walking or the talking); rather it instructs directs other processing elements to do so. The control unit tells the
rest of the computer system how to carry out a program's instructions. It directs the movement of electronic signals between:

SECONDARY
STORAGE DEVICE
 Main memory and the arithmetic/logic unit
 Main memory and the input and output devices

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The Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

It is referred as the computers "number crunchier". Is the other component of the CPU which contains the electronic circuitry
that performs the two activities that underline all computing capabilities -arithmetic operations and logical operations and
controls the speed of those operations.
 Arithmetic operations - are the Fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Logical operations - Compare one element of information with the other. The comparison determines whether one
information is greater than, less than or equal to the other. That is,
A = B, A > B, A < B, A>=B, A<=B.

Registers
Registers are special high-speed circuitry areas that temporarily store data during processing and provide working areas for
computation. Registers are contained in the processor and hold material to be processed immediately. Main memory, which
is outside the processor, holds material that will be used "a little bit later. Data and program instructions are loaded from
main memory into the registers just before processing.
Registers are paths or conduits that connect the Arithmetic Logical Unit to the main memory. When an instruction is loaded
from main memory, it is placed first in the register to wait instructions from the control unit. Data are also stored in registers
prior to execution in the ALU.

Main Memory/Primary Memory/RAM

Is that the memory which is directly accessible by the control unit and ALU; usually referred as Random Access Memory
(RAM), because each memory location can be accessed without having to work sequentially through hundreds or even
thousands of memory locations called addresses. Each memory location can be referred by its memory location (address);
Holds instructions and data elements which are currently being used by the computer. The data in the main memory while be
lost when the power is off.
Memory
 Memory also known as primary storage, main memory or internal memory is physically located close to the CPU
(to decrease access time). The CPU interacts closely with memory referring to it both for instructions and data and
information. However memory is separate from the CPU.
 Memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instructions and data. The chief feature
of memory is that it rapidly provides the data and instructions to the CPU.
Types of Memory
Main Memory is divided into two:
 Read Only Memory (ROM) and
 Random Access Memory (RAM).

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Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays
active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices
do not allow data stored on them to be modified.
 Nonvolatile chips always hold the same data; the data in them cannot be changed except through a special process
that overwrites the data.
 In fact, putting data permanently into this kind of memory is called "burning in the data," and it is usually done at
the factory.
 During normal use, the data in these chips is only read and used -not changed- so the memory is called read-only
memory (ROM).
 One important reason a computer needs ROM is that it must know what to do when the power is first turned on.
 Among other things, ROM contains a set of start-up instructions, which ensures that the rest of memory is
functioning properly, checks for hardware devices, and checks for an operating system on the computer's disk
drives.
Examples of ROM- PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory,
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within the computer
system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly
accessed by the processor as and when needed. It is volatile in nature, which means
that data will be erased once supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores
data randomly and the processor accesses these data randomly from the RAM
storage.
 A Memory that can be instantly changed is called read-write memory or random-access memory (RAM).
 When people talk about computer memory in connection with microcomputers, they usually mean the volatile
RAM.
 This type of memory is referred to as random-access memory because of its ability to access earth byte of data
directly.
 Actually, read-only memory (ROM) is "random access" as well, so the names for the two types of memory can be
misleading. It is best simply to remember that the data in ROM does not change while the data in RAM changes
constantly.
 RAM is not just used in conjunction with the computer's CPU. RAM can be found in various places in a computer
system.

