1 UNIT

Continuous Time
Signals and Systems

CONTENTS
Part-1 Introduction to
:
Continuous. **** 1-2D to 1-11D
Time and Discrete Time Signals,
Classification of Signals with
their Mathematical Representation
and Characteristics

Part-2 Transformation of Independent . . . 1-11D to 1-14D

Variable
Part-3 Introduction to Various Type of. 1-15D to 1-21D
System, Basic System Properties

Part-4 Analogous System : Linear and . 1-21D to 1-23D

Rotational Mechanical Elements

Part-5 Force-Voltage and Force-Current.. 1-24D to 1-31DD

Analogy, Modelling of Mechanical
and Electro-mechanical System

Part-6 Analysis of First and Second.. 1-31D to 1-33D

Order Linear System by
Classical Method

1-1D (EN-Sem-3)
1-2D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

PART-1
Introduction to Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals,
Classification of Signals with their Mathematical Representation
and Characteristics.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Aswer Type Questions

Que 1.1.What is signal ? Also explain continuous-time and

discrete-time signals.

Answer
Signal: It is a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any
other independent variable or variables. It gives the information about
behaviour or nature of the phenomenon.
B. Continuous-time signals:
1 The signals that are defined for every instant of time are known as
continuous-time signals.
2. Continuous-time signals are also called analog signals.
4. Fig. 1.1.1 shows the graphical representation of
continuous-time signals
x(t)

0
Fig. 1.1.1.
C. Discrete-time signals:
1 The signals that are defined only at discrete instants of time are known
as discrete-time signals.
2. Fig. 1.1.2 shows the graphical representation of discrete time signals.

Ax(n)

1
Fig. 1.12.
 1-3D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Signals and Systems

Que 1.2. Give the classification of signals.

OR
characteristics.
Classify signals according to signal

Answer
classified
of signals: The signals are broadly
as
Classification

Signals

Continuous-time signals (CT signals) Discrete-time signals (DT signals)

Deterministic Even and Periodic and Energy and Causal and

non-causal
and random odd signals non-periodic power
signals Signals signals
signals
Fig. 12.1.
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals: Refer Q. 1.1,
Page 1-2D, Unit-1.
2. Deterministic and random signals:
Deterministic signals can be completely specified in time. The pattern of
this signal is regular and can be characterized mathematically. So, its
future value at any instant can be determined easily.

For example:y(t) =b sin(Tt).

*()

Fig. 12.2.
i. Random signals take random values at any given time. The pattern of
this signal is irregular and it cannot be defined mathematically. So,
future value of these signals at any instant cannot be predicted.
For example: Noise.

x(t)

Fig. 13.3.

3. Even and odd sigmals:A signalx(t) or xln] is referred to as symmetric

or even signal if,
1-4D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems
x-t) x(t) or «l- n] xln]
= =

and referred to non-symmetric or odd signal if,

as

x-t) -x(t) or xl-n =-

z{n
=

x(t)
x(t)

0
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2.4. Example of () even signal and (6) odd signal.
4 Periodic and non-periodic signals :
A periodic signal repeats its pattern over a time period.
For continuous-time, xlt + T) = x{t) where, T is period of z(t).
For discrete-time, «ln + N] «ln) where, =
Nis period of x{n].
Axlt) 4xinl

-2T -T 4 (a)
T 2T-2N

Fig. 1.2.5. Examples of periodic signals.

..N
b)
N 2N

A signal which does not satisfy the periodicity condition is referred to

non-periodic signal.

x(t)
x{n
10 T t T
a) (b)
Fig. 1.2.6. Examples ofnon-periodic signals.

6. EnerEy and power signals:

i The energy signal is one that has a finite energy and zero average
power i.e., 0 <E <o and P = 0.

Forcontinuous-timesignal, x(); E =
xt)f dt

Por disecrete-time signal,

xinl; E =

n-
|atn
Apower signal is defined
infinite energy i.e.,0 <P<o and E = o.
as a
signal having finite average power and
Basic Signals and Systems 1-5D (EN-Sem-3)

For continuous-time signal, x(t); P= lim 7 Idt) dt

T- Zl r

For discrete-time 1
signal, x{n|; P=

6.
2N-12inl'
Causal and non-causal signals.
Continuous-time signal xt) is said to be causal ifx(t) = 0 fort <0.
i. A continuous-time
signal x(t) is said to be non-causal ifx(t)
=0 fort » 0.

Que 13.What are singularity functions?

OR
Define various elementary signals. Indicate graphically.
Answer
Singularity functions:
1.Step, impulse and ramp functions are known as singularity functions.
2. Singularity functions are also defined as
generalized functions. A
generalized function is defined by its effect on other functions instead of
byits value at every instant of time.
8. All the functions derived from the unit
impulse function
derivatives and integrals) are called singularity functions. (successive
i. Unit-step signal:
For continuous-time signal: It is denoted as ult) and is defined as
ult)=fort20
ult)o fort <0
For discrete-time signal:
Itis denoted as uln] and is defined as

un) = for n 20
0 for n0
u{t) uln

0 -3-2 -1 0 1 2 3
ii Unit ramp
Fig 1.3.1
signal:
For continuous-time
signal: It is denoted as r(t) and defined as
rt)= fort20
o fort<0
For discrete-time signal:
It is denoted as r{n) and is defined as
1-6D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

n for n 20
rln o for n <0
r(t) r(n)

t i0 12 3 4
Fig. 1.3.2.
iii. Unit-impulse signal:
For continuous-time signal: It is denoted as 8t) and is defined as
and 8() = 0 for t0

öCrdlt = 1
For diserete-time signal: It is denoted as afnl and is definedas
for n =0
oln= o for n0
&t) Snl

-2-1 o 1 2 3
Fig. 1.3.3.
Que 14. Prove the following :.
a. The power of the energy signal is zero over infinite time.
b. The energy of the power signal is infinite over infinite time.
OR
Prove that power of energy signal is zero over infinite time.

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

A
Answer
a Proof: The power ofthe energy signal is zero over infinite time:
1 Let x(t) be an enerEy signal, i.e.,

E xt)f dt
2. Power of the signal

T a ZT LT

lim
L
Basic Signals and Systems 1-7D (EN-Sem-3)

ince E - f|xt)f dt

= 0 xE = 0
since im T
3. Thus, the power of the energy signal is zero over infinite time.
Proof: The energy of the power
time:
signal is infinite over infinite
1. Let x(t) be a power signal, i.e.,
P= limS|x0)f
T
dt
2 Energy of the signa

3. Let us change the limits of integration as-Tto Tand take limit T->».
4. This will not change the meaning of E,
L.e.,
E-Jim lxtoF dt lim 277lxtf =
d|

lim 27P = o

sinc P latot dt
5. Thus, the energy of the power signal is infinite over infinite time.

Que 1.5.Find the energy and power of the signal :

i a¬)=cos (at)
ii. x(t)= Ae u(t) where a>0 AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer

1. Given, a(t) = cos (at)

2 Since the signal is periodic, it is necessarily a power signal and its energy
is infinite

3. Power, P-m7axt0)f dt =limT cos'at d

T

dt
1-8D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

lim
T- dt eos 2at dt T

lim 1T
cos 2at dt =0
-T

Given, x(t) =Ae -u{t), a>0

2. The energy
of xt), E lim
T>o
=
«"(0) dt

-2at dt
-

Ao dt -A*

3. Power, P
lim 7 od

Que 1.6. Express the given waveforms using standard signals.

***

(t)
(t)

Vm
t
2 3 4
Fig. 1.6.1.

AKTU 2018-19,Marks 10
Answerr

(t

sin t 2T

v(t) A
Sin (t- t) 2rT

Fig. 1.6.2.
Basic Signals and Systems 1-9D (EN-Sem-3)

v(t) = sin t +sin (t n) -

At) =
r(t) -

r(t 1)- r{t

-
-

3) + r(t -

4)
Que 1.7. Plot ( ) = u(t) - r(t - 1) +2r(t - 2) - r{t - 3) + u(t - 4) -
2u(t 5). Find the even and odd parts
of the signals.
AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer
1. Given,
x(t) =
u(t) -

r{t -

1) + 2r(t -2)- r(t -

3) + u(t- 4)
2u(t - 5)

x{t)

1 2
NL 3 4 5 '6
Fig. 1.7.1
2. z(-t) u(-t)- r-t-1) 2r(-t-2)
=
+
- r(-t-3)
+u-t-4)-2u(-t-5)
3 Even part : x,(t) = ktt)* a-

lutt)+ u-D]-[rt -1)+r(-t1D]

+2[r(t - 2)+ r ( - t - - M t - 3 ) + r(-t-3)]

+[u(t - 4)+ ul-t- 4)]-2 [ult-5)+u 5)]}

4 Odd part:
0)=li-x-)
ute)u-b)-[e-1)-r-t -1]
+2[r(t -2)-r(-t-2)]-[t-3)-r(-t-3)
+udt-4)-ul-t - 4)]-2[ult - 5)-u-t-5)]}

Que 1.8.Find even and odd component of the following signals

i. xt) = cos t+ sin t + cos t sint
ii. «tn)={1,2, 1,4, 5,0,3)
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
1-10D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

Answer

1. Given, x{t) = cos t + sint + cos t sin t:

2. First, let's determine x(-t):
x(-t) = cos(-t) + sin(-t) + cos(-t) sin(-t)
= cos(t) -sin(t)- cost sint
3. Even component of x(t):

(0)ixt) +xt-t))
xt) = lcos(t) + sin(t) + cost sint + cos()

- sin(t)- cost sint

2 cos = cost
4 Odd component of x(¬):
l0)=Lxtt)-x()
) = l c o s t ) + sin() + cost sint -cos(t) + sin(t)

+costsint]
2 sin(t)+ 2 cost sint) =
[sint +
cost sint]
i.
1. Given, x(n) = {1, 2, 1, 4, 5, 0, 3)

2 First, let's determine x(-n):

x-n)= (3, 0, 5, 4, 1,2, 1}

3. Even component of r(t):

xn) = lx(n) + «(-n)

2

[1+3,2+ 0,1+5,4+4,5+1,0+2, 3+ 11
4,2,6, 8, 6, 2,41
= (2, 1, 3, 4, 3,2, 21

4. Odd component of r(t):

xgn)= x(n) -«(- n))

11-3,2-0, 1-5,4-4,5-1,0-2,3-1
Basic Signals and Systems 1-11D (EN-Sem-3)

-2,2-4, 0, 4, -2, 21
=
-1, 1,-2,0, 2,-1, 1
Que 1.9. Sketch the function:
i. r(t)= ult) 2u(t) +3u(t-4)
+
-ult- 5)
ii. «(t)= r(t +
1)- r{t) + r(t-2) AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer
i x(t) =
u(t) + 2u(t) + 3u(t -4) u(t -

5)

2 3 4 5

Fig. 1.9.1
i. xt) = r{t + 1) -r(t) +r(t - 2)

x(t)

-1 0 1 2

Fig. 19.2.

PART-2
Transformation of Independent Variable.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
1-12D EN-Sem-3)
Continuous Time Signals and Systems
Que 1.10. What do you understand by transformation of the
independent variable ?
Answer
Transformation of independent variable:
During the processing of signal several
manipulations involving
independent variable are required. It means that for analysis of signals,
transformation of independent variable is
required.
The basic
operations on signals are:
1 Time shifting:
Mathematically, the time shifting of a continuous-time signal x(t) can be
represented by
yt) = x(t - T)
..(1.10.1)
. The time shifting of a signal may result in time delay or time advance.
i. In eq. (1.10.1) if T is positive the sifting is to the
right and then the
shifting delays the signal, and ifTis negative the shift is to the left and
then the shifting advances the
signal.
iv. An arbitrary signal x(t), its
delayed version and advanced version are
shown in Fig. 1.10.1a), (6) and (c).

x(t) AX{t-T) x(t + T)

T +6 t T 0 - T+6 t
(a) 6) (c)
Fig. 1.10.1. (a) Signal, (6) Its delayed version, (c) Its time advanced version.

2. Time reversal:

Time reversal, also called time folding of a

signal x(t) can be obtained by
folding the signal about t = 0. This operation is very useful in convolution.
It is denoted by x(-t).
i. It is obtained by replacing the independent variable t by (4). Folding is
also called as the reflection of the signal about the time origint = 0.

iii. Fig. 1.10.2(a) shows an arbitrary signal x(t), and Fig. 1.10.206) shows its
reflection x(-t).
Basic Signals and Systems 1-13 D (EN-Sem-3)

x(t) - -t)

01 2
4 -32-1
b)
0t
Fig. 1.10.2.
3 Amplitude scaling: The amplitude scaling of a continuous-time signal
x(t) can be represented by
yt) = Ax(t)

where A is a constant.
A y(t) = 2:x(t)
x(t)

(a) (6)

Fig. 1.10.3. Plots of (a) x(t) = cos ot, (6) y(t) = 2x(t).
4. Time scaling
Time scaling may be time expansion or time compression.
The time scaling ofa signal xtt) can be accomplished by replacing t by at
in it. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

ylt)=xlat)
ii. Ifa> 1, it results in time compression by a factor a and ifa < 1, it results
in time expansion by a factor a because with that transformation a point
at 'at' in signal x(t) becomes a point at "' in y().
4X(t) y t ) = x(2t)

-1 l0 1 2 3 t -0.5 10 1 1.5
(a) (6)
y)= x(t/2)

(c)

Fig. 1.10.4. (a) Original signal, (6) Compressed signal, (e) Enlarged signal.
1-14 D (EN-Sem-3)
Continuous Time Signals and Systems
5. Signal addition and subtraction
The sum of two continuous-time
by adding their values
signalsx,(t) and x,(0) can be obtained
instant of time.
at every
. Similarly, the subtraction of one continuous-time signal x,) from
another signal x,t) be obtained
can
by subtracting the value of x,(t)
from that of x, (t) at every instant.
ii. Consider two signals x,(t) and x,() shown in Fig. 1.10.5(a) and (b).
* t) Xt)

0 0 i 2 3 4
(a
(6)

x1(t) + xzlt) t)-xt)

12 3 4
(c) d)
Fig. 1.10.5. Addition and subtraction of continuous-time signals.
iv. Fig. 1.10.5(c) is the addition of x,(t) and
subtraction of x,(t) from
x,(t) and Fig. 1.10.5d) is the
x,t).
6. Signal multiplication:
The multiplication of two continuous-time
signals can be performed by
multiplying their values at every instant.
i. Two continuous-time signals x,(t) and x,t) shown in Fig. 1.10.6(a) and
(b) are multiplied to obtain x,(t) x,(t) shown in Fig. 1.10.6(c).
For 0 Sts1 x,(t) = 2 and x,(t) = 1
Hence
x,0) x,(0) = 2 x1 =2
For 1 sts2 x t)= 1 and x,(t) = 1 +(t - 1)
Hence (1) [1
x,t)xg0) = + (t- 1)) = 1+ (t- 1)
X(t) xa(t) X(tx(t)

T0
(a)
3 To i 2 3 To i2
(6) (C)

Fig. 1.10.6. Multiplication of continuous-time signals.

Basic Signals and Systems 1-15D (EN-Sem-3)

PART-3
Introduction to Various Type of System, Basic System Properties.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.11.| What is system ? Also discuss continuous time and

discrete time systems.

Answer
System: A system is a mathematical model of a physical process where
any physical device or combination of physical devices is used to generate
output signal (or response) for a given input (or excitation) signal.
B. Continuous-time systems: If a system is having continuous-time
signal as an input and after operation it gives a continuous-time output
signal, then the system is called continuous-time system.

xt Continous-timne yt)
Input system Output
Fig. 1.11.1.

rt) y(t)
yt)= T lxtt))
The continuous-time systems are motors, filters, and amplifiers
C. Discrete-time systems: Ifa system is having diserete-time signal as
an input and after operation on this signal it also produces a discrete-
time signal as an output then the system is called as discrete-time system.

Discrete-time |
x{n system yln
Fig. 1.11.2.

xnl ylnl
yln) = T lxlnll

Que 1.12. Discuas various types of systems.

 1-16D (EN-Sem-3)
Continuous Time Signals and
Systems
Answer
Classification of system:
The systems can be classified as follows:
Systems

Continuous-time systems
Discrete-time systems

Static and Linear and non-

Stable and
dynamic systems linear systems
unstable systems
Causal and non- Time-invariant and
causal systems time-variant systems
Fig. 1.12.1.
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time systems Refer Q.
Page 1-15D, Unit-1. : 1.11,
2 Static and dynamic system:
i. A system is said to be static or
memoryless if the response is due to
present input alone, i.e., for a static or memoryless system, the output at
any instant t (or n) depends only on the
t (or n) but not on the
input applied at that instant
past or future values of input.
Example, yt) = «(t)
yt) = xlt)
i. In contrast,
system is said to be dynamic or
a
memory system if the
response depends upon past or future inputs.
Example, yt) = alt- 1)
yt) = «{t) + x(t + 2)
3. Causal and non-causal
L A
system
system is said to be causal
(non-anticipative) if the output of the
system at any time t depends only on the present and past values of the
input but not on future inputs. Causal systems are real time system.
Example, yt) = x{t -2) + 2x(t)

yt) = tx(t)
ii. A system is said to be non-causal
(anticipative) if the output of the
system at any time t depends on future inputs. They do not exist in real
time.
Example, yt) = rlt + 2) + 2x(0)
ylt) = x*t)+ tx(t + 1)
4.
Linear and non-linear system:
i. A system which obeys the principle of superposition and principle of
homogeneity is called a linear system.
Basic Signals and Systems 1-17D (EN-Sem-3)

and
A system which does not obey the principle of superposition
ii. homogeneity is called a non-linear system.