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 The electronic circuits used to construct this main internal RAM can be classified as dynamic RAM (DRAM),
synchronized dynamic RAM (SDRAM), or static RAM (SRAM).
 DRAM, SDRAM, and SRAM all involve different ways of using transistors and capacitors to store data.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) gets its name from the fact that it must be refreshed frequently.
(The term refreshing means recharging the RAM chips with electricity.).
 DRAM chips must be recharging many times earth second, or they will lose their contents. Most PCs in use have
DRAM.
SDRAM (Synchronized DRAM) A computer can access data in SRAM more quickly than it can access data in DRAM or
SDRAM.
 However, the SRAM circuitry draws more power and generates more heat than DRAM or SDRAM The major
difference between SDRAM and DRAM arises from the way in which refresh circuitry is created.
 DRAM contains separate, independent circuitry to refresh memory. The refresh circuitry in SDRAM is
synchronized to use the same hardware clock as the CPU.
Static RAM does not need to be refreshed as often and can hold it longer than dynamic RAM.
 SRAM is also considerably faster than DRAM.
 Most DRAM technologies support access times of around 60 nanoseconds. (A nanosecond is one-billionth of a
second!) The term nanosecond is often abbreviated as ns.
 Faster SRAM chips support access times of around 10 nanoseconds. Consequently, SRAM is more expensive than
DRAM and is not used as frequently in PCS.
Cache Memory
Cache (computer), in computer science, an area of memory that holds frequently accessed data or program instructions for
the purpose of speeding a computer system's performance.
 A cache consists of ultra fast static random-access memory (SRAM) chips, which rapidly move data to the central
processing unit (the device in a computer that interprets and executes instructions).
 By making the cache larger, it is possible to hold more “frequently” used data.
 Older motherboards used from 128 KB to 256 KB of cache. Current motherboards use 512 KB to 1MB of cache
RAM.
 It is a bridge between a slow device and a fast device.
A hard disk controller with cache memory will store most recently used hard disk data on the cache.
 The CPU cache stores most-likely-to-be-needed-next data from the main memory so the CPU can gable it up quick
when the CPU is ready for another byte.
 Due to high price of a primary storage memory of a computer system, the need to have other type of storage to hold
large amount of data in a less expensive and yet accessible manner is evident.
Hence secondary storage device were created with this need in mind.

External /Secondary/mass Storage Devices

Primary storage is the section of the computer that holds data and information and instructions before and after processing. In
contrast, secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is a way of storing data and information outside the computer

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itself. Secondary storage is any storage medium that is external to the computer but that can be read by the computer. It
supplements the main storage. It is a long-term non-volatile memory.
 Unlike RAM it stores data after the computer is switched off. Unlike ROM, it is possible to write to the secondary
storage anytime. It is also used to transfer data and information from one computer to the other without the need to
connect the two computers. It is by far larger than the primary storage.
 Secondary storage’s can be categorized as magnetic and optical
The most common types of secondary storage are:
• Sequential Access Media
• Random Access Media

Sequential Access Medias

 Punched Cards
Punched cards are one of the oldest and most familiar forms of data storage. There are two types of punched cards, 80 –
columns and 96 – columns and the first one is a standard punched card. Using one card we can represent 80 characters.
 Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes are a particularly popular form of secondary storage because of their high data density (the number of bytes
of instruction per inch of tape) and their convenience in handling. Magnetic tapes are approximately one - half inch wide is
made of Mylar – based plastic film which can be magnetized. Data are stored on a magnetic tape by running the tape over the
electromagnetic called read/write head which magnetizes small spots on the tape.
Random Access Media
 Magnetic disk
Magnetic disks are metals or plastic platters coated with ferrous oxide, an easily magnetized material. Magnetic disks allow
for random access of information and overcome the slow access time commonly found in tape files.
 Refers to two types of disks
• Flexible disk (also known as flopping disks) which are made of flexible plastic and
• Hard disks, which are made of rigid aluminum
Magnetic disk storage is often called random access storage or direct access storage. That is to say, a particular record or
information can be obtained from any spot or track directly.
Floppy Disk
Similar to a hard disk, just a lot less dense; they usually store only data about 1.4 4MB. Floppy disks get their name because
their platter isn't made out of a hard material, but rather out of the same material that tapes are made out of.
The Hard Disk
The hard disk is like a big floppy disk with higher capacity. You don't take the disk out; it stays in the drive forever. Hard
disks can store data from 40MB to GB in capacity.
 Optical disk/storage
Optical storage devices use the principle of light to store information. Optical disks are storage medium from which data is
read and to which it is written by lasers. CD, DVD.
Compact Disks (CD)
Include: CD-R (Recordable) and CD-RW (Rewritable)

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Digital Video Disk (DVD)

DVD is a type of optical disc storage technology. A digital video disc (DVD), also known as digital versatile disk, looks like
a CD-ROM disc, but it can store greater amounts of data (as much as 17GB of data). DVDs are often used to store full-length
movies and other multimedia content that requires large amounts of storage space.
Include: DVD-R (Recordable) and DVD-RW (Rewritable)

Input Unit
 It is the unit used to enter data into the computer so that it can be processed.
 It converts information from a form suitable to human beings to one understandable by the computer.