5. Time-invariant and time-variant system:

Time-invariance is the property of a system which makes the behaviour
behaviour of
of the system independent of time. This m e a n s that the
the system does not depend on the time at which the input is applied.

If x(t) > y(t)

x(t - T) - yt - T)
then
11. A system not satisfying these requirements is called a time-variant

system.
Stable and unstable system :
The stability of a system is defined, if the bounded input produces bounded

output (BIBO).
For stable system, the output signal must satisfy the following condition:
.

Iyt)|s M,< for all values of r.

i.
where, M,-finite positive number.
The input signal must also satisfy the following condition:
x(t) |s M, <o for all values of t.
where, M, >finite positive number.
iv. Ifany system does not follow BIBO condition, then that system is called
unstable system.

Que 1.13. Explain the principle of linearity of DT system.

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer
1. A system which obeys the principle of superposition and principle of
homogeneity is called a linear system, anda system which does not obey
the principle of superposition and homogeneity is called a non-linear

system.
2. Homogeneity property means a system which produces an output y(t)
for an input x(t) must produce an output ay(t) for an input ar(t).

3. If arbitrary inputs x, t) and x,) produce the outputs y,(t) and y,t)

respectively
y ) = T x,(t)) and y,t) = T lx,t)

Tet weighted sum of inputs is

xt) = x,()+ x )

and ylt)= T lxt) = T lx,(t) + xN

If ylt) = a y , ) + by,(t)
1-18D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems
Tlax (t)+bx,(0)) = T lax,(t)) + T (bx,()| = aT x,() + 6T lx,(0))
...(1.13.1)
The eq. (1.13.1) gives the superposition principle.
For discrete-time linear
system,
Tlax, (n) + bx,tn)) = aTlx, (n)) + 6Tx,(n)]
4 Simply we can say that a system is linear if the output due to weighted
sum of
inputs is equal to the weighted sum of outputs.
5. Few examples of linear systems are filters, communication channels,
etc.

Que 1.14. Check whether the following properties hold good for
the
i.
system ylt)= atr(t)+
bt2r(t -2):
Static or dynamic
i. Linear or non-linear
iii. Causal or non-causal
iv. Time-variant or invariant

Answer

Given: yt) = atx(t) + bt*x(t -2)

To Find: i.
Staticor dynamic
i. Linear or non-linear
i. Causal or non-causal
iv. Time variant or invariant

Static or dynamic
1. Put t= 0
y(0) = 0

2. Put t = 1

y(1) = a x(1) +bx(-1)

Present input Past input

3. Since system depends on past input means this system has memory, so
it is dynamic system.
ii. Linear or non-linear:
1. Let x,() produce an output y,(t)
, t ) = at x,(t) + btë x,t-2)

2. Let x(0) produce an output y(t)

y)= at x,(t) + btëx,(t-2)
3 The weighted sum of output is
Py (0) + qyt) =platx,(t)+ btëx,(t- 2)+qlatx,t)+bt*x,t-2
4 The output due to weighted sum of inputs
Yt) = px ) + qx,0)
Basic Signals and Systems 1-19 D (EN-Sem-3)

5. Since superposition principle is not satisfied. Therefore the given system

1s non-ine ar.

iii. Causal or non-causal:

1 For t = 1, y1) = ax(1)
+bx(-1)
Present Past
input input
For t= 2, y(2) = 2ax(2) + 4bx(0)
Present Past
input input
3. For t 1) bx(=-3)
=
-1, y(- =
-ax(-1)+
Present Past
input input
4. Since system is not dependent on future value, so it is a causal system.
iv. Time-variant or invariant:
y(t) = a t x (t) + bt'x (t - 2)
2 The output delay due to input delay by T'sec is
yt, T) = yt)| xt) = x it- n

= a tx (t-T) + bt2 x (t - T-2)

3. The output delayed by T sec

yt-T) =yt)|t=t-T
=a (t - T) z (t- T) + b (t- T?x (t -T- 2)
ylt, T) * y(t- T)
5. Therefore, the system is time-variant.

Que1.15.| Determine whether the following continuous time

system:
Y)= x(t) cos (100Tt) is
i. Linear or non-linear
ii. Shift variant or shift invariant
iii. Stable or unstable

iv. Causal or non-causal.

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer

Given: yt)= x(t) cos (100 t)

To Find : i. Linear or non linear
ii. Shift variant or shift invariant
ii. Stable or unstable
iv. Causal or non-causal
i. Linear or non-linear : The response of
the system with two input
For input x,0), y,0) = lx,0)) = x,) cos (100 t)
2. For input x,(), y,(t) =
flx,()1 =
x,(t) cos (100 t)
1-20 D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems
3. Hence, linear combination of the output becomes,
y3{t) = a, y,(t) + azy,()

yt) = ajx,(t) cos (100 nt) + ag x,() cos (100 t )

t ) = la,t) + a,",0)] cos (100 t) .(1.15.1)

4. The response of linear combination of two inputs becomes
y0) = fla, x,) + a,x,(t)
y t ) = l a , * ) + a,xzt)} cos (100 t)
...(1.15.2)
5. Since eq. (1.15.1) and (1.15.2) are equal, hence this system is a linear
system.
ii. Shift variant or shift invariant
1. The output due todelayed input becomes
yt, ,) flxlt -4,)
=

yt,4,)= xlt-t,)) cos (100t) .1.15.3)

and the delayed output becomes (by replacing t by (t - t) in
eq.(1.15.3)
yt-4,) = xt-t) cos (100 n(t-t,) .(1.15.4)
Here, yt, t,)+ y(t-)
2. Hence, system is shift variant.
iii. Stable or unstable:
yt) = x(t) cos (1007t)

Since, -1< cos (100 t) < 1

So, -z(t) < ylt) < x(t)
Here, input is multiplied by cosine function and maximum and minimumn
value is 1 and - 1 respectively. Hence, as long as x(t) is bounded, y(t) is
bounded. Hence, the system is stable.
iv. Causal or non-causal Since the system
:
depends upon present
input only, hence this system is causal
Que 1.16.| Define invertible system and state whether the
following systems are invertible or not.

ii.
ynl= «ln]
yln]=*ln]+1

Answer
Invertible system :
1. Asystem is said to be invertible, if distiuet input leads to distinct outputs.
2. If a system is invertible, then an inverse system exists that, when
cascaded with the original system, yield an output wln] equal to the
input xnl of the first system.
Basic Signals and Systems 1-21 D (EN-Sem-3)

x{n- System Inverse system w{n =x{n

Numerical
Given, ylnl = x[n]

The inverse system is

wlnl = yln] = xln)

Since, after reverting the system, the output is not affected. So the
given system is an invertible system.
ii. Given, ylnl = x*lnl + 1
The inverse system is
wlnl = t bn) - 1]2
In this case, we cannot determine the sign of input from knowledge of
the output. Hence, this system is non-invertible.

Que 1.17. Determine if systems with the following impulse

responses
i. ht)= 5(t-2),
ii. h(t) =8(t) - 6(t-2), are invertible. AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
1. ht) = 8(t -2)
A system is called invertible if it produces distinct output signals foor
distinct input signals
For, h{1) =
(1-2) =8(-1)
h-1) =
8-1-2) =o-3)
So the given system is invertible.
ht) = ölt) - 8(t-2)
For, h(1) = 6(1) - 8(1-2)
= 6(1)-8(-1)
h(-1) =
8-1) -8-1-2)
So the
o-1)- (-3)
given system is invertible.

PART-4
Analogous System: Linear and Rotational Mechanical Elements.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
1-22 D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

Que 1.18. What do you understand by analogous system ? Also

explain the different types of mechanical systems.

Answer
A Analogous system: Ifthere exists a similarity between the equilibrium
equation of electrical and mechanical system, it is possible:
To draw an electrical system which will behave exactly similar to the
given mechanical system.
2 To draw a mechanical system which will behave exactly similar to the
given electrical system.
3. Both the above systems are called analogous system of each other.
B. Mechanical system:
1. Translation system:
i The mass, damper and spring denoted by M, D and K are the basic
elements in a mechanical translation system.
ii. There are three types offorces those resist translation motion:
a. Inertia force: Ifa force is applied to the mass, as shown in Fig. 1.18.1
then according to Newton's second law of motion the inertia force will
be equal to the product of mass M and acceleration'a' and given by

Ma= MOE)_ M
dxlt)
M dt dt
v{t)
x{t)

Fig.1.18.1
b. Damping force : If a force is applied to the damper as shown in
Fig. 1.18.2, the damping force for viscous friction is proportional to the
difference in velocity of two ends of the damper and is given by

D d,t) dr,0|
dt dt

Vt)

Fig. 1.18.2.
 1-23 D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Sigmals and Systems

to the spring, as shown in

c. Spring force: If a force is applied
which tries to bring it back to its
Fig. 1.18.3, the spring force is produced (Hook's
free length. The spring force is proportional to the displacement
law) and is given by

f= K
xt)=KJ vit) dt =Kut) dt+ z0)
x(t)
O0000
K
Fig. 1.18.3.

2. Rotational systems:
which consists of
1. Rotational mechanical system as shown in Fig. 1.18.4,
a rotatable disc of moment of inertial () and a shaft (torsion spring) of
stiffness (Kg).
2. The disc rotates in a viscous medium with rotational viscous friction
coefficient (D,).
a. Inertial torque: It is equal to moment of inertia () times the angular
acceleration (6), i.e.

=Ia =
1olt)_ d-o0D
dt
ar
b. Damping torque: It is equal to the viscous friction coefficient (D)
times the angular velocity (o), i.e.,

D o = D,dt
C. Spring torque:lt is equal to the torsional stiffness of the spring (K)
times the angular displacement, i.e.,

TK= K, fotdi K,|Jordt +00) =

Moment of Disc
Shaft
stiffness inertia
Viscous friction
(K) coefficient (Dg)

Fig. 1.184.
 1-24 D (EN-Sem-3)
Continuous Time Signals and
Systems

PART-5
Force-Voltage and Force-Current Analogy, Modelling of
Mechanical and Electro-mechanical System,

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions

Que 1.19. Explain D'

Alembert's principle.
Answer
1 It states that sum of external forces and forces
body in any given direction is zero. resisting motion of a

f+fM+fp+/x = 0

M
D
Fig. 1.19.1. Mechanical system in one direction.

2. Inertial force,
f-M dd
3. Damping force, f=- Do

4. Spring force,

5. Now,
MDoKudt x0f 0

Que 1.20, Derive force voltage and force current analogy.

Answer
Translation mechanical system
1. A translational
spring-mass-damper system is shown in Fig. 1.20.1.
Basic Signals and Systems 1-25 D (EN-Sem-3)

f t ) Applied force

K
x Displacement

Spring Mass Damper

Fig. 1.20.1. Translational spring-mass-damper system.

Here, M = Mass of system

At) = Applied force

D Coefficient of damping
K=Spring deflection constant
2. The equation of motion for the system is obtained by applying
D' Alembert's principle,

Md'x
dt -DKx
...( 1.20.1)

3. Rearranging eq. (1.20.1), we get

MD Kr =ft) ... 1.20.2)

Force-voltage analogy:
The analogy of eq. (1.20.2) with the voltage equation of an electrical
circuit can be established by considering electrical circuit shown in
Fig. 1.20.2.

Www 0000
R

et)

Fig. 1.20.2. Electrical circuit for force-voltage analogy.

2. The voltage equation for the circuit is as follows
di
R i i d t =elt) ...(1.20.3)
3. As the current is the rate of flow of electrie
charge.
dq
dt .. 1.20.4)
4 Substituting eq. (1.20.4) in eq. (1.20.3),
1-26 D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

dt
R, dq
dt
et) ...(1.20.5)
5. Comparing eq. (1.20.5) and (1.20.2), we get
Table 1.20.1. Foree-Voltage Analogy

Mechanical system Electrical system

Force,f Voltage, e

Velocity, vU Current,
Displacement, x Charge, g
Mass, M Inductance, L
Damping coefficient, D Resistance, R
Compliance, 1/K (stiffness, K) Capacitance, C

Force-Current analogy
1 The nodal equation as obtained for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.20.3 is
analogous to spring-mass-damper system described by the eq. (1.20.2).

Fig. 1.20.3. Electrical circuit for force-current analogy.

2. According to nodal analysis
+ c t n = i(t) ...(1.20.6)

3 The common voltage across the three parallel elements of the circuit is
denoted ase. The following relations are obtained:

de

4. Substituting the value of i,.in and ic in eq. (1.20.7),

i(t) ..(1.20.7)

5 The voltage e is related to flux linkages associated with inductance L as

follows:

e
do .1.20.8)
dt
 Basic Signals and Systems 1-27 D (EN-Sem-3)

do
6. Putiing e = in eq. (1.20.7), we get

= ilt)
L R dt *d?
d ' 1 do 1, it) ..(1.20.9)
dt R dt'z° =
Comparing eq. (1.20.2) and (1.20.9), we get

Table 1.20.2. Force-Current Analogy

Mechanical system Electrical system

Force,f Current, i

Velocity,u Voltage, e

Displacement, x Flux linkage,

Mass, M Capacitance, C
Damping coefficient, D Conductance, G

Stiffness, K(compliance, 1/K) Inductance, L

Que 1.21. Explain modelling of mechanieal system and electrical

system and then give the analogy between electrical and mechanical

system.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A Modelling of mechanical system:
1. The mass (M), spring (K) and damper (D) are the three basic elements of
a mechanicaltranslation system.
2. For the mechanical system consisting of these three as shown in
Fig. 1.21.1, the force equation can be written, using Newton's third law
asfollows

x(t), u(t)

M ..- Static
t) equilibrium
point
Fig. 1.21.1
1-28 D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems
Applied force = Sum of the reaction forces

) =M
Mdult) +K ult) dt + D ut)
dt

or Nt) = Md x{t) +Kr(t)+ Ddr(t)

dt2 dt
where u(t) is the velocity and x() is the displacement.
B. Modelling of electrical system:
1. The resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor (C) are three basic elements
of an electrical system.
For the electrical system consisting ofR, L and C are in series as shown
in Fig. 1.21.2(a), the voltage equation can be written, using Kirchhoff's
voltage law (conservation of energy) as follows :
R L

Vt) VLt) Vt)

ipiig
Vt)

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.21.2.
Applied voltage = Sum of the voltage drops in the circuit
vt) =
vpt) +
v,(0)+ vct)
R it)+L dt
+ filOdt
And for the electrical system of Fig. 1.21.2(b), the current equation can
be written, using Kirchhoff's current law (conservation of charge) as
follows:
iC) = ipt) + i , ) + iclt)

vt)
or it)=+utdt +c
dt
C. Analogy between electrical and mechanical system
Refer Q.1.20, Page 1-24D, Unit-1.

Que 1.22.For the given mechanical system draw the equivalent

circuit using F-V and F-I analogy.
2(t)
K
O0M i-m M
Fig. 1.22.1
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
Basic Signals and Systems 1-29 D (EN-Sem-3)

Answer
1. Mechanical equivalent circuit :

2 K2
0000
K , M B, B M B

nrmmmmm mmmmm
Fig. 1.22.2.
2 F-Vanalogous system:fv, ML, B->R, K->C
R Rg L C R4
Ww-wwO0H -OO000 WW
Ort R t

Fig. 1.22.3.
3. F-1 analogous system :f+i, M > C, B > VR, K+L

1/R2
w -0OMO0

1/R,iyv
Fig. 1.22.4
Que 1.23. Draw the mechanical equivalent of the system shown
in Fig. 1.23.1. Obtain the electrical
analog system using the
force-current analog.

uuuu
K
D, L
M x0)
D

Fig 1.23.1.
1-30 D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

Answer
1. Mechanical equivalent ofsystem

D2
M LM

Fig. 1.23.2
2. Differential equation,

t)= Mi+D Da D 1.23.1)

..(1.23.2)
O=
M +D D+Ks
3. Converting eq. (1.23.1) and (1.23.2) in KCL form using force-curent
analogy, eq. (1.23.1) becomes,
it)= C, e j , G{t),e,0)e,(t) .(1.23.3)
dtR R R
4. Eq. (1.23.2) becomes,
0-C
0 Cegl),
Ca dt e{t)_e,{t),1 ..(1.23.4)
Ra
is
5. Using eq. (1.23.3) and (1.23.4), equivalent electrical analogous circuit
drawn as,
R2
w

R Cq

Fig. 1.23.8. Force-current analogous circuit.

Que 1.24. Obtain F-V and F-I analogous system of mechanical

system shown in Fig. 1.24.1.

K

M O0000t

Fig. 1.24.1
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Basic Signals and Systems 1-31 D (EN-Sem-3)

Answer
1. Differential equation for the mechanical system

F)= KX
+bA
dt
MA ..(1.24.1)
dt2
2 Voltage equation of the mechanical system,

el)=idt Ri +1"dtd ..(1.24.2)

3. Electrical circuit for F-V analogy as shown in Fig. 1.24.2.
R
W

elt (V

Fig. 1.24.2.
4. Current equation of the mechanical system,

it)= e t + d .(1.24.3)

5. Electrical circuit for F-/ analogy as shown in Fig. 1.24.3.

L
i(t C

Fig. 1.24.3.