Categories of Input Devices

Pointing Device – used to input commands

 Mouse: Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. It
is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface.
 Mouse can have as many as three buttons whose function depends on what program is running
Types of mouse
A. Mechanical-has a rubber or metal ball in its underside that can roll in all directions.
 Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling and move the screen pointer
accordingly
B. Opto-mechanical: same a mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect motion of the ball.

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C. Optical- uses a laser to detect the mouse’s movement.

 Mouse pad- is a pad on which you can move a mouse. It provides more traction than smooth surfaces such as
glass & wood, so they make it easier to move a mouse accurately.
 Mice are usually plugged into the serial port of your system unit. However, there are also wireless mice that use
infrared signals instead of a cable.
 On the bottom side of the mouse is a ball that translates the mouse movement into digital signals.
 On the top of the mouse are one to four buttons that perform various functions like clicking and dragging.
 Some mouse brands have a wheel between the buttons that allows the user to scroll through the contents of a
file.
 Trackball – similar to a mechanical mouse, but with the ball on top
 Touchpad – dark rectangle you use to move the cursor with your finger
 Pointing stick – a little rod, used mostly on notebooks
Game controller
 used for gaming to control screen action
 Gaming wheel – steering wheel and foot pedals for virtual driving
Keyboards
 most frequently used input devices for notebooks and desktops computers to enter information and commands
Stylus
 most frequently used input devices for PDAs and tablet PCs to enter information and commands
Scanners
 used to convert information that exists in visible form into electronic form
 Image scanner – captures images, photos, text, and artwork
 Bar code scanner – reads information in the form of vertical bars
 Optical mark reader – detects the presence or absence of a mark
 Optical character reader – reads characters that appear on paper or sales tag (used in POS systems)
 Biometric scanner – scans a human physical attribute, like a fingerprint or iris, for security purposes
Digital camera – captures still image or video as a series of 1s and 0s
 Digital still camera – digitally captures still images in varying resolutions
 Digital video camera – captures video digitally
 Webcam – captures digital video for the Web
Input devices also include:
 Disk derives (floppy and hard-disk derives)
 Voice synthesizer;
 CD-ROM Drive, etc.
Output Unit

Output is anything that comes out of a computer. The output may be a picture, text or image. An output device is
any machine capable of accepting and representing information from a computer

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 Used to get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or distributed to others.
 Convert the result of the only-machine understandable form to a form understandable by human beings.

Classification of output devices

Output Devices

Hard Copy
Soft Copy

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Hard Copy Output Devices

Printers

The most common output device you will encounter will be the printer. Printer is available in various forms, to suit the
needs of various types of users. A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and perhaps graphics on paper
hardcopy.
 Printers are categorized according to whether or not the image produced is formed by physical contact of the print
mechanism with the paper. Hence they classified as impact and non-impact printers.
 Impact printers have contact; non-impact printers do not.
1. Impact Printers
These types of printers form images by striking a mechanism such as a print hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon,
leaving an image on paper like a typewriter. Impact printers are dying out, though you might still run across a dot-matrix
printer.
Characteristics of Impact printers
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
 Relatively low consumable(ink ribbon,etc) costs
 Useful for bulky printing
Impact printers include:
 Dot matrix printers
 Daisy wheel printers
 Drum printers

2. Non-impact Printers

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Non-impact printers are faster and quieter than impact printers, and you find them almost everywhere these days.
 Non-impact printers form characters and images without direct physical contact between the printing mechanism
and the paper.
 Two types of non-impact printers often used with microcomputers:
 Laser printers
 Ink jet printers