PART-6|
Analysis of First and Second Order Linear System by
Classical Method.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.26. Discuss first order and second order linear systems by
classical method.
 1-32 D (EN-Sem-3) Continuous Time Signals and Systems

Answer
1. First order systems:
. First order homogeneous differential equation:
dy(t) Py(t)= 0
dt
(where, P = Constant)

dylt) - Pdt
yt)
Integrating.
In y(t) = -Pt +
k,
k= In k
In y(t) = ln e - + In k
In y(t) = In (ke-)
y{t) = ke-

where, k Constant
ii. First order non-homogenous differential equation:
dyt),
dt
Py(t) =
where, P Constant
Q =
Function of independent variable, or a constant
Pyt Pye) = Qe"
dt

ld(x.y) = xdy + ydx|

y) ePt = Qe"dt +k

t)= e"jedt +ke

If Q = Constant,

yt)=e"Q P ke"
yt) =+keP
P
2. Second order
systefms:
i. Second order differential
equations
Basic Signals and Systems 1-33 D (EN-Sem-3)

Ad'yt, dyt ,Cyt)= 0 .(1.25.1)

dt dt
i. The general solution of the eq. (1.25.1) is
yt) = ke'it +k,e'
where. . k=Constants
Py.P2 = Roots of quadratic equation
AP + BP +C = 0

P,P 2A V4AC
2A

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions

may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. Give the classification of signals.

Ans Refer Q. 1.2, Unit-1.

Q.2. Prove that power of energy signal is zero over infinite time.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.4, Unit-1.
Q.3. Plot x(t) = u(t) - r(t - 1) + 2r(t - 2) r(t - 3) + ult 4) -
2u(t- 5). Find the even and odd parts of the signals.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.7, Unit-1.

Q4. Sketch the funetion

i. s(t) = u(t) + 2u(t) + 3ult -4) u(t-5)
ii. x(t) = r(t + 1)- r(t) + r{t-2)
Ans. Refer Q. 1.9, Unit-1.

Q5. Discuss various types of systems.

Ans Refer Q. 1.12, Unit-1.

Q.6. Determine whether the following

Y()=x(t) cos (100nt) is continuous time system:
Linear or non-linear
ii. Shift variant or shift invariant
ii. Stable or unstable
iv. Causal or non-causal.
Ans Refer Q. 1.15, Unit-1.
 2
UNIT
Fourier Transform
Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 Exponential form and Compact...2-2D to 2-11D
Trigonometric form of Fourier
Series, Pourier Symmetry

Part-2 : Fourier Transform: Properties, . 2-11D to 2-22D

Application to Network Analysis

Part-3 Definition of DTFS and D'TFT. *** 2-22D to 2-25D

Part-4 Sampling Theorem.***************************** 2-25D to 2-28D

2-1 D (EN-Sem-3)
2-2D (EN-Sem-3)
Fourier Transform Analysis

PART1
Exponential form and Compact Trigonometric form of Fourier
Series, Fourier Symmetry.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Define Fourier series. Also state the conditions for the
existence of Fourier series.
OR
Explain Dirichlet's condition.
Answer
A Fourier series: The representation of signals over a certain interval
of time in terms of the linear combination of
orthogonal functions is
called Fourier series.
B. Existence of Fourier series (Dirichlet's condition)
1. The conditions under which a
periodie signal can be represented by
a Fourier series are known as Dirichlet's
conditions.
2. They are as follows:
i. The function x(t) must be a single valued function.
ii. The function x(t) has only a finite number of maxima and minima.
ii. The function xlt) has a finite number of discontinuities.
iv. The function x(t) is absolutely integrable over one period, that is

Jz)|dt <o.

Que 2.2. Briefly explain the three forma of Fourier series.

Answer
Three forms of Fourier series are :
1. Trigonometric Fourier series: The trigonometric Fourier series
representation of a periodic signal xt) with fundamental period T, is
given by:
xt) = 2 a,cosnog+b, sin nog)
Basic Signals and Systems 2-3 D (EN-Sem-3)

where,
T
ag a, and b, are the Fourier coefficients given by :

1
T d

x(t) cos no,t dt

aT.T
b x ) sin no dt
2 Harmonic Fourier series: Another form of Fourier series
representation ofa real periodic signal x(t) with fundamental period 7,
S.

xt) =
g+2, "
cos (no,t ,),

where,
To
Co DC component
c, cos (kogf-0,)= nth harmonic component of z(t)

o ya,+6, 0, -tan
3 Exponential Fourier series
The exponential Fourier series is the most widely used form of Fourier
series.
i. In this, the function x(t) is expressed as a weighted sum of the complex
exponential functions.

x) = C+ 2C,

x(te n d dt
where,

x(t) dt

Que 23.Discuss waveform symmetries.

OR
Define odd and even function. Also find Fourier coefficient for odd
and even function.
 2-4D (EN-Sem-3)
Fourier Transform Analysis
-

Answer
1. Even symmetry:
. A function f(x) is said to have even
symmetry if flx) ff-x). =

Even function shows even

symmetry.
i. Even nature is
preserved on addition of a constant.
iv. Sum of even functions remains even.
Example:
fx) fx)

Fig. 2.3.1.
Fourier constants for evenfunction

fdt
TI2
) cos not dt
2 Odd symmetry:
6,0
i A functionftx) is said to have odd symmetry, if
fx) =-f-x).
ii. If fx) =-f-x) function is an odd function.
ii. Addition of constant removes odd nature of the function.
a

iv. Sum of odd functions remains odd.

Example
tx) flx)

ig 22
Fourier constants for odd function:
40
0

4T
ft) sin not dt
3. Half wave symmetry:
A periodic function is said to have half wave
Ax) = - f f + T/2)
symmetry if,
Basic Signals and Systems 2-5D (EN-Sem-3)

Example
fx)

Fig. 2.3.3.
Fourier constants for half wave symmetry:
n odd n even

f(t) cos not dt 0 )

T
b f ) sin not dt 6, = 0

4. Quarter wave symmetry:

If signal has following both properties, it is said to have quarter wave
symmetry:
i It is half wave symmetric.
i It has symmetry (odd or even) about the quarter period point.

Aft) f(t)

(a) (6)
Fig. 2.3.4. (a) Even signal with Quarter wave symmetry
(6) Odd signal with Quarter wave symmetry.

Que 24. What do you mean by the existence of Fourier series ?

And explain properties of Fourier series.

AKTU2018-19, Marks 07
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
OR
Give the properties of continuous-time Fourier series.

Answer
A. Existence of Fourier series: Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2-2D, Unit-2.
2-6D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

B. Properties of Fourier series:

1. Linearity property:
The linearity property states that, if

x,(t) C, and x,0) D,

then Ax,() + Bx,(t) AC, + BD,
2 Time shifting property:
The time
shifting property: tes hat, if

alt) C,
then xt-t) edo C,
3. Time reversal property:
The time reversal
property states that, if

alt) C.
then x(-t) C,
4. Time scaling property:
The time scaling property states that, if
x(t) C
then x(at)
5. Time
C, with o> a®
differentiation property:
The time differentiation property states that, if
xlt) C.
dx{t)
then
dt Bjno,
6. Time integration property:
The time integration property states that,if
xt) C,

then
xt) dr (if C = 0)

Que 2.5.Find trigonometric

Fourier series of the given waveform.
x(t)

AM 4 -3 -2-1 0
Pig. 2.6.1.
A
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Basic Signals and Systems 2-7D (EN-Sem-3)

Answer

2T
1. We have from Fig. 2.5.1, T, = 2
ando T
Jt; Osts1
xt)= \o; 1sts2

4 c o s no,t dt =tcos nt dt
-

fcos t dt-
ostdt Jo

t sin nnt cOs1t COS n t

nT (nr) (na)
5. b, tsin n at dt

Ttt Sin ntt

t COS 7 cOs
n

COS n r t - 0 8 n 7 7

6. Sin niu

Que 2.6. Obtain the trigonometric Fourier series for the half

wave rectified sine wave. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer

x(t

-2Tt A
To 21
2t

Fig. 2.6.1. A half-wave rectified sine wave.

4T
t

1. To= 21 and o T2
2-8D (EN-Sem-3)
Fourier Transform Analysis

Asint 0s tsn
xt) =

|0 Sts 2n
A sin t dt = - c o st-4A
2T Jo 2T
2
an 910
J A sin t cos nt dt

sin(1+ nt dt + sin(1-nt dt
cos(1+n)t cos(1-n)t
1+n) (1-n)
2
2T1+n) (1-n) 2A
T(1-n*)
2A
a n(1- n*1

Since forn=1,a, =o, a, is calculated as follows:

For n 1,
a A
2n Jo
sin t cos t dt

s i n 2t dt =-cos 2t, = 0
4T0
A sin t sin nt dt

cos(1- n)t-cos1 + n)t} dt |

=A sin(1-n)t sin(1 + n)t
2T(1-n) (1+n) o
6, = 0 n+1
For 1, b,
n = = *o
and therefore b, is calculated as follows:
2
b A sin t sin t dt =
sin t dt

2
2-cna 27te -
Basic Signals and Systems 2-9 D (EN-Sem-3)

A
b2
2A
xtt) =

sin t+ 2T(1-n*) COS nt

Que 2.7. Calculate the trigonometrie CTFS coeffieients of the
periodie signal x(t) defined over one period 7, = 3 as follows:
r(t)= { * -1stss1
1<t<2

xt)

AAL44A- Fig. 2.7.1.

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer

1.Sincext) has a fundamental period, 7, =3 and fundamental frequeney,

2t 2r

-1sts1
zt) = *l
0 1t<2

3.

A. t) cos (no,) dt

aDcon 2 dt
3
 2-10D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

3 nT
3

2
t sin, nnt cos, NTU

3 2
conSnnTsin
Tat) sin (no,) dt

2
t cos n n t
3 3
nT 2n7

Que 2.8. Caleulate the CTFS coefficients for the following signal.

r)-
3+cos(4 sin10t
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
Answerr
1 x{t) = 3 + cos (4t + nd4) + sin (1Ot + n/3)
2. Rewriting the given equation in terms of complex exponentials.
 2-12 D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

Answer
1. The Fourier transform of signal x(t) is given by,
X(o) = f x(tedt

2. The inverse Fourier transform is given by,

rlt) = S X(olet doo ; for-<t<o

Que 2.10.| State and prove the properties of continuous-time

Fourier transform

Answer
Duality: In spectrum analysis, the duality between the time and the
frequency is exhibited. The duality property states that

i(t) X(o)

then X(t) 2 7 x-)

Proof: By definition,

xt)= Kjio)e do
2 rCt)= X(o)e* do

2 u(-t) =
X(o)e do
Interchanging t and o, we have

2 7xl-o) = X()e dt = F{X(t

FX ( =2 r(-)

. e. X) 2 r x(-o)
For even functions,
x(- 0) = x(o)

Xt) 2m xlo)
2. Time shifting: The time shifting property states that if a signal x(t) is
shifted by tg sec, the spectrum is modified by a linear phase shift of slope
- o t , Le.,
Basic Signals and Systems 2-13 D (EN-Sem-3)

FT
if x{t) X(o)
FT
then, x(t -t) e X(j»)
Proof: By definition,

Fixt-)= xt-4,)e -
dt

Let t-to = P

t=p+ and dt = dp

Flxlt )= a{p)erp* dp

=
e p) e- dp

= eoX(o)

xlt-t) eiat X(o)

FT
Similarly, xlt + to) eX(o)
3 Frequency shifting: Frequency shifting property states that the
multiplicationof a time domain signal x(t) by eed results in the frequency
spectrum shifted by , l.e.,

f x(t) X(o)
then, ezt) X(o-0)
Proof: By definition,

Flez(t) = Jezt)e dt

x(t)e-Ko-o"dt

ed t) X(o-o)
e o (t) X(o + o,)
4 Scaling:

f xlt) X(o)
2-14 D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

then, x(at)

Proof: By definition,

Flx(at)= xlat)e*dt

Let t = p

t and dt = P2

Flxlat))= x(p)e-ntplo) Gp

xlp) eilo dp
Case 1: When a > 0,

Flxlat)-
xtp)e sw dp -x
Case 2:When a < 0,

Flatl=x(p)ela. p) eaa)lP dp

rlat) ,.
5. Linearity:

If

x,) X,j»)
then

LA x,)+ Bx) A X, jo) +BX,jo)

Proof
1. Let xt) =Az,0)+Bx,)
2. X(jo) =

x(te* dt =A x,()+B x,0)e dt

A 0e+B,(0%dt
Basic Signals and Systems 2-15 D (EN-Sem-3)

3. X(jo) = A X, (jo) + BX,jo)

6. Timedifferentiation:
f r(t) Xj»)
then

dx(t) F, j»X jo»)

dt

Proof
Fir- Xjoe do

2. Xjo)e" do =jo Xjo)

3. dx(t)P j» X(jo)
dt
4. In general
x(t)
Go" Xjo)
7 Time integration:
If Flxt = Xjo)
then

Fxdt Xjo)+rX (0)to)

Proof
1 If X(0) = 0, this property can be easily proved by using integration by
parts as in the case of the differentiation property.

2. By definition,

xt)=

3. Replacingt by a dummy variable r, we have

x)2Ko)e"
2 do
4. Integrating both sides over - o tot, we have

do
5. Interchanging the order of integration, we have
2-16 D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

xtt) dr =

2T XJe dtj do

o d e P Xo)
tod L~
X(o)

x(t) dr Xo)
6. IfX(0) # 0 thenx(t) is not an
energy function, and the Fourier transform

of z(t) dt includes an impulse function, that is

Fxtdr
L
X(o) + TX0) 8to)

Que 2.11. State and prove convolution and Parseval's theorem.

Answer
Convolution theorem:
Let y t ) = x{t) * h{t)

Fly) = Yjo) = X (jo) H (jo)

Proof:
. yt) = z(t) h{t- z) dr

2 Flylo= Yljo)= Lz(t) ht-t) dt |e dt

3. Interchanging the order of integration, we get

xtA-e
Yjo)- àt| dt
By time shifting property, the term inside the bracket becomes
4
eHjo).
Yjo)= xlt) ea H (jo) dr
Hjo)x(t) e dr
Basic Signals and Systems 2-17D (EN-Sem-3)
Y(jo) = Hjo) X (jo)
Parseval's theorem:
If
*,0) X,(») and x,(0) X,(o)
then, the Parseval's theorem states that

0x0 dt X,o) Xx, (o) do

for complex x,) and x,(0)
Proof:

.
00dt Xdo tnd
2. Interchanging the order of integration, we have

do

do

X,o)X,to)N do =RHS
3. (t) x) dt x,o) X,(o) do
Que 2.12. Find the fourier transform of the signals below:

i a(t)= A t<T
0, 1t1>T
ii. alt) =e- u(t)
AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
OR
Explain fourier transform of single sided
exponential pulse.
AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer

i. Given, xt)= <7,

xtt 0, t|>T%
Taking fourier transform
2-18D (EN-Sem-3)
Fourier Transform Analysis

SO Xo) =
J x) edt

- AdA-j

e e ] =[ e T - e
J

Xo) 2A e-eh
Xa) o =

2
24T, Sin o1,. 2AT, sinc oT,
i. Given, x(t) = e*at u(t)

t) = ea,t>0
lo t<0
The fourier transform
of the given signalis
Xto)=a0)edt=e"eMdt

ea*jo 7
L-(a + jo) (a+ jo) a+ jo

Que 2.18.State and prove duality property of fourier transform.

Find the inverse fourier transform of,

2 cos o, lol<n
Xjo) o, lol>r

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10

Answer
A Duality property : Refer Q.2.10, Page 2-12D, Unit-2.
B. Numerical:

2 cos o; lol<n
Given Xjo) =
lol>z
Basic Signals and Systems 2-19D (EN-Sem-3)

xltl = P|{Xjo)) = 2 cos o e do

e +e do

jl+tho e t ] do
ZTt -

1e L
d-2 d-
F

-j(1-D
el+t)-eJl+t)r

sin1+tsin
(1-t
(1+t (1-tt
Obtain the Fourier transform of r(t) eatu(t), a >0.
Que 2.14.| =

AnsweT

X) =

J z(t)et dt =
f e t dt
ea2
=
feja dt =-(a +j2nf)

{a+ j2nf
1
a +j2nf)l0-11

a+j2f
Derive the Fourier transforms of the following
Que 2.16.
functions:
rect ()
ii. e-2]E|
iii. sin 2t
2-20 D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

Answer
i. rect (t):

JA; 0<t <T

ft)=
0 otherwise
Fi)= Flw) =f)e dt =
Aedt

Ae
jo

24 -
2j
wT
-Sin2
2A sin = ATe
2

ii. e-2|#l:

Plo)= Jeedt fej dt+fe-=

dt
e2-jo) 24jo)t

2-Jo)1-2 j
1-0
= | -0-1
2+jo)) 2+2
(2)+0

iii. sin 2t:

F isin 2t) = Mo) = | sin 2tedt

(ea-e4) e" dt

=Fle-e4)
j2
2too-2) 2oo + 21

Fo) = (8(o -2) - 8o + 2)]

Basic Signals and Systems 2-21 D (EN-Sem-3)

Que 2.16.| Calculate the Fourier transform of the following

functions:
i. Unit impulse sequence, x, lk] 5[k }k
=

ii. Decaying exponential sequence, «,lk] =p'ulk] with |pl <1.