Plotters
A plotter is a specialized output device designed to produce high-quality graphics in a variety of colors. Plotters are used for
creating large hardcopy items, such as maps, architectural drawings, and 3-D illustrations items typically too large for regular
printers.
 A plotter is an output device that draws pictures and images based on commands from a computer. They draw
charts, Graphs, line drawing and blue prints.
 It differs from printers in that it draws line using a pen. It can produce continuous lines.
 Printers, on other hand, draw lines by simulating lines by printing a closely spaced service of dots.
 Multicolor plotters use different color pens to draw different colors.
 Plotters are considerably more expensive than printers. They are used in engineering applications.
Visual Displays (Monitors)
 Monitors display softcopy output. Monitors run under the control of a graphics display adapter card plugged into an
expansion slot on the system board. The adapter allows information to leave the computer and appear on the
monitor.
 The Monitor can be:
1. Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs)
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used as a display screen in a computer or video display terminal. CRTs are the
most common softcopy output devices used with desktop computers; this is the same technology in standard TV sets. The
CRT's screen display is made up of small picture elements called pixels.
 A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen that can be turned on or off or made different shades. A stream of bits
defining the image is sent from the computer to the CRT's electron gun, where electrons are activated according to
the bit patterns.
 The front of the CRT screen is coated in phosphor so that when a beam of electrons from the electron gun hits the
phosphor, it lights up selected pixels to generate an image on the screen.

2. Flat-Panel Displays
Compared to CRTs, flat-panel displays are much thinner, weigh less, and consume less power.
Their biggest limitations are:
 Cost an LCD(Liquid-crystal display) for a desktop microcomputer costs 2-3 times as much as an equivalent
CRT monitor;
 Images are not always as good as CRT images; and
 Flat-panel images cannot be clearly viewed from an angle.

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 Flat-panel displays consist of two plates of glass separated by a substance that may be activated in
particular ways.
Monitor, display screen, video display terminal (VDT) is alternatively used to refer to the screen of the computer.
Monitors/VDT’s differ in size, color, resolution, bit mapping, and refresh rate and graphic standard.

Computer Software

System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the

individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system
see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as transferring
data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display.
The computer hardware is an electronic device, which has the potential of performing the task of solving a problem.
However, one has to give precise instructions to the hardware in order to solve problem.
The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job is called a program.
Any program to be executed first it should reside / loaded/ in the memory.

Software
It is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task using a computer.
 Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software makes the interface between the
user and the electronic components of the computer.
 The computer software is collection of set of instructions that instructs the computer hardware. These set of
instructions perform different functions; some deals with handling the computer hardware and the others perform
user specific tasks such as managing a database.
Therefore, the computer software is divided into two major categories:

1. System software and

2. Application software

System software
The system software handles the computer hardware so that the user can operate the computer with little knowledge about
the computer hardware. For example, the user is not concerned where the file is saved on the hard disk. This is the
responsibility of the system software to check the hard disk and space on the free space of the hard disk.
 Constitutes those programs which facilitate the work of the computer hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or are unable to handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more user friendly.
 It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of communication between user
and a computer.

The important categories of system software are:

• Operating system

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• Language software

Operating system
An operating system is a program that acts as the link between you, the computer’s software and hardware resources. It is the
foundation software onto which all other application programs are loaded. It is the master program of your system that allows
you, the user, to run application programs (Word Processors, Spreadsheets, Gamed, etc.)Without the operating system the
application software would be unable to function.
 Operating System software manages most of your computer’s activities, including the allocation of computer
resources, maintenance of files, and running of application software. As a file manager the operating system is used
to name, save, retrieve and maintain program and data files you create and use on your computer. As a resource
manager, the operating system controls the flow of information through your computer. Data accepted by the
keyboard, seen on the display, or sent to a printer are all under the control of the operating system.
 The first segment of the operating system software is contained in the ROM (firmware) of your computer. This
software tests the internal components and circuitry of the computer when it is turned on.
 After completing the Startup tests, the ROM-based software activated the next segment of the operating system
found on the disk.
Examples of operating system software include MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), MS-Windows, UNIX.
 “It is the first software we see when we turn on the computer, and the last software we see when the computer is
turned off.” It organizes and controls the hardware on our desks and in our hands.
The operating system allows you to concentrate on your own tasks or applications rather than on the complexities of
managing the computer.
An operating system has three major functions.
• Controlling operations (control program)
• Input/output Management
• Command Processing ( command Interpreter)
 Generally the operating system does six things
1. Processor management
2. Memory management
3. Device Management
4. Storage management
5. Application interface
6. User interface
7. Coordinating communications on Network

Language Software
It is software which is used by programmers to develop application software and translate programs to machine code.
 Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs that serve as editors & translators to develop
programs in a number of programming languages.

Application Software

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Application software is software developed to do user specific tasks such as word processing, spreadsheet and database
management. It is developed using the language software.
 Application software is a set of related programs designed to carry out certain tasks that fulfill users’ specific needs.

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