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
i. Unit impulse sequence:
Given,
for k=0
Slk] =
0 for k *0

Then X,(o)= . , lkle* dk

=k l e dk= e o=1

ii. Decayingexponential sequence:

Given, kl pul] with Ipl
Leteok =p-jok]

pulkl p dk=P dk
T-jo

io -1

Que 2.17. Use fourier transform to find the output voltage V, in

the Fig. 2.17.1.

iCt)= e u(t) (A) (A) g3n1F Vgt)

Fig. 2.17.1
Answer
1. By KCL, , io), V, o)-v,joJ
3 1/jo
2-22 D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

2. Here,
Ijo)= 1
1+JJO
3.
1+ jo V,o)
3 2
Vjo)= (a1+ jo)(1+ Jj30) l+ jo
+ jo

4. 3
Taking inverse Fourier transform V,0)= e" e

PART 3
Definition of DTFS, and DTFT.

Questions-AnSwers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer
lype Questions

Que 2.18.Define DTFS. Also write the different properties of

Discrete time Fourier series?

Answer
A DTFS (Discrete time fourier series): For a discrete-time signal
xn], DTFS of xin] is defined as,

zln] = D,en
k =0
.(2.18.1)

N.2lne .(2.18.2)

Eq. (2.18.1) and (2.18.2) are called discrete time fourier series pairs.
B. Properties of discrete time fourier series:
1. Linearity property:
Let x,ln] and x,In} be two periodic
signals with fundamental N
According to linearity property the linear combinations of period
these two
signals is also periodic with the same fundamental frequency
No
Ax,nl+ Bx,lnle AD,, +
BD,
2. Time shifting property:
If xn is time shifted by ng, then the periodicity of x/n ngl -

is same as
xln).
Basic Signals and Systems 2-23 D (EN-Sem-3)

x\n - n,l e " o D,

Time reversal property:

Ifxnl with fundamental period No, is the time reversal, the fundamental
period is not changed but the Fourier coefficient changes its sign.

x- n]SD,
Multiplication property:
Ifx, n) and x,ln) are two DT signals with Fourier series coefficients as
D, and D, then the Fourier series coefficient of Znl =*,/nl xzgn] is

D = D,D
5. Conjugation property:
According to this property, the discrete time Fourier coefficient of:*[nl
conjugate and time reversal of that of x[n],

x*n]SD,*
Que 2.19.What do you understand by DTFT ? What is the
condition for existence of DTFT?

Answer
A DTFT: It stands for discrete-time Fourier transform which gives the
description of zln] in frequency domain. It is given by

Firinll X) = in]e te

B. Condition for existence of DTFT: Since the DTFT is given as

X)= xtnle
Now, we know that
e|=l
The X(0) can exist only ifx[n] is absolutely summable.

Que 2.20. What are the different properties of DTTT?

Answer
The DTFT has following properties:
. Linearity: The D'TFT is linear in nature.
2-24 D (EN-Sem-3) Fourier Transform Analysis

Mathematically,
if x, In]D X,o
DTFT
and x,n] X,(n)
then, a,n} +an] a,X,)+ a,X,)
2. Periodicity: The D'TFT is always periodic with period 2nt.
Mathematically,
if xln]4 DTFT X(Q)
then, X(Q + 2Tk) = X2)
3. Time-shifting: This property states that if a discrete-time signal is
shifted inthe time-domain by an amount of no, a factor 'em is
multiplied with X(0).
Mathematically,
if xln] XQ)
then, r n - nol e-jn0 X(Q)
4
Frequency-shifting: This property states that the multiplication by
a factor e 0n in time domain sequence xln) results shift in frequency in
X(0) by an amount of Qg.
Mathematically,
if xn]D X(Q)
then, eon in]DIT_ X(Q-9)
5. Time-reversal: This property states that if a discrete-time signal is
folded about the origin in time, its magnitude spectrum remains
unchanged while the phase spectrum of this signal undergoes just
change in sign.

Mathematically,
if xln]«DTT X(Q)
then, x-r] X(-Q)
Scaling: Mathematically,
if xn] TPT_ XQ)

then, yln) = xlkn]-DTFT

7. Differentiation in frequency-domain:Mathematically,
if xln] DITFT_ X)
Basic Signals and Systems 2-25 D (EN-Sem-3)

nxn] T,dX(Q)
then,
d
& Conjugation and conjugate symmetry: Mathematically,

if xlnl X(Q)
x*In] D T E T X*(2)
then,
9. Convolution: Mathematically,

X,Q)
and ,a]DI X,(0)
then, yln) = *,ln]* x,lnl Y0) = X,).X,0)

PART-4
Sampling Theorem.

me.Ar
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.21. State and prove sampling theorem.

AKTU 2020-21,Marks 10
Answer
Statement:
Sampling theorem states that a band-limited signal of finite energy,
which has no frequency components higher than o Tad/s (or in Hz),
may be completely recovered from a knowledge of its samples if the
samplíng frequency o, 2 20, samples/rad/s (or f, 2 2 samples/s). Thus,
the sampling frequeney
o,2 20 orf,22f
Proof:
Let x(t) is a continuous-time band limited signal and it has X(») = 0for
1
2. 5,) is an impulse train which samples at a rate off, Hz and x,() is the
sampled signal.
0) =xt).60)
where, 8,0)= 8t-nT)
= -
2-26 D (EN-Sem-3)
Fourier Transform Analysis

x(t)

T 5T
T
x(t) x(nT) -5T **** -TM

1111t.
-2T-T 0 T 2T
Fig. 2.21.1. Sampling operation.
3. Since, the exponential form of Fourier series of ö(t) is

...(2.21.1)
4. Taking Fourier transform both sides of eq.
on
(2.21.1), we have
Xo) 2 X(o-no,)

xD =1. 2 Xf-nf,)
n-0

5. Thus, the spectrum of the sampled signal X (o) is the sum of shifted

replicas X(o) of centering at wheren

n, =
0, + 1, t2,..
6. For signal recovery, ,-02m
Or
,2 20
O f,2 f m
X(o)

D.
(a)
Basic Signals and Systems 2-27D (EN-Sem-3)

m 2Ts m m m m 2 °m
T T
(6)
Fig. 2.21.2. Frequency domain representation of sampling.
Que 2.22. What is Shannon's sampling theorem 7 Also discuss

aliasing by taking example. AKTU 2020-1,Marke 10

Answer
Shannon's sampling theorem (Sampling theorem)
Refer Q. 2.21, Page 2-25D, Unit-2.
Aliasing effect:
When o, < 2»,, (i.e., undersampling), there is an overlap between the
shifted replicas of X(o).
2. Consequently xtt) cannot be recovered exactly from x,t) even by means
ofan ideal low-pass filter.
3. Overlap in the shifted replicas of the originel spectrum is termed :
aliasing, which refers to the phenomenon of a high frequency
component in the spectrum of the signal seemingly taking on the
identity of a lower frequency in the spectrum of its sampled version.
4. Overlap between the replicas of Xo) centred at o = 0 and at o = o,
occurs for frequencies between o,0 and o
5. These replicas add, and thus the basic shape of the spectrum changes
from portions of a triangle to a constant, as shown in Fig. 2.22.1.
AX, )

20
m
Aliasing
Fig. 2.22.1.Aliasing or spectrum folding
6. The spectra cross at frequency o/2. This frequency is called the folding
frequency. The spectrum, therefore, folds onto itself at the folding
frequency.
.
The components of frequencies above o/2 reappear as components of
frequencies below o/2. This tail inversion is known as spectral folding
or aliasing8.
2-28 D (EN-Sem-3)
Fourier Transform Analysis

8. To combat the effect of aliasing we may use two corrective measures

as described here
Prior to sampling, a low-pass pre-alias filter is used to attenuate those
high frequency components of the signal that are not essential to the
information conveyed by the signal.
The filtered signal is sampled at a rate
slightly higher than the Nyquist
rate.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well a8
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q.1. Briefly explain the three forms of Fourier series.
Ans Refer Q. 2.2, Unit-2.

.2. What do you mean by the existence of Fourier series ? And

explain properties of Fourier series.
Ans Refer Q. 2.4, Unit-2.
Q.3. Obtain the trigon etric Fourier series for the half-wave
rectified sine wave.
Ans Refer Q. 2.6, Unit-2.
Q4 State and prove the properties of continuous-time Fourier
transform
Ans Refer Q. 2.10, Unit-2.
5 . Explain fourier transform ofsingle sided exponential pulse
Ans Refer Q. 2.12, Unit-2.

6 . Derive the Fourier transforms ofthe following functions:

i. rect (t) ii. e-214 ii. sin 2t
Ans: Refer Q. 2.15, Unit-2.
7 . Define DTFS. Also write the different properties of Discrete
time Fourier series ?
Ans Refer Q. 2.18, Unit-2.
Q8. What are the different properties of DTFT ?
Ans Refer Q. 2.20, Unit-2.
Q.9. State and prove sampling theorem.
Ans Refer Q. 2.21, Unit-2.
 3
UNIT
Laplace Transform
Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 Review of Laplace Transform... 3-2D to 3-5D
*****

Part-2 Properties of Laplace Transform.. 3-5D to 3-8D

Part-3 : Initial and Final Value Theorems . 3 - 8 D to 3-11D

Part-4 Inverse Laplace Transform..********* 3-11D to 3-13D

Part-5 : Conv on Theorem, Impulse . 3-13D to 3-18D

Response
Part-6 Application of Laplace Transform. 3-18D to 3-24D
toAnalysis of Networks

Part-7 Waveform Synthesis and

Laplace Transform to Complex
3-24D to 3-27D

Waveforms

3-1D (EN-Sem-3)
3-2D (EN-Sem-3)
Laplace Transform Analysis

PART-1
Review of Laplace Transform.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions

Que 3.1. What is laplace transform ? Also explain the different

types of laplace transform.

Answer
Laplace transform: Let x(t) is defined fort > 0 and has zero value for
ts0.
The Laplace transform of x(t) is denoted as Llr(t) and is given as,

Llx(t = Xls) = x(t) ea* jo dt = |xt) e"dt

where, s is a complex variable and is equal to o +jo

Types of Laplace transform:
1. Unilateral Laplace transform: When the
integration is taken fromn
0' to 'o, the Laplace transform is called one-sided, or unilateral Laplace
transform. It is mainly used for the analysis of causal signals.
2. Right-sided: When integration is taken for positive side i.e. limits are
taken from 0 to 'o'.

Xs)= | zt)e"dt
3. Left-sided: When integration is taken for negative side, i.e., limits are
taken from-o' to 0.

X(s) = | xi)e"dt

4 Bilateral (two sided) Laplace transform': When integration is taken

from-o to o, then it is called bilateral or two sided Laplace transform.

X)= t)e"dt
Basic Signals and Systems 3-3D (EN-Sem-3)

Que 3.2.Find Laplace Transform of following functions:

e
ii. sin ot iii. cos ot
iv. sinhhat V. cosh at
vi. ea sin ot vii. ea cos ot
vii.ea cosh bt ix. ea sinh bt
OR
Calculate the Laplace transform for the function Ft) = e-at sin hbt.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10

Answer

L(eat) e e dt ea-a dt
= = =

L
Isin ot)= Leea
2js-jo s+ jo + 7
jii. L(cos atl=Le+et

2-j'+ja)*F.a
iv. Llsinh at)5L-"]=Ll)-Lle"]
2Ls-a s+a

. Llcosh at) = ;

Llesinar- Le -e |
a-jo_la+jo)
L2j
1 1
2 (s+a)-jo (s+a)+ jo J (s +a) +o

vii. Lea cosaot= Llleta-jo 4erlarjuoe

3-4D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

1 1 1-
+- S+a
2 (s +a)-jo (s+a)+ jo (s+a? +o
viii. Lle-a cosh bt) = L e a"

Le-a +e-b+at| Lle

a-be-la+br
S+a

2Ls +(a-b) s+(a +b)(s+a-2

ix. Lle at sinh bt) = L|e Llea-b-eta-b

2Ls+(a-6) s+(a+6)] (6+a-8

Que 3.3. Find the Laplace transform of signal u(t).
OR
Calculate the unilateral Laplace transform for the following
functions:
i. Unit impulse function, « , ) =ôt);

ii. Unit step function, a,(t) = u(f) AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
i. Unit impulse:8()
) = 8(t)

Llx,) = X,() = Jött)e" dt

X,(a) = e*,=0=1 : t ) = 1 only t = 0]

ii. Unit Step:u(t)
xlt) = u(t)

Lz,e)= Xs) = ult)ers dt

= Jer" dt u l t ) = 1 for t> 0]1

-st
3-4D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

1 +
+a

2 (s+a)- jo (s+a)+ jo (s +a +
vii. LHeat cosh bt) =Lle-o + e

Ll-o +eb-a"] =Llea-br +e a-br ]

1 Sta
s +la-b) s+(a+b)J (s+a*-62
ix. Llet sinh bt) =
L|e" e-a-b-e-a+b"
1 b
28+(a-b) s+(a+b)] (s+a-
Que 3.3. Find the Laplace transform of signal u(t).
OR
Calculate the unilateral Laplace transform for the following
functions:
i. Unit impulse function, *,() 8(t);=

ii. Unit step funetion, x,(t) = u(t)

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 100
Answer
i. Unit impulse: 6(t)
) = 6(t)

Llz,0) = X,s) = J8t) er" dt

X,(s) = etI,=0=1 : &0) = 1 only t = 0

ii. Unit Step: u(t)
x t ) = ult)

Llx,() = X,(s) = Jult) e dt

u l t ) = 1 for t> O}

X,ls)=
Basic Sigmals and Systems 3-5 D (EN-Sem-3)

Que34. Write the Laplace transforms of

Unit ramp and
ii. Parabolic functions.

Answer
Unit ramp:t ult)
t ) = r(t) = t ult)

Fs)=Lltut) =fte* dt
= [0 -

ii. Parabolie function: ktult)

At) = kt* ult)

Po)-LAkt ult)=Ja?e" dt

k0-01 ftede

PART 2
Properties of Laplace Transform.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
3-6D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

Que 3.5. What are the different properties of laplace transform ?

Answer
1. Linearity: Considering two signals x(t) and x,(t) with Laplace
transforms X,(s) and X,(s) respectively.

f x,() X,(s)
and x,(t) X,s)
then,
Lla,rt) +azz)) =a,X,(s) +aXls)
where, a and a, are constants.
Time shifting:
If the x(t)
signal is delayed in time by t unit then its Laplace transform
is multiplied by e- sto factor.
if x(t) Xs)
then, xt -t) esto X(s)
where,t is a constant.
Frequency shifting: Ifthere is any shift in X(s) by a unit, it will cause
a
multiplication factor e" in signal x(t).
if x(t) L Xts)
then, et r(t) X(s -a)
4 Differentiation theorem:

If x(t) Xs)
then differentiation theorem
gives,
sX(s) -x{0)
where, x{0)> value of x(t) at t= 0-
(t =
0)> indicates the time first before t = 0
5. Differentiation bys: The differentiation in
complex frequency-domain
corresponds to multiplication by t in the time-domain.
If x(t) Xs)
then, tx(t) -Xs)

then d"
xt) (-1r X(s)
ds"
Integration theorem: This theorem states that,
If zlt) Xls)
then, X(s)
xtdt S
Basic Signals and Systems 3-7D (EN-Sem-3)
7. Scaling property: This theorem states that,
If
x(t) Xls)
then, x(at)LT,.

Que 3.6.If the laplace transform of x(t) is (s + 2)/(s2 4s + 5),

determine the laplace transform ofy(t) = x(2t - 1) u(2t 1).

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer
1. The Laplace transform of x(t) u{t) is

xt) ult) _8+2)

4 s +5)
2. Applying time shifting property.
x{t - 1) u (t- 1) *(s+2)
(s+4s+5)
3. Now, applying time scaling property.

x(2t - 1) u (2t- 1) e 2=

e 2 ( 8 + 4 )

(s+8s+20)
4 Hence, the Laplace transform of y() = x(2t - 1) u (2t - 1) is,

Y(s) = e2(s+4)
(s+8s+ 20)

Que 3.7.
Obtain the Fourier transform of x(t) =e*a"u(t), a>0.
ii. Find the Laplace transform of signal u(t).
iii. Find the Laplace transform of the signal.
x(t)= -

te- ult)
iv. List some properties of continuous-time Fourier transform.

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
i. Fourier transform of r(t) =e"ut), a>0: Refer Q 2.14, Page 2-19D,
Unit-2
3-8D (EN-Sem-3)
Laplace Transform Analysis
ii. Laplace transform of signal u(t): Refer Q. 3.3, Page 3-4D, Unit-3.
ii. Laplace transform of signal, x(t) -"
=-
te u(t):

Llu(t)) =
S

Lle ut)]=
+ 2

L-teu(t)] = -(-1'
ds s +2

ds s+2
(s +2
iv. Properties of fourier transform : Refer Q.2.10, Page 2-12D, Unit-2.

Que 3.8. A signal has Laplace transform X(s) =

(s+2)
(s+ 4s +5)
Find the Laplace transform Y(s) of the
i. y(t) =trt) following signals
ii. y(t)=er'r(t)
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
y(t) = t x(t)

Ys)=(X(s))
s

(s+4s+5)1)-(s+2) (2s+ 4)
(s+4s+5
s+4s+3
(s2 +4s+5
ii. y(t) =erx{t)
Y(s) = Xs + 1)

s+1+2 s+3
(s +1 +4(s + 1)+5 s +6s+10

PART-33
Initial and Final Value Theorems.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Basic Signals and Systems 3-9 D (EN-Sem-3)

Que 3.9.State and prove initial and final value theorems of

Laplace transform.
Answer
i. Initial value theorem: The initial value
theorem states that if
the Laplace transform of flt) then, Fls) is
A0) lim f(t)=lim sF(s)
=

Proof
Consider the Laplace transform of the real differentiation,
L s Fs)-f(0)
2. Taking limit as s o n both the sides
L df(t)
limd t |= lim sFls)- F0) ..(3.9.1)
3. Consider the left hand side of eq. (3.9.1)
lim L = lim e"| dft)
dt dt (by definition of Laplace)
***Ldt j
limL )]
* dt 0 as lim e is zero ...3.9.2)
4. Putting eq. (3.9.2) in eq. (3.9.1), we get
0= lim s Fls) -A0
i.e. fo) = lim s Fls)

But as the functionft) is continuous, f0*) = f0*) i.e. the initial value of
At).
f(0) = lim ft) = lim sFls)
10
ii. Final value Theorem: The final value theorem states that if Fls) is
the Laplace transform of fe) then the final value of the function At) is
given by,
f(co) = lim ft) = lim sPls)
s0

Proof:
1. Consider the Laplace transform of the real differentiation,

d t = sPMs) -f(0-)
2. Taking limit as s > 0 on both the sides

limL df)]
dt limls F(s)-f(0 ..(3.9.3)

3. Consider the left hand side of eq. (3.9.3),

3-10D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

lim L f ( t ) ]
lim df t)- ". dt(\,dt as lim e" =1
0L dt J ** dt

f = lim ft) -f(0

...(3.9.4)
4. Putting eq. (3.9.4) in eq. (3.9.3), we get
lim ft) -f(0) = lim s Fls) - f 0 )
t s0

lim ftt) = lim s Fls)

Que 3.10.| Find the final value of the function f(t) = 2+e3 cos 2t.

Answer

Given At)= 2+e- cos 2t

To find: Laplace transform, F(s)
1. Using Laplace transform,
Fls) = 2 8+3
(s +3 +4
2. Using final value theorem, we get

f)= lim sFs) =lim

s*+3-4
S +
lim s . + lim s . S + 3
80 S 0 (s +3) + 4
= 2 +0 2

Que 3.11.|Calculate the initial and final values of the functions

r , , z0), whose Laplace transforms are specified below:

X,(s) = * with ROCR,: Rels})> 0;

s(s+1)(s + 2)
8+5
X8) +68+178413 with ROC R; Rels)>-1;

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
8+3
X,(s)la + 1) (s +2) with ROC R,:Rels)> 0

1. Initial value, 0)= lim [8X,(8))

lim | sx +3)
sls +1)(s +2)
 3-11 D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Signals and Systems

lim

11.
s+3)
2 Final value, fc) lim sX,(3)= lim sx 3/2
s(s + 1s +2)
The ROC ofX,(s) is Re(s) > 0. Thus initial and final value is a right-sided

signal.
X(s)= 8 +
5/s 5s
+ + 17s + 13
Solution of ss + 5s2 +17s + 13 by factor =(s + 1) (s2+ 4s + 13)
Taking partial fraction,
s+5 A B s +C
(s +1)(s+4s + 13) (s+1) s* + 4s + 13

3. On solving partial faction, we get

AB-C-
(s - 2)

Xgs)= 3(s +1) 3(s +4s+13)

5. Initial value, A0)= lim [sX,(s)]
s(s- 2 )
**|3(s + 1) 3(s* + 4s+13)

sts-2)
im al1 13(+ 4s +13)
6 Final value, fAo) lim lsX,(s))
s(s-2)
0
lim|( s + 1)
3 3(s* + 4s +13)

7. The ROC of X,(s) is Re(s) > - 1. Thus initial and final value is a right

sided signal.

PART-44
Inverse Laplace Transform.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
3-12D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

Que 3.12. What is inverse Laplace transform ?

Answer
It is used to convert frequency-domain signal Fis) to the time-domain
signal flt). It is given as,
fAt) = L-[F(s))

1
ft)= 2n Fls)e ds
G- jo

gue 3.13. Caleulate the inverse Laplace transtorm of right-sided

sequences with the following transfer functions

X,(s) = s(s +S+3

1) (s + 2)

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
s+3
1. Given,
Xs) s(s+1) (s +2)
2. Using partial fraction,

s+3
s(s +1) (s+2) s s +1 s+2

Als +1)(s +2) +Bs (s +2)+ Cs (s +1)

ss +1) (s+2)

As' +3As +2A + Bs*+2Bs +Cs +Cs

s(s+1)
(s +2)

A+B+C)s +3As+2Bs +Cs+2A

s(s +1) (s + 2)
A +B +C = 0, 3A + 2B+C 1, 2A = 3

A-B--2c-
2
X,ls)=
2s(s+1) 2(s +2) ..(3.13.1)
3 Taking inverse Laplace transform of (3.13.1), eq. we get

z 0)=-2e+ 2
 3-13D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Signals and Systems

Que 3.14. IfX(s)= (2s +3/s +1) (s +2), find x() for
i. System is stable.
ii. System is causal.
ii. System is non-causal. AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10
Answer

1. Given, X(s) = 2s+3

(s+ 1) (s + 2)
2. Using partial fraction expansion,
B
X(s) = A
(s+1) (s +2)
A 1, B 1
3. On solving partial fraction, = =

1
So, X(s)
S) = 1 3.14.1)
(s +1) (s +2)
thus ROC is
If system is stable, its ROC should include j» axis,
Re(s)>- 1.
Now taking inverse Laplace transform of eq. (3.14.1)
xt) = e-t ult) +e-" ult)
If system is causal then ROC is Re(s) >
-

1, hence taking inverse

Laplace transform of eq. (3.14.1),
x(t) = e*' u(t) +e-" ult)
is Re(s) 2. Hence táking inverse
If system is non-causal, then ROC
<-
ii.
Laplace transform of eq. (3.14.1)
a(t) = - e- u(-t)-e u(-t)

PART5|
Convolution Theorem, Impulse Response.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.15. State and prove convolution theorem

Answer
A Convolution theorem:
Convolution theorem states that ifthere are two functions given by f(t)
which are zero for t < 0 and their Laplace transforms
are
and ),
3-14D (EN-Sem-3)
Laplace Transform Analysis

LW) F8) =
and Li,0)) F,ls)
=

then,
LF,6). F_e)) = f(0 * f )
B. Proof:

1. Let Fs) =
Lt)) J e" f)dt Assuming/ (0)=ftN
=

+
and Gs) L
=
lg(t)) Je* g(t) dt [Assuming f0) =g)
=

be the two Laplace transforms.

2. Lets convolution
of fE), g{t) is denoted as:

f()*g )= J fl) gt- r) dr

3. Thus the Laplace transform for the convolution would be,

LIf )* g ()} =
J e* g t - )dr) dt
=
e f() gt -

t) dr dt
0
4. Let
t-Tp, then dt =dp
5. LIA) *
g(t) =
J, f()J, stp)e "*P dt dp
6.
flt) e" dr elp) e" dp =
FMs). G(s)
Lf (t) *g (t)) = L{ft)). Lig(t)) = Fs) Gls)
Que 3.16.
What are the properties of convolution ?
ii. Find the unit step
response of the system given by
h(t) (1/RC).e-tRC u(t)
=

AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
Properties of convolution:
Commutative property: The commutative
states that property of convolution
) xt)
Distributive property:x,t)
®
2. x,(t)
=

The distributive
that property of convolution states

3.
x0) o +x,) «,) ®x,0) ,0) ® x,
=
+
Associative property: The associative property
that of convolution states
Basic Signals and Systems 3-15 D (EN-Sem-3)

x(0)x,)® x0) = z,) ®x,N ® x,(0)

Shift property: The shift property ofconvolution states that
if ( 0 ) x 0 ) = z(t)

thenx,(t)® x,t - T) = zlt - T)

x t - T ) 8 x , ) = zlt - T)

andx,(t-T)®x,t-T2)=z(t-T1-T)
5. Convolution with an impulse: Convolution of a signal x(t) with a
unit impulse is the signal itself, i.e.,
x(t)® 8t) = x(t)

6. Width property: Let the duration of x,t) and a,t) be T and T2

respectively. Then the duration of the signal obtained by convolving
xt) and x,) is T, +T2
Differentiation property:
According to the differentiation property,
if xlt) ht) =y(t)

then dx h(t) =x(t)® e)dy

dt
8 Time-scaling property:
If xlt) ® h{t) = y(t),

then xlat) ® h{at) =

at)
ii. Numerical:
2.
L. htt) = (1/RC).e-RC ult)
The s t e p r e s p o n s e can be o b t a i n e d from i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e as

y)= h(t) dr

1
RC tRCu(t) dt
/R d
1
C-1/RCle

= 1-e-lRC for t 2 0D
9ue 3,17.| State and prove convolution property of Laplace
transform and then using this property find Laplace inverse

transform o(+1)(8 +2) AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

3-16D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

Answer
A. Convolution theorem: Refer Q. 3.15, Page 3-13D, Unit-3.
B. Numerical:

Fs) =
(s +1) (s +2)
Let
Fs)(s+1)
Fls)F,(s) F,(s)
=
-1-,:F{)= a+2
2. Taking inverse Laplace transform ofF|(s) and
f ) = 8t) - e* ult)
F,(s), we get
Similarly, f t) = e u(t)
3. Using convolution theorem,
ft) =
Jf, f.t-rdt
=
[8(T)e ulTl e-2 *2) ult -

T)dt

e-* ult- TIdt =e-4-1,t)

4. 7,)= Je-" ult -td
Putting t t mn; dt =- dm
At T0, m =t
Tt, m =0

et- ulmdm=-e
e t- 1 + 1 e2
5. ft) e-1,t) = e"-et+e"=-ert+ 2e-

Que 3.18. Find the inverse Laplace transform of given function by

using convolution theorem:
i. x(s) =1/8+a2
ii. als)= s/(s + 1) (8 +2)
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
18Wer

1. Given, rls) = 1//s+a2

Let
8) 25)=4
2. Inverse laplace transform of x, (s) and x,ls), we get
*)= sinat
Basic Signals and Systems 3-17D (EN-Sem-3)

Similarly, x,t) = sinat

3. By convolution theorem,

x,) x x0) - u ) x,0 - w) du

= s i n au sinalt - u) du = J, sin au sin(at - au) du

;lcos(au - a t + au)- cos{au +at -

au)] du

cos(2 au -

at)du -

;J.cos'at du

1 sin(2au- a
2 2a lo a u it

1sin(2at-at) sin(0-at) l t cos at - 0

2a 2a

1Ssin atsin (- at) t at]

24 cos at]
cos
2a 2

12L 2sin2aaft cos atl

[ s i n at - ta cos at

ii. ReferQ. 3.17, Page 3-15D, Unit-3.

Que 3.19.| For a transfer function H(s)
=
(6+ 10)/(s*+3s+2). Find the

response due to input z(t) = sin 2(t) u(t). | AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10

Answer

H(s) _3+110
Given,
=

s+3s+2
x(t) = sin 2t u(t)

2. Taking laplace transform,

X(s) =
+4
Yls) = H(s) X(s)
3. Response
s+10
(s +3s +2) x (s* + 4)
3-18D (EN-Sem-3)
Laplace Transform Analysis
Y(s) = S+

(s* + 4)x (s* +3s +2)

(S + 10)
s + 1)(s + 2) (s* + 4)
4. Taking partial fractions,
Ys)=A B_ Cs+D
(s +1) (s +2)2+4
Ys) = / 7 , 33/7 .-447s -75/7)
(s +1) (s +2) + (2)

Yls)=

5. Taking inverse laplace transform on both sides,

33
yt) =
e7 ut) +
e ult)-lcos
7
2t ut)

-sin 20) ut)

PART6
Application of Laplace Transform to Analysis of Networks.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.20.Draw the transformed circuit components

representation in laplace form.

Answer
Circuit components
1.
representation in laplace form:
Independent source:

) vt)> V(s)
() ic)»(t) 1o
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.20.1. Representation of (a) voltage source (b) current source
Basic Signals and Systems 3-19D (EN-Sem-3)

2. Resistor:

ig(t)

Vs)

Fig. 3.20.2.

KVL: VaCe)= Rip0)=Vals) =Rlale)

KCL ipt) = (1/R) Vplt) »Iplo) = (1/R) Vpl)
3 Capacitor:

Ics)
ict) 1/sC=

Vct) V0) C= Vc8)v 0Vs

(a) Capacitive element (6) Representation in series form

cls)

sC
Vcs)

(c) Representation in parallel form

Fig. 3.20.3.

KVL: vclt)= Jictvdt+Ve(0)= Vcls)= ols)+Yc

SC S

KCL:i) C dt Ic(s)=sCVols)-CV(0)
4. Inductor:
3-20 D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

',(t)

VLt) V(s)

Li(0)

(a) Inductive element (6) Representation in series form

Ls)

VIS) 1/sL t) igOVs

(c) Representation in parallel form

Fig. 3.20.4.

KVL: vt) = V,(s) = sLI,(s) - Liz (0)

dt
KCL
iz0) Vdt +i, (0)»1,(6)= )
sL
, iz0)
s
Que 3.21. Initially switch is closed for a long time and steady.
state condition has reached. At t = 0 switch is opened. Find the
expression of current through inductor.
R=10
W-o
SW
V 10 V L=2H C 5F

Fig. 3.21.1.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
1. When the switch is closed, the current is passing through R, and L and
Cis open circuited. Under this condition the initial current is limited by
R only. Thus
Basic Signals and Systems 3-21 D (EN-Sem-3)

i(0) = = 1 Amps
10
2. The initial charge across capacitor is zero because the entire voltage is
applied across R only. Therefore the following loop equation for LC
circuit is written when the switch is open.

Li)Jitd
t
+ o,) =0
3. Taking LT and substituting i(0) = 1 and v,(0) = 0, we get

Li(0)

28 OS )2
(10s + 1) Is) = 10s
(s2+0.1) I(s) = s
(s-0.32) (s + j0.32)(s) =s
S
Is) =
(s-j0.32)(s+ j0.32)

2 (s- j0.32) (s+j0.32)

4. Taking inverse Laplace transform

it)= 32 +e/034 cos 0.32t

Que 3.22 Consider a series RL cireuit shown in Fig. 3.22.1. The
switeh is closed at timet = 0, find the current ict) using Laplace
transform.
R 10 Q

20 V ilt)
WWW
5H

Fig. 3.22.1.

Answer
1. Initial condition, i(0) = 0
Using KVL,

Rit)+620
3. Taking Laplace transform,
20
10/(s) +6lsT(s) - i(0)) =

10/(8)+ 5s/(s) =
( i(0) = 0)
3-22 D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

4
I(s) = 20/s 20
10 + 5s s(5s + 10) s(s +2)
4. Using partial fraction,

Is) s+2
5. Taking inverse Laplace,

it) = 2(1-e-21)

Que 3.23. In the cireuit shown in Fig. 3.23.1, the input is 0.4 ult).
Find u)with the switch closed at t = 0 assuming zero initial
conditions.

20 Q 2
Xo- ww O00000
t 0

0.4 ult

Fig. 3.23.1.

Answer
1. As the initial conditions are zero, the s-domain network of the given
circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.23.2.

202 2 s

000
04 I(s) Ve 50

Fig. 3.23.2.

2. Applying KVL to the loop,

Is)
(4)
20+2s+0
0.4
2s*+20s+50

0.2
s+10s+25
Basic Signals and Systems 3-23 D (EN-Sem-3)

0.2 10
Vc(s)=x(s)=U
ss+10s +25 s(s+10s+25)
10
Vc (8) = A, B C
s(s+5) s s+5 (s+5)
Als + 5 + Bs (s + 5) +Cs = 10
5. Comparing, A
=0.4, B=-0.4, C=-2
Vls)= .4 0.4 2

6.
S8+5 (s+5
Uct) = L[V(8)) =0.4 u(t) - 0.4e-6t-t e-6t V

Que 3.24. How differential equation is solved ?

Answer
1. When the initial conditions are specified for the given differential
equation, they have to be accounted for when LT is taken to convert
the differential equation to
algebraic equation. Thus

sY s)-(0)
L =s#Y (s) - sy(0)-s (0-)
dt
L =SY (a) -s0*)- s(0-)- 50n
The initial conditions y(0), j (0°) and 5 (0) are meant that the
system
initial conditions are given just before the input is
applied to the system.
The initial conditiony(0°) indicates that the initial condition is given to
the system after the input is applied which is not realistic. Unless
otherwise mentioned, y(0) means y(0) (and y(0) is not y(0*).
2. The zero initial conditions explained in step 1 are applicable to the
input also. Thus

= $X(s)
- x(0)
dt
3. The initial conditions for an input multiplied by u(t) implies that the
signals are zero prior to t = 0.
4 The solution of the differential equation contains two components:
a. The first component is the response due to the initial conditions only
where the input is assumed to be absent. The response is called the
zero input response.
b. The second component is the response due to the input alone and the
initial conditions here are assumed to be zero. Such response is called
zero state response.
3-24 D (EN-Sem-3)
Laplace Transform Analysis
5. The total response = Zero state
response + Zero input response.
6. Ifone is interested to find out the zero initial conditions
for verification
of the results, only the zero
input response has to be considered and
not the total response. The total
response satisfies the initial conditions
att = 0*.

Que 3.25. Using Laplace transform, solve differential equation :

2 i +7* +6xr = 0
where, x(0) = 0, * (0) = 1

Answer

Given: 2ä+ 7 + 6x 0, x(0) = 0, * (0) = 1

To find: Output, x(t).
1. Taking Laplace transform,
2sX(s)-2sx(0)-40rO)7X
+7sX(s)-7x(0)+6X(s) = 0
dt

2. X(s) (2s2+ 7s +6) 2dx(0)

=

2s+ 7)x(0)+d
2
3.
Xs)2s2+282+7s+6
4. xlt) = L-i(X(8))

2le1.5t-e-21]

P PART-7
Waveform Synthesis and Laplace Transform to Complex
Waveforms.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.26. Find the Laplace transform ofthe following waveforms

shown in Fig. 3.26.1 (a) and 3.26.1(6).
Basic Signals and Systems 3-25 D (EN-Sem-3)

x(t) x(t)

6 ii.

(a) Fig. 3.28.1. (6)

Answer
i. 1. Here, , ) = 3t ,0sts2

x{t) = -

3t +c, 23ts4
2. When t 2, x,(t) = 6
Hence, 6-3x 2+c
or C 12
3. xt) = -
3t + 12, 2StS4

X,s)= 3te dt =3 t e t dt
0

X(s) =

J(12-3/)e dt =|12e dt -3 te dt
2

12 -
4e
,
12e 12e" 6e 12es 3e4 3e2
* t2

S
3-26 D (EN-Sem-3) Laplace Transform Analysis

2s 28
be 3e 3e
= 2

S 2
X(s) =
X,{s) X,(s)
+

2s 6e 3e 3e2s
+
S

ii. 1.Sigmal can be written as,

x(t) = 3ul0) + 1.5t ult -2) - 1.5t ult-4) - 6u(t - 4)
2. Taking Laplace transform on both sides,
Xs)=
X(s) 31.5e1.5es 64
+ 2
=

Que 3.27.Determine the Laplace transform of the non-sinusoidal

waveform in Fig. 3.27.1.
i. ft) ii. t)

a 2a 3a 4a

Fig. 3.27.1
Answer
i The mathematical description of the periodic wave with period 2a is
written as
C)= 1;0stsa
-1;asts2a
Let F(8) be the LT of f(t) for the time 0 sts2a.

Fa)=S- e
Fs)= s)
1-e as]
Ps)= - e * 2
Fs)= s(1-e)
ii. Function can be written as
) =
ult)--3u(t- 1) + 5ult -2) -3ult -3)
Basie Signals and Systems 3-27 D (EN-Sem-3)

_3e 5e2 3e3

LiA) =

S S

Fs)= [13e" +5e-3ed

S

VERY IMPORTANTQUESTIOONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q1. Calculate the Laplace transform for the function F(t) = e-at
inhbt.
Ans: Refer Q. 3.2, Unit-3.

Q.2. Find the Laplace transform of signal u(t.

Ans Refer Q.3.3, Unit-3.

3 . What are the different properties of laplace transform ?

Ans Refer Q. 3.5, Unit-3.

Q.4. Ifthe laplace transform of r(t) is (s +2)/(s+ 4s +5), determine

the laplace transform ofy(t) =z(2t-1) u(2-1).
Ans Refer Q. 3.6, Unit-3.

5 . A signal has Laplacetransform X(s) = (s+2)

+ 4s +5)
Find the Laplace transform Y(s) of the following signals
i. y(t) =tx(t)
ii. ylt)=e'zt)
Ans Refer Q.3.8, Unit-3.
Q6. Caleulate the inverse Laplace transform of right-sided
sequences with the following transfer functions:
8+3
s(s+1) (s +2)
AnReferQ.3.13, Unit-3.
7 . State and prove convolution property of Laplace transform
and then using this property find Laplace inverse transform

(8 +1) (s 4+2)
 4
UNIT
State Variable Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction, State Space.* 4-ZD to 4-9DD
Representation of Linear Systems

Part-2 Transfer Function aiiu***************************

..4-9D to 4-12D
State Variables

Part-3 : State Transition Matrix . * * * * 4-13D to 4-16D

Part.4 Solution of State Equation for . 4-16D to 4-21D

Homogeneous and
Non-Homogeneous Systems
Part-5 Applications of State Variable. -21D to 4-23D
to the Analysis of
Technique
Linear Systems

4-1D (EN-Sem-3)
4-2D (EN-Sem-3)
State Variable Analysis

PART-1
Introduction, State Space Representation Linear
of Systems.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer
Type Questions

Que 4.1. What is state variable

analysis ? Also define state and
state variable.
OR
Define the following terms
i. State
i. State variable
iii. State vector
iv. State space
v. State equation

Answer
A State variable analysis : An nth order differential
generally suitable for computer solution; it is the best toequation
is not
n first-order
obtain a set of
differential equation, using a set of
called state variables and this auxiliary variables
approach is called State Variable Analysis.
B. Definition of the following terms:
State: The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables
such that theknowledge of these variables att t, with the knowledge
=

of the input for t 2

t, completely determines the behaviour of the
system for any time t 2 to
ii. State variables: The
variables involved in determining the state of
dynamics system are called state variables.
iii. State vector: If we need n variable to
of a given system, then these n
completely describe the behaviour
state variables may be considered as n
component of a vector x. Such a vector is called state vector.
iv. State space: The n-dimensional
space whose coordinate axes consists
of the x axis, x, axis., , axis is called state space. Any state can be
represented by a point in the state space.
V.
State equation:A state space representation is a mathematical model
of the physical system set of
as a
output, input and state variables
related by a differential equation is known as state equation.

Que 4.2.Discuss state space representation.

 4-3 D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Signals and Systems

Answer
In a state variable system, state variables are represented by x,(t),

x)..
2 Input variables by u,0), u), ..

3. Output variables by y,t), yt) ..

where,

u(t)
x(t) = |*3(t); ult) = u ( t ) y l t ) = Ya()

x,(0
So, dynamics of a system can be represented by nh order differential

equation

d"yt)d"ylt)dyt) dy(t) u{t) ...(4.2.1)

dt" dtn-1 2 d 2 ta-1 dt
+G,yt) =

5. The knowledge of initial conditions y(0), dt , , along with

dn-1along with

the input ut) for t2 0, completely determines the future behavior of the
system.

6. We take yt), dy(t) d ylt) as a set of n-state variables.

dt rdt"-
7. Let us define

8. Now from eq.(4.2.1

n-1"n-1*2 tn+u
9 We can write this set of equations in matrix form as,
* = Ar + Bu
y = Cx
Output
where,

n-1
4-4D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

0 0
0
A = B=
0 010 1

L n-1-a-2
10. For nth order single-input-single-output system:

* =Ax + Bu 174

A =System matrix of order (n xn)

B Input coupling matrix of order (nx 1D
C = Output coupling matrix of order (1 x n).

x = State vector of order (n x 1)

u = Scalar input of order (1 x 1)

y Scalar output of order(Ix1

11. For multivariable system

* = Ax + Bu
= Cx

y=2;r=

d21 a22 * d2n

A =

:2moidawpisishgo:»banproi.sody ci bidingastb

Ln 2 bm

C21 C2 * 2

Cpl Cp2 *** pn

Basic Signals and Systems 4-5 D (EN-Sem-3)

Que 4.3.Obtain the state space representation of the system

y+65+1lj +6y =6u
where,
youtput
u input

Answer

Given: +65+11ý+6y 6u

To Find:State space representation.

Let

2 Then

6u
3. Now, 3-6ix-1lx2-6r, +

4 In matrix form,

i Ar+ Bu
= Cx

6 -11 - 6 ] 6

Que 4A. Obtain the state variable representation of the system

described by the following differential equations:

dd ix-,4)+ 3u,0)+4u,(0)
and outputs,

43
d4+3
de
4-6D (EN-Sem-3)
State Variable Analysis

Answer
d"x 3dx
Given
dt3 d? 44x=u,()+3u,(t)+4u,(t)
y0)= 4 31
yalt)=
442+4s
dt
To Find:State space representation.
Let

2. Then,

g +3x+ 4x2 +4x1 =

+3u2 + 4
3. State space matrix
-3x-4x2 -4x +4 +3u2 +443

4
-4 4
-33 |1 3
4|l4s
Output,
-fo 4 0 3 o 0

Que 4.5.Obtain the state model of the electrical cireuit shown in

Fig. 4.5.1.

i(t)

i(t Vt) R
c

Fig. 4.5.1.

Answer
1. Applying KCL,
i =ict'L
Basic Signals and Systems 4-7 D (EN-Sem-3)

CdVc
dt
i
dVc ...(4.5.1)
dt

2 Applying KVL,

Ve Ldi RiL
4.5.2)

3. Using eq. (4.5.1) and (4.5.2), state model ofelectrical circuit is,

4. Output, VaRi=[0 R
Que 4.6. Obtain the state model for the given transfer function
Ts)= Yls)/ Uls) =
Klb,s + b,)/ (a+ as+ as+a
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
1 " Bréak thé transfer funetibn in two pärts'uia vdi niut:l sp
Y(s)X,(s) Y(s) K
Us) U(s) X, (s), s (Cs+C
+a,s" +a,s +4,

2. Now consider
X,(s)K
U(s) s+a,s +a,s d *

s +as +aa +a,lX,(s)=KU(s

3. Taking inverse Laplace

,(0)+a, ä,)+a, a,0)+a0 =Kut

x , ) = - a, , ( t ) -a , ( ) - a , x , ( ) + Kult)

4 Select the state variables as

4-8 D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

X-433-2*2a,7 +Ku

= 0 0 1,

(s) 3
d
. Consider, C+C
Yls) =
X,s) [Cs +Cq
5. Take inverse Laplace
yt) = Cx,+ CX2

ylt) C C0 x(t)
(g
IC C, O
w-L%
Que 4.7.Obtain the state model for the electric network shown
in Fig. 4.7.1. Select
i and Veas state variables.
R
W 0O0UO
VR +

v. VeC
Fig. 4.7.1.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer
1.
x,(t) i,(t) and x,(t) Vlt)
=
=

a1 And :h 915 ult) = V_(t) =Input variableei ser 7

2 Applying KVL to the loop, olso e lo
i
oi)m 1ie it}
V,)=i(0) R+L +Vt)
ni Arrange itfor di,tyd!,

t ' )1.lu
Basic Signals and Systems 4-9D (EN-Sem-3)

.(4.7.1)
.
,0 )-,0ut)
4. While Vt) = Voltage across capacitor = i , t ) d

dt

L.e., x() , x,() ..4.7.2)

5. Eq. (4.7.1) and (4.7.2) gives required state equations,

1 | 1
L L ut)
oxt)
i,0
Le. (t) = A x(t) + B ult)

6. While the output variable ylt) = Vlt) =z,()

yt) =

|0 1 0 ut)
y(t) = C x(t) and D = [0]

PART-2
Transfer Function and State Variables.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 48, What is transfer funetion ? Also derive the expression

for transfer function of a state model.

Answer
A. Transfer function:It is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output of the system to the Laplace transform of input, under the
assumptions that all initial conditions are zero.

C(s)
Ts) = Laplace transtorm of output
Laplace transform of input Rls)
4-10D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

B. Derivation:
1. Let us consider a vector matrix differential equation
i = Ar + Bu

and output, y = Cx

2. Now, taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions

sXls) = AX(s)+ BUls)

Xls) = Isl-AF BUs)

and Ys) = CXls)
Yls) = C is-Al-'BUls)
3. For a single-input-single-output system, Y and U are scalars.
4. Now transfer matrix can be given as

Transfer matrix Ys)Clsl

U(s)
-ATB
5. Transfer function = Cls-AHB= Cad(s/-
ADB
det ls-AA
6. Denominator part ie. |sl-A| is called the characteristic equation.
s-A=0
1. nh degree characteristic equation |s> - A|l = 0 has n roots or eigen

values.

Que 4 9 . i What is the transfer function ofa system whose poles

are at 0 . 3 j 0 4 andazero at-0.2?
ii. Give the Bxistence of DTFT
AKTU 20212, Marke10
Answer
i. Transfer function of a system :
1. Poles are at Z= -0.3j0.4,
2. Denominator polynomial
=
Z--0.3+j04)) 1Z --0.3-j.04)
3. Zero at Z= -0.2
4. Numerator polynomial
= Z+0.2
5. The transfer function is given by

H(Z)= Numerator
Demoninator

(Z+0.2)
(Z+0.3-j0.4) (Z +0.3+ j0.4)
Basic Signals and
Systems 4-11 D (EN-Sem-3)

(Z+0.2) Z+0.2v r
YZ+0.3) + (04Z+0.6Z +0.26
ii. Existence of DTFT: Refer Q.2.19, Page 2-23D, Unit-2.

Que 4.10.| Find the transfer function of the system given by

Answer
1. From the given model,

3
2. Transfer function Cls I-A'B
Cadjls/-AIB

S -3
. s I-A 2 5 33
s+5
adj ls I-Al=2 s3 3n
s-A| = s*+5s + 6 = (s +2) (s +3)

2 1s+5 3 0 1
5. Transfer function
1 0-2 s1 1
(s+2)(s+3)

2 13 s+8
1 0jls s-2
(s+2)(s+3)

s+6 3s+14
(s+2)(s+3) (s+2(s+3)

3 S+8

(s+2)(s+3) (s+2)(s +3)

4-12 D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

Que4.11. Find the transfer function from state variable

representation.
5+6y=u
Answerol . i iA19ilietoiM
Given: 8 6
y
To Find: Transfer function.
alrqo

1. Let y and x,= i', *#.

2t 2 + 6x, = u

2. State space matrix,

y = Cx

bl-[i o
AJB
CIs1- AJ-1B =C adjls/
-

3. Transfer function
-A

8+5 1}0
I1 o -6 s1
1
s -1
5s+6
6 8+5
Transfer function
2 +5s+6

PART3
State Transition Matrix.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer
Type Questions
Basic Sigmals and Systems 4-13 D (EN-Sem-3)

ue 4.12. What do you mean by state transition matrix ? State

and prove its properties.
OR
AKTU2018-19, Marks07
Explain state transition matrix, its physical significance and

properties. AKTU 2019-20, Marks10

Answer
A State transition matrix: The matrix ot) = exp (At) is an n xn matrix
and it helps in transition from initial state X(0) to any other staterit) for
t>0, hence ¢()is called statetransition matrix.
Derivation:
Consider homogeneous equation, with ult) = 0

= AX
Laplace transform,
sXs)-x(0) =A X(s)
(s1- A) Xs) = x(0)

Ildentity matrix
sScalarLaplace operator
2. Multiplying both sides by Is-AH
Xs) = [s/ - Allx(0)

X(s) = ¢(s) x(0)

where,
o(s) = [sl-A]-1

3. Taking inverse Laplace transform of X(s)

x(t) =L'X(s)) =L-' |sl-Al'x(0)

r(0)

-IAt 0)
x(t)= e x(0) = ¢(t) x(0)
4-14 D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

State transition matrix,

o() =
L ls/-Al =L' Io(s)
5 So, state transition matrix (STM) can be given as,

t)= =l+ At +A
B. Properties of STM:
o(0) = eA0 = I
Proof oC0) = eAx0 = I

()= ¢(-t)

Proof ) = o ) A e l =(-4

3.
ot-t,),-t)= oKtg-
Proof: o(t2-t, )o(t, - t ) = eAU2 -1). eAlt1 -t0) = eA(2-1+t1-0) = eAt2- 10)

= l2-t
IoCt)* = dlkt)
Proof: ¢(t =
¢(t).¢(t)... k times e^t .eA.. k times e^k
= = =
d(kt)
5. ot, +t)= o(t,) ¢ (t,) ot,) dt,) =

Proof: (t, + t,)= eAtl+2) eAtl. eA2 =

=e2. eAl ¢Mt,). ¢(tz)= ¢t2). ¢(t,)
=

C. Significance : It is useful for getting zero input responses of the

multi-input system.
Que 4.13. Obtain the state transition matrix of the following
system

X65XwithX0)-|
Answer

0 1
Given:
A- X0)=
To Find:State transition matrix, X(t).

I
1. Is-A]==sS0
Is1-Al -1]
1-6 -5 6 s+5]
s+5 6s+5
Adj ls Al =
Basic Signals and Systems 4-15 D (EN-Sem-3)

s - A | = s2 + 5s +6 = (s + 2) (s +3)

S+5

o(s) =
IsI -

AJ-1 =
Adj Is/-A|| +2%s+3) s+2Xs43)
(s

s-A -6
(s+2(s+3) (s+2Ms +3)

3
S+2 s+3
2 18+2 s+3
e =
L-l|sl -A]-1= -1
-6 6 2 3
S+2 S+3 s+2 S+3

eAt 3e- 2 e -e
6 -6e +6e" -2e +3e"

3e-2e e
Xt) ea X(O)
|6e
= =

+6e -2e
X(t=e 2e
-6e+ 6e"
3 y
Que 4.14. Find the state transition matrix for a system matrix

A23
Answer

Given: A 2 -3
0-1
ToFind:State transition matrix, d().

Isd-Al =
-2 8+ 3]

Is/-AJ= adjls/ -
A s3-1
det (s -A +3s+2 2 s
4-16 D (EN.Sem-3)
State Variable Analysis
.

(s+1)(s +2) 2
3. o(t)= Llsl-A]

(s
8+3
+1s + 2)) (s + 1Ms +
2)
U =L

(s+1s +2)(s+1DXs +2)

2
s+1 s+2
= L"|2 2
s+1 s+2 s+2 s+1

u ) = i
2 2r2-21e
PART-4|iJAUp9 9ise 1obizt:n)

Solution of State Equation for Homogeneous

and Non-Homogeneous System.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer 1ype Questions

Que 4.15.| What are

homogeneous.and non-homogeneous
systems ? Derive the solution of the two systems in terms of the
state variables yh-
Answer
A Homogeneous system: If in a state model of ä system, the matrix A is
a constant matrix and input control forces zero, then the equat ion takes

the form, i ()=

AXGsich án equation is called homogeneous equation
and the system is called homogeneous system.
Solution of homogeneoua state equation i iti

bo= Ar ut) =0 for homogeneous equation)

2. Taking Laplace transform
Basic Signals and Systems 4-17 D (EN.Sem-3)

sX(s)-x (0) = A X(s)

Hence, Isl -A] X(s) = x (0)
where I is identity matrix and s is the scalar Laplace operator.
3. Premultiplying both side by ls/-AJ-
Xs) = Isl -AlFl x(0) = ¢(s) x(0)
4. Taking the inverse Laplace transform of X(s)

x(t) = o{t) x(0)

o(t) = eA" is (n xn) matrix and is called State Transition Matrix.

t ) is unique solution of

do(t) =
A ¢(t), d(0) I|
=

dt
B. Non-homogeneous system : If in a state model of a system, if A is a
constant matrix and input control forces are applied to the system, then
the system is called non-homogeneous system.
Solution of non-homogeneous equation:
1. Consider state equation
i (t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)

Uls) Llut
Xs) = Llx(t

2. Taking Laplace transform,

sX(s) - x(0) = AX(s) + BUls)

Is-A] X(s) = x{0) + BU(s)

3. Premultiplying by lsl-A]7
Xs) = lsl-Allx(0)+ [sl-A]- BU(s)
4. Taking inverse Laplace transform
xt) = L-\X(s))
- LIsl-Al"x(0)+ L'|sl-A]-1BUs)

z) = ¢(0»xt0)+J Mt-t) Bult)dr

= ex(0)+||e- Bult)dt

5. Ifthe initial time is other than zero, say t, then

x(t) = e t,)+|ea"Bu(t)dt
4-18 D (EN-Sem-3)
State Variable Analysis

=
t-t,) xlt,)+Jt- t) Bult) dt
6. x(t) =
x )+ x,t)
where x0)= ¢(0) x(0)
is the
complementary solution of the state vector

and 0)= JoMt- t) Bult)dt

o

is a particular solution of vector.

Que 4.16.Consider the state equation shown below.

Determine the state transition equation z(t) when the input is unit
step and z,(0) = 1,»,(0) = 2.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer

1.
A-l-2 -3

Is-AJ= s +3 1
s*3
+3s +2 -2

3.
(s+1(a+2)-2 s
e ) = L-'[sI-A]

+3 1
(s + 1)(s+ 2) (s + 1) (s +2)
=L" 2
(s +1)(s+ 2) (s +1)(s +2)
-
2e-e2 e-
-2e'+2 4 -+ 2e

xt) =
M) x(0)+ t - ) Bult)dt
Basic Signals and Systems 4-19 D (EN-Sem-3)

2e-24
-2e +2e "-+2e"2
2e t e t-t) et t)-e2t-t)o
2et) 2e t-t)- t)2e t ) 1 |1 d
4e-3e2
-4e+6e"
2e-t-e2t -t) t - t)-e2t-t)F0t
-(t-t) 2e
Therefore,
x,(0)= Jled-)- e2t-vdt=e" le]-e

x)= j l e t - 9 +2 e - 2 l d t
19

= -1++1-e-
= e-e2

x(t) :
4e 3e"
-4e +6e2
Que 4.17.| Obtain the response of the system:

X-2-9x U), X0=0

and

to the following input U)=|", u{t)

u,()e "ult)
where, u(t) is a unit step function.
4-20 D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

Answer

A--2 -3
s-Alo sF-a -3a..
1 8 +3 1
Is-Al-l=
(s+1D (s+2)| -2 s
d(t)= L-1 |s-A]H

s+3
(s+1)(s + 2) (s+ 1) (s+2)
L
2
(s +1) (s + 2) (s + 1) (s +2)
2e-e2 e - e2
2e+2e - e' +2e2
xt) = o(t) x0) + ot- t) BU(T) d
0

6. o(t) x(0) =

7. x(t)=
-e 2t-
2e e 2t- T) t)

-2e- +2e 2-t) -e(t-+2e20t-)

dr
4e- 2et-t 3e--2e 2- u(T) dt
-4e-v + 4e2t-t) -3et-t4 4e-2-e 3 u(t)|
4e- - 2e 2t-t+3e-1*3:)-2e-2t - t)-3
4e t+ 4e2t -t)-3e-(t-t+3t) +4p-2t+2t-3t dt
4 e - ' - 2e 2 - t + 3 e t + 2t) - 2e (2+t)
dt
-40 4e-+ 4e 2-t)-3e 2t) + 4e2t+ t

8. = - d t - J 2-0- dt + ed2 dr-J 2 d

Basic Signals and Systems 4-21 D (EN-Sem-3)

4e le-11-e le- 11- ele"-1) +24 let- 11

3-9-e e 3t

x,()= J4e"t- d t +4e t- dt - f3e-2 dt +4 dt

)

-4e" le lo+4e - -4e "%

= -4e le'- 1] +2e- le-1]+ le - 11-4e " let-11
2

5
= -2+e +2e-e

3- -e 4 e
10. X(t):
z,(0)
11. Output response,

-2 +2
3 2
-e 2 +2
e|
12. Y)
3+e 2-2e-3t

PART-5
Applications of State Variable Technique to the
Analysis of Linear Systems.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
4-22 D (EN-Sem-3) State Variable Analysis

Que 4.18.Define controllability and observability in state variable

analysis
Answer
A Controllability
1. A system is said to be controllable if the state of the system can be
transferred to another desired state over a given time
period by using
input.
2. Consider n'" order multiple input linear time invariant
system
represented by its state equation as,

x Ax + Bu
3. The necessary and sufficient condition for the system to be completely
statecontrollable is that the rank of the composite matrix
The composite matrix Q, is given by, Q. is n.

Q = [B:AB:A-B: ... An-B]

B. Observability:
1. A system is said to be observable if all the
state of the system can be
determined on the basis of knowledge of the output of the system at
given time.
2. State equation

x =Ax+Bu
and y = Cx
The system is completely observable if and only if the rank of the
composite matrix (Q, is n.
Composite matrix Q, is given by,
= [C:A' C ' . . . (AT"CT|
where C' = Transpose of matrix C
A"= Transpose of matrix A
Que 4.19. Check the controllability
and observability of a system
having following coefficient matrices.
o o1
A 0 0 1, B-0 o and C= [1 0 0
o 2 -3] 1 1
Answer

o 1 0
Given:A=
o1
0 0 1,B 0 0 and C 1 0 0
0 2-3 1 1
To Test:Controllability and Observability.
Basic Signals and Systems 4-23 D (EN-Sem-3)

A. Controllability test

0 1 00 1 0 0
AB=0 0 1 0 0=|1 1
o 2 -3l1 1 1-3 -3
0 1
00 0
AB 0 0
11 1
0 2-3||-3-3 11 11j
2. Controllability test matrix is given by
= B:AB:A-B]
01 0 0 11
0 0 1 1-3 -3
1 1 -3 3 11 11
0
3.
Consider 0 0 1=10: 1Q.10
1 1 -3
Hence rank of Q, is equal to its order i.e., 3. Therefore the system is
controllable.
B. Observability test:

C 1 0 0;C' = 0
O

o o A-|1 o 2
-3 0 1
0

o 1 -3o o
00000
ATCT= AT) ATCT) = |1 o 21 =|o
o 1 -3oj l
2. Observability test matrix is given by
1 0 01
0
, =

IC": A"CT: (A'*CTo o 1

1z0
Hence its rank is 3 equal to its order i.e., 3, therefore system is completely
observable.
5 UNIT
Z-Transform Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-I : Concept of Z-Transform and . . 5-2D to 5-7D
ROC, Z-Transform of Common
Functions

Part-2 :Inverse Z-Transform..********"*****************"*" 5-7D to 5-12D

Part-3 : Initial and Final Value Theorem.. 5-13D to 5-14D

Part-4 Applications to Solution of.*************** 5-14D to 5-20D

Difference Equations

Part-5 Properties of Z-Transform. 5-20D to 5-27D

5-1D (EN-Sem-3)
5-2D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

PART-1
Concept ofZ-Transform and ROC,
2-Transform of Common Functions.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Explain unilateral and bilateral Z-transform.

Answer
1. The unilateral or one sided Z-transform is evaluated for the non-negative
values of time index (n20). This form of the Z-transform is appropriate
for problems involving causal and LTI systems.
2. The unilateral Z-transform ofa signal xinl is defined as,

X(z) = 2 x{n]2a
n=0
which depends only on »[rl for n >0.
3. For a discrete-time signal x[n], the bilateral Z-transform is defined as

Xe)= in]a"

4 The bilateral and unilateral Z-transform are equivalent if zn] =0 for

n <0.

Que 5.2.What is region of convergence ?Also write the properties

of ROC for Z-transform?
Answer
A ROC: ROC is defined as the set of values ofz in the z-plane for which
the magnitude of X(z) is finite.
B. Properties of ROC for Z-transform:
1. The ROC is a ring in the z-plane centred at the origin.
2. The ROC cannot contain any poles.
3. The ROC must be connected region.
Ifz(n) is a finite duration sequence, then the ROC is the entire z-plane
except possibly z = 0 or z = o,

5. If xn) is right-sided sequence, then the ROC exist outward from the
outermost finite pole to z = o.
Basic Signals and Systems 5-3 D (EN-Sem-3)

6. If x(n) is a left-sided sequence, then the ROC extends inward from the
innermost pole to 2 = 0.
7. If x(n) is two sided sequence,then the ROC will consist a ring in the z
plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a pole and consistent
with property (2).
Example: Let X2) = 1/ (a -1)
TheXe) has a pole at z = 1, therefore the ROC will be lz| >1 as shown
in Fig. 5.2.1.

Im (z)
P o l e at z= 1

Re(z)

Unit circle Region of

Convergence
Fig. 5.2.1.

Que 5.3. What is the difference between the Z-transform and the
Laplace transform ?
Answer

S. No. Z-transform Laplace transform

1 It is used to analyse LTI| It is used to analyse LTI

discrete-time systems. continuous-time systems.
2. It converts difference It converts differential equations
equations which are in time which are in time domain into
domain into algebraic algebraic equations in s-domain.
equations in z-domain.

3. Z-transform also may be Laplace transform may be

one-sided (unilateral) or one-sided (unilateral) or two-sided
two-sided(bilateral). (bilateral).
The range of values of z for The range of values of s for which
which X(z) converges is X(s) converges is called ROC of
called ROC of X(z). X(s).
5. Convolution in time domain| Convolution in time domain is
is equal to multiplicationin equal to multiplication in
z-domain. S-domain.
 5-4D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

Que 5.4. Determine the Z-transform of

«ln] =8ln]
ii. xln]= uln]

Answer
i. We know that

&n) 1forn =0
0 ; for n * 0

Xlz) =
Zlxtn)) =Z[8n)) 8(n)"=1
=

ii. We know that

u(n)
i
for n 2o
un)o for n< i
=

X(2) = Zlx(n)) = Zluln)) = 2un) 2h

n=0

12 =1+2+22+2 +
n=0

1--1
Que 5.5. Find the Z-transform of the signal xln] =
n2"u[n]. Also
find the R0C.

Answer

Given: xln] = n2"u(n]

Tofind: Z-transform, X(2), ROC.
1. From the definition of Z-transform,
Xa)=
n-
xn]2" =n 2'2". En (22
=
0+1(22l)
2(22l)+3(2"1)3 +
+ ...

22(1+2 (22) +3 (22-1) +.

X(z) = 22
(1 22
2. For ROC, |1-221|>0
22<1
 5-5D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Signals and Systems

lel>2
Im(z)
z2
z=2 Relz)

Fig. 5.11.1.

Que 5.6.Find the Z-transform of the following sequences:

* ln]= {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 0, 7)
ii. xz ln]= {1, 2, 3, 4,5,0,7)

AnsweT

i Given:x,n] =
l1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 0, 7)
ToFind:X,a).
3, *, (3) 4, *1 (4) =5, *, (5) =
0, *, (6) =7
2, x, (2)
= =

1. x (0) =1, x,(1) =

2. By definition,X2) = 2zln]2"
n0

Xe)= 2*znle
n
1+22l+32+ 423+ 524+02-5+72-
Putting for x ln), X,(z)
=
3.

x,12
ii. Given:z,n] = {1, 2,3, 4,5, 0, 7

To Find: X,a)
(0) 4, x(1) 5, z (2) =
0, *, (3) =
7, and
z
=
1. =

1
-1)=3, x, (-2)
=

2, xz (-3) =

xe)= nle --3

3. Putting for x,lnl, X,(z)

= 1-z"+2z4 +
32 +420 +52-1+0z-2+ 72-3
 5-6D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

=
z+222 +32 +4++
Que 5.7.Determine Z-transform of x,(t) = a"u[n] and
rgln]=-a"u [ 1] and also indicate their region
-n -

of convergence.
Answerr

i. Given: xln] = a" uln]

To Find:2-transform, X(2).

Xc)
a'" az
n-0
-

n=0

. If|az|< 11

then, X2) =
1-az
Region of convergence (ROC), is the exterior of circle having radius
a
Im(z)

ROC
Re(z)

Fig. 5.7.1. ROC

of Xlal.
ii. Given : xln] =-b" ul-n-1.
To Find:Z-transform, X(2).

1. Xa)=- 6")2" =-6") z =1- bl2"

n =1 n=0

2 1 1
X) =1-1-b21-bz"
3. Since, |b-lz| <1
or |z| <
|b|
ROC is interior
of circle having radius |b|.
Basic Signals and Systems 5-7D EN-Sem-3)

Im(z)

Re(z)

ROC

Fig. 5.7.2. ROC of Xla)

PART-2
Inverse Z-Transform.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.8.Define inverse Z-transform.

Answer
1. The process of finding the time domain signal xln] from its
Z-transform Xlz) is called the inverse Z-transform which is denoted as
xln] = Z-l (X(z))

We have Xlz) = X(ren) = lxtnr"]eon

where the symbol P. denotes integration around the circle of radius

al =r in counter clockwise direction.

This is the Direct method of finding inverse Z-transform of X(a).

There are four methods to find inverse Z-transform

2 method
. Power series method or long division
ii. Partial fraction expansion method
integral method (Residue
inversion method)
ii. Complex
iv. Convolution integral method.
5-8D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

Que 5.9.Determine the inverse Z-transform of the following

functions
i. X(2) = (z - 1/(z-4z+ 4)
ii. X2) =?| (a2- 5/4z + 3/8)

Answer

Given: Xa) (a- 12-42+4)

=

To Find: xln].

X2) = 2-1)
(z 2
X() -1)
zlz- 2)
X(2) A B C
"a-2) - 2
A =
X
z-1
(z-21z-0
B= -2

5.
lz=2 a-2 2
X(2)
6.

X2) =
7. Taking inverse Z-transform,
inl n)uin)n T uin)

ii Given: X(z) =

-
To Find:xn].

X(2) 8z

82-10z +3
 5-9D (EN-Sem-3)
Basic Signals and Systems

X(z) 8z
(22 -14z-3)
2. Using partial fraction,
A B
X(z)
(22-1) (4z-3)
8z
A = (2z -1)X(z) 4
. lz=12 (42-3)

B (42-3)42
Iz=3/4

82 = 2

(22-1)./4
X(2) 12
2a2-1' 42-3)
6. -4z 12z
A 2(z-1/2) 4z -3/4)
7. Taking inverse Z-transform,

an]

Que 5.10. Find the inverse Z-transform ofthe following function:

Xle) =1/1+r)2(1-z-; ROC: =|>1
Answer

Given: Xe)= 142 (1-2)

To Find:znl
1. Xz) =

(z+1 (a-1)
X(2)
a +1 (2-1)
2. Using partial fraction,
X(2) C

a1D 1 - 1
A= +1PXle|
5-10D (EN-Sem-3)
Z-Transform Analysis

B= (a+1? Ala)
z=-i
2

(z-1-- 2

C a-1)
lz=1

X(z) 3/4 1/2 1/4

(2+1) (z+1 (z-1)
Xe) = 12
24-'4a-1
4. Taking inverse Z-transform,

Que 5.11.|Find the inverse Z-transform of following:

1-
(1-21+2-1ROC: J2| >2

ii. X(a) =
log10 (1+ az ROC: z| >Jal
Answer

1-
Given: X2) = 1+22)
ROC: lzl>2
To Find: xn].

1
X(z) ( 1 132
Basic Signals and Systems 5-11 D (EN-Sem-3)

3z-1
32

z (32 -1)
3Kz-1)(2 +2)

(82-1)_
(z -1) (z +2
2. Using partial fraction,

=-1
2+2 *

B-1
lz=-2

X()12/3 7/3
2-12+2
12/3z 7/32
32-1 z+2]

4. For z 2
xnl= 2/3 un) +7/3(-2 un)
ii. Given: Xa) =log10 (1+a; ROC: l2|> Ja|
To Find:xlnl.
1. X(z) = log,10 (1+ az)

log, (1+ az")

log, (10)

1 1_az"(az"_az (az"
log, (10)L 3
- az" -a)"
n log, (10) n log, (10)
2. Therefore, the inverse Z-transform is

a' a
xin=|log,(10)2 log, 10)' 3 log,(10) 4log, (10)
5-12 D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

-a)" u{n-1)
n log, (10)

Que 5.12. Determine the inverse Z-transform of

X(z) = in region of convergence

(3-4z+1)

Answer

Given: X(z)=
(82 4z+1)
To Find: i xn for lz>1.
an for lzl <1/3.
ii xlnl for 1/3< Izl <1

X(z)= (32 -1)(z-1)

3u-D
X (e-1-
1

By partial fraction,
X)-31 3 1

X2)= z - i

i. For lz|> 1,
znludn-uinl
ii. For z znl
--11+(u-n-
ii.
Porlale1, zinl =
-u-n-+ un
Basic Signals and Systems 5-13 D (EN-Sem-3)

PART 33
Initial and Final Value Theorem.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.13. State and prove initial and final value theorem for

Z-transform. AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer
A. Initial value theorem: The initial value theorem of Z-transform
states that, for a causal signal x n

f xinl X2)
zln] x(0)= lim X(2)
then lim
n+0
=

Proof
1. For a causal signal

Zxln)) =
X(z) =
>xln]z"" = x(0) + x(1) 271+x(2)2+

=
«(0) + 2
2. Taking the limit z> o on both sides, we have
x(1)
lim X(2) = lim z(0)+ +
n o
= x(0) +0+0+ x(0)
x (0) = lim X(z)
This theorem helps us to find the initial value of z {n] from X(2) without
3.
taking its inverse Z-transform.
B. Final value Theorem: The final value theorem of Z-transform states
that, for a causal signal

if xlnl Xe)
and if X(z) has no poles outside the unit circle, and it has no double or
higher order poles on the unit circle centered at the origin of the
z-plane, then
lim xln] = x(o) = lim (2 - 1) X(z)
5-14 D (EN-Sem-3)
Z-Transform Analysis

1
Proof
For causal
a
signal
Zxn)) =
Xa) =xinl"
n =0

ZCrn + 1]) zX(z)

= -

zr(0) =
an+12"
3. Z(«[n +
1))-Zlxln]) zX(z) -zx(0) -X(2).
=

2 xln+1]2"- x{nlz"
ie.a- 1) Xe) -zx(0) 2«n+1]- zin)le"
=

(z-1) Xz) -zx(0) [e(1) - x(0)la -0

=

[x(2) -x(1) 21+ +

x(3)-x(2)) 2-4 + ...

Taking limit as z >1 on both sides, have
lim(z- 1) X(a) - x(0) = [{«(1) -x(0) + x(2) -x(1) + x(3) - x(2) +

+x{o)-x(co- 1)]
x(o) - x(0)
x(o) = lim (z - 1) X(z)
5. This theorem enables us to find the
steady-state value
without taking the inverse Z-transform of x{n], i.e. x(o)
of X(2).

PART-4
Applications to Solution of Difference Equations.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.14.Write the procedure of solution of difference equations

by using Z-transforms.
Answer
1. To solve the difference equation, first it is converted into algebraic
equation by taking its 2-transform.
2. The solution is obtained in Z-domain and the time domain solution is
obtained by taking its inverse Z-transform.
3. The response of the system due to input alone when the initial conditions
are
neglected is called the forced response of the system.
Basic Signals and Systems 5-15 D (EN-Sem-3)

The response of the system due to initial conditions alone when the
input is neglected is called the free or natural response of the system.
6. The response due to input and initial conditions considered
simultaneously is called the total response of the system.
6. When input is a unit impulse input, the response is called the impulse
response of the system and when the input is a unit step input, the
response is called the step response of the system.

Que 6.16.| For the diserete system described by the difference

equationy(n) = 0.6y(n -1)-0.08y(n -2) +x(n). Determine
i. The unit sample response sequence, h(n),
ii. The step response. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer

Given: yn 0.6yln-11-0.08yin 21+rnl

ToFind: i. Unit impulse response, hlnl.
. Step response, ylnl.
1. ynl-0.6yn-1} +0.08 y ln- 2] = z{n]
2. Taking Z-transform on both sides,
Yl2)-0.6 zrlYe) +0.0822 Ylz) =Xlz)
Yz) (1-0.6 2-1 + 0.08)=X2)

Ha): Y(a).
X() (1-0.62 +0.082 )
2
3. H2)
(10022-602 +8)
i. The unit impulse response sequence, h[n]:
1. For unit impulse input,
z{n] = 8tn)]
X(z) = 1
2. Then impulse response,

) =
Hla) X2)=
(1002?-60z +8)
3. Yz)
(52-2) (20z -4) 4 (5z -25z -1)
A =

(52 2)
1
10
4 (52-1 10
5-16D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

B= (52 -1)-

4 6z-2) 20
Y2)1_1_1 1
10 (52 -2) 20 (52-1)
1
Y)=
10 (52 -2) 20 (52-1)
1
Y2)
50(z- 2/5) 100 (z-1/5)
6. Taking inverse Z-transform,
yin] = hln]l = 0.02(0.4)" u{n]-0.01(0.2)" un]
ii. The step response:
1. For step input,
xnl = uln

Xlz) =
z-1
Y(z)= H(2) Xz)

(100z- 602 +8) (2-1

Y2) 4 (52-2X52 - 1z-1)

Using partial fraction,

Y(2)
z

A = (52 -2)

4(5z-1)Xz - 1)|.2

B (52-1)2

4(62-2Ma-1 80

C (a-1)
Basic Signals and Systems 5-17D (EN-Sem-3)

4(52-2 5z-1)|. 48

6. Y(2)
15 (52- 2) 80 (52-1) 48 (z-1)

75(2 -2/5) 4002-1/5) 48( 1)

7. Taking inverse Z-transform,
yin =
(-0.013 (0.4" +0.0025 (0.2) +0.208 (1" )uln)
Que 5.16.A causal LTI system is described by differene equation:
yn)= yn - 1)+y(n -2) +r(n -1)
find the system function H(z) for this system.

AKTU 2020-21, Marks 10

Answer
1. Given, yln) =y(n -

1) +y{n- 2) + xln -

1)

2. Taking z-transform
Yl2) = zl Y(a) + YE)+ar\Xz)
Ylz) (1-zl-z2)= zr1 Xc)
Y2)
X() 1-zl -z"

O H) -2-7 - ( A )

Que 5.17.| Consider the system, H(a) =

25
Determine (i) The impulse response and (ii) The zero step response.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

OR

Consider the system, H(z) =

1-

zero-state step response.

Determine (i) the impulse response (ii) the
AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
5-18 D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

Answer

Hz)=

2+
H(2)

H)
( 35 45

H2) = 25 35z 452

4

35
hlnl=n - 145 (2un)
3. For step input, x{n) = u(n)

X(2) =

Yz) = H(z) X2) =

5. Y(z) z+1/2
2 (z-1/5)(2 -2/5) (z-1)
5. Using partial fraction

Yz) A B C
(z-1/5) (z-2/5) (z-1)
On solving partial fraction, we get

AB C
25
1
35 15
8(z-1/5) 2z-2/5) 8(z 1)
35z 252 152
82-1/5) z-2/5) 8(z -1)
Taking inverse 2-transform
8.
[4.37 (0.2" 7.5 (0.4)" +3.12(1")]u(n)
y(n)
-

=
Basic Signals and Systems 5-19D (EN-Sem-3)

Que 5.18.A causal LTI system is described by the difference

equation
yln] = yln-1] +2y [n-2]+xln-1]
Find the system function, impulse response and step response.
Answer

Given: nl =yln -11+2y In-2] +xn -1

To Find: System function, H(2), Impulse response, hln), Step
response, ynl.
yln) - yn-1]-2y n-2] =xln-1]
Taking Z-transform on both sides, we have
Yla)-z1 Ya)-22 Yl) =zrXz)
Yla) (1-z1-22) =
zr1 Xa)
3. The transfer function
of the system H(2) is

4
He)-Xla1-P-2
The impulse response of the system is:
-1-2a-2a+1
hnl=Z-Ha))

P un- 1utn -1}

5. For step response zln) = ulnl
'
Xl)=
Z-1

6. Output, Ylz) = Hz) Xz) =

(-2)a+1'a-1
(a-2) (a+1)(a-1)2-2 2+12-1
Ylz)2/3 1/6 1/2
-2412
5-20 D (EN-Sem-3)
Z-Transform Analysis
7. Taking inverse Z-transform both sides,
on we have
yln) = Z-l(Yla))

ynl (2 unl--1 udn)un

Que 5.19. Determine the system function and the unit sample
response of the system described by the difference equation.

snl-yn-1)-n-2] =sin]
Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 5.18, Page 5-19D, Unit-5.
Ans. H2) =
(z-0.52) (2 + 0.32)
hlnl =
[1.57(1y" -
0.67 (0.52)" + 0.75(-0.32)"] uln]

PART-5
Properties of Z-Transforms.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.20.| What are the different properties of Z-transform?

Answer
1. Linearity: This property states that the Z-transform of weighted sum
of two signals is equal to the
weighted sum of the individual Z-transforms.
f ZT
,n] X,(2) and x,nl X,e)
then, Zlax,n] +az,nll
where, a and a, are constants.
a,X,2)+a,X)
2. Time reversal:

If xln] XG
ROC:r< |z| <ra
then, x-n] Xl)
3. Time shifting: According to this property a shift
ROC <
time-domain signal causes a multiplication factor Z-*" in of '*' unit in
Z-transform.
Basic Signals and Systems 5-21 D (EN-Sem-3)

If xln] X(2)
then, xn -k] z -k.X(2)
The ROC will remain same as that of X(2) except for n =0.
4 Differentiation in z-domain of multiplication by n:
f xn] X(2)
then, dA(2)
n xn] z

dz
5. Accumulation property: The accumulation property is given as,
If xn] X{2)
then, xlk)
R=-
X(2)
6. Scaling property
If xin] X(z) ROC:r lz| <r2
then, a"xn Xa ) ROC: alr< lal< la|
Note: Constant 'a' may be real or complex quantity.
r

7. Convolution: This property gives that the convolution of two

discrete-time signal can be expressed as simple multiplication of their
Z-transforms.
xnl =z,lnl®x,nl Xz)=X,z).X,2)
8. Conjugate property:
If x{n] X{z) ROC = R

then, *n] X*) ROC = R

It means that if z-transform X(z) has pole or zero at z =g it must also
have pole or zero at z=2
9. Initial value theorem: For a causal discrete-time signal, the initial
value may be determined by,
z(0) = lim zln] = lim X(2)
n0
10. Final value theorem: The final value ofa discrete-time signal can be
determined as,
xlo) = lim zin] = lim [(z-1) X(2)

11. Parseval's theorem: Let x,n) and x,lr] are two complex valued
sequences then Parseval's theorem gives,

Que 521. State and prove time shifting and differenti ation

properties of Z-transform. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

5-22 D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

OR
i. What do you mean by state transition matrix ? State and prove
its properties.
ii. State and prove time shifting and differentiation properties of

Z-transform. AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10

Answer
1. State transition matrix and its properties : Refer Q. 4.13, Page
4-14D, Unit-4.
2. Time shifting property:
If xin] Xlel
then xn-k] ztXl]
Proof: Let
Zxn - kll = zin - klz"*

Substitute (n - k) = m

Zlxn -k]] = 2 z{m]a **n= z * ximk"

Zlxn-l] =2Xlzl
3. Differentiation property:
If Zlxn]] =X[z]
then Zlnrln]] =
Xta
Proof: Let rla]= x{nle""
Z[naln]) = nxin2"

nalnl2*-=z zinllna"-]
n-

Znxnll=z z{nlz" = - z-
n=-o

Znrinll-Xla
Que 5.22. State and prove time delay theorem and Parseval's

theorem of Z-transform.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer
A Time delay theorem:
Zxn- m) = z" X(z) + z " x ( - k)2*
Basic Signals and Systems 5-23 D (EN-Sem-3)

Proof: Zxln -m)) =

x(n -

m) z" =
2x{n -m) z""-m'z"""
n - 0

z x(n m) z"n -

n =0

Let n-m =p in the summation, then

Zxln - m)) = z""

=0 p=-m
P=-k in the second summation, we obtain
Substituting
Zxln - m)] = z" X(2)+ 2" >x-k)2*
R=I

B. Parseval's theorem:
The parseval's relation or theorem or property of Z-transform states

that
if z(n) 7(2) and x,(n) )
then,

2 n) n) = X,2) KJ:"de for complexx,n) and x, n)

n - 2y
Substituting the relation of the inverse z-transform at LHS, we get

2r)

2ry
X x , ter}' r'dz

x,)X
27t
(a"]:'dz=RHS
Que 5.23.| State and prove the convolution of Z-transform.

Answer
Convolution Theorem: The convolution property of Z-transform
states that the Z-transform of the convolution of two signals is equal to

the multiplication of their Z-transforms, i.e.

5-24 D (EN-Sem-3) Z-Transform Analysis

x n]2X,2), with ROC =R

and x,nl X2) with ROC = R,
then x,n] *x,lnl2 X,(2) X,(2), with ROC =R,nR2
Proof:
1. We know that

bnln= 2zklzln-k)
2. Let xln) *

3.
=
x,n] xgln]
We havee

Zalnl) = Xa) = xinl"

1= -

4. Z,bnlnl) = E lx,n-

lx,n-la-*ar*
5. Interchanging the order of summations,
X(e)= zl ]z* n -klz-n-b
6. Replacing (n -k) by p in the second.summation, we get

R- P=-0

X)X,a)
7. ,Inl* xln) s X,a)X,la), ROC=RnR2
Que 5.24.| Find the Z-transform of the following:

un+3)

ii. n*u [n]

Answer

i.Given:xln] =n uln +3]

To Find: X(a).
Basic Signals and Systems 5-25D (EN-Sem-3)

uln +3] -
2. By timeshifting,
1-
3. By differentiation in z-domain, nx,ln)es-zX,(z)

dn uln +3] -2

4- 4/3-32)
(z-1/3)

ii. Given: zln] =n*u rl

To Find:Xa)

1 un
2. By differentiation in z-domain, nuln] -2

3. Applying differentiation again,

n.Unu rell = - 2 -

X(z)= -z d

-Z

z-1 x1-zx2(z-1)x1 -z
(z-1) (z-1'
zlz + 1)

(z-
5-26 D (EN-Sem-3)
Z-Transform Analysis
Que 5.25.| State and prove time shifting property
Also find the inverse of Z-transform.
convolution theorem. Z-transform of given function using

)
TROC: [2]> la]
() TROC: e]>[1]
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 10
Answer
A State and
proof of time shifting properties
Refer Q. 5.21,
Page 5-21D, Unit-5.
of Z-transform:
B. Numerical:
1. Convolution in time domain is
multiplication inz-domain.
,)= 1-a ROC:|=|>lal )= ROC:12l>1
2.
Multiplications of Z-transforms is
Yl2) = *,2xz)= 1
1 - a z X1 - 2 )
3. ROC :
lal <1 ROC is |z|>1
if
iflal >1 ROC is |zl> Ja|
4. Partial fractional expansion of Y(2),

YE) =
Tassume ROC: Jzl>1
5. Yn) = (uln]-a"uln])
1
Que 5.26. Explain the properties of Z-transform and find
Z-transform of x(nT) nTU(nT) r(nT)
= =

yn- n-11-n-2] =rin]

Caleulate (i) The system function H(z) and (ii) The
impulse response
hin] of the systemn.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Properties : Refer Q. 5.20, Page 5-20D, Unit-5.
Z-transform:
Let X,nT) = UnT)
Basic Signals and Systems 5-27 D (EN-Sem-3)

Taking Z-transform,

zX,nT) =
X,a) =
X,(nT)2"

UnT=
n =0

Using property of multiplication by nT

znT UnT)) =
- 2T -
" 1
zT
Numerical: Refer Q. 5.19, Page 5-20D, Unit-5.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

questions
Following questions are very important These
SESSIONALS well as
maybe asked in your
a s

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION

Q1. What is region of convergence 7 Also write the properties

of ROC for Z-transform ?
Ans Refer Q.5.2, Unit-5.
Q.2. Determine the Z-transform of
i. xln]= 8tn]
ii. «[n]= u[n]
Ans Refer Q. 5.4, Unit-6,

Q.3. Find the Z-transform of the following sequ nces :

i. nl= {1,2,3, 4, 5, 0,7)

ii. a In]= {1,2,3 4,5, 0,7)
Ans Refer Q. 6.6, Unit-6.

Q.4. Find the inverse Z-transform of the following function

X(z) =1/(1+z)(1-z7); ROC: |z|>1