PHY-401

Waves and Oscillations

BS Physics
4th Semester

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed

Department of Physics
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
 Lecture 2: Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction to the Course

2. Key Terms (definitions)
3. Hook’s Law
4. Simple Harmonic Oscillation
5. Mass Attached to a Spring
6. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
7. Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy and Total Energy
 Examination and Grading in Online/Face to Face Classes

The Assessment System will consist of the following categories

Component Marks Component Marks

Online Assignments 10 Assignments 10
Quizzes/Attendance 20 Quizzes/Attendance 10
Online Midterm 30 Midterm 30
Online Final Term 40 Final Term 50
 Course Outline
S. No. Lecture # Topics to be Covered
1 Lecture 1 Simple harmonic motion (SHM), Obtaining and solving the basic equations of motion x(t), v(t), a(t)
2 Lecture 2 Longitudinal and transverse Oscillations, Energy considerations in SHM. Application of SHM
3 Lecture 3 Torsional oscillator, Physical pendulum, simple pendulum, SHM and uniform circular motion
Combinations of harmonic motions, Lissajous patterns, Damped harmonic motion, Equation of damped harmonic
4 Lecture 4
motion
Quality factor, discussion of its solution, Forced oscillations and resonances, Equation of forced oscillation, Discussion of
5 Lecture 5
its solution
6 Lecture 6 Natural frequency, Resonance, Examples of resonance
Mechanical waves, travelling waves, Phase velocity of traveling waves, Sinusoidal waves, Group speed and dispersion,
7 Lecture 7
Waves speed, Mechanical analysis
8 Lecture 8 Wave equation, Discussion of solution, Power and intensity in wave motion, Derivation & discussion
9 Lecture 9 Principle of superposition (basic ideas), Interference of waves, Standing waves. Phase changes on reflection
10 Lecture 10 Properties of sound waves, travelling sound waves, the speed of sound,
11 Lecture 11 Power and intensity of sound waves, interference of sound waves
12 Lecture 12 Standing longitudinal waves, vibrating systems and sources of sound
13 Lecture 13 Nature of light, visible light (Physical characteristics) light as an electromagnetic wave
14 Lecture 14 Speed of light in matter, physical aspects, path difference, phase difference etc.
15 Lecture 15 Total internal reflection, The doppler effect of light.
 Recommended Books
Physics
By
D. Halliday, R. Resnick, Krane,
Vol. I & II, John Wiley & Sons, 5th Ed. 1999
1. Chapter 17: Oscillations
2. Chapter 18: Wave Motion
3. Chapter 19: Sound Waves

4. Chapter 39: Light Waves

The Physics of Waves and Oscillations The Physics of Vibrations and Waves
By By
N. K. Bajaj H. J. Pain
Tata McGraw- Hill Pub. Co. Ltd. 1988 John Wiley & Sons, 5th Ed. 1999
 Recommended Books

Physics. Principles with Applications

By
Douglas C. Giancoli
Pearson Education Limited, 7th Ed. 2016

Fundamentals of Physics
By
D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker
John Wiley & Sons, 10th Ed. 2013
 Some Basic Class rules

1. No talking unless you are asked to talk

2. No cell phone (either off or silent mode)

3. You can ask questions about the topic

4. Attendance on LMS (if you are late in class you can sit for lecture but don’t ask for attendance)

5. Submission of assignments on time

6. Any topic we discuss in class you should solve its problems in homework from Physics by HRK and

submit on assignment due date

7. No changes in class timetable unless I changed it

 Key Terms
Oscillations: There are many systems, both natural and man made, that vibrate back and forth around an
equilibrium point. These systems are said to regularly oscillate.
Oscillating systems: To oscillate means to move back-and-forth repeatedly.

Examples:

A pendulum A swing Rocking chair Water waves

Mass attached to A guitar string Bond between

a spring atoms
 Key Terms

The displacement (x) of the system is the vector displacement of the system from its equilibrium
point. For simplicity, the displacement is considered in one dimension.

The amplitude (A) of an oscillation is the maximum displacement of the system. It is the height of a
wave from its equilibrium point. It is half the peak to trough height.

The wavelength (λ) of a moving wave is the distance from peak to peak in the space dimension.
 Key Terms

Periodic Motion: Any motion that repeats itself over and over
at the same time interval is referred to as a periodic motion.
Examples: A race car on an oval track, rotation of earth around
the sun, motion of clock hands etc.
Time Period : The time to complete one full cycle of a
repeating motion is called the period. It is represented by T and
its unit is sec.
For example, if it takes 1 second for the pendulum to swing from
its maximum displacement on the left to its maximum
displacement to the right, its period is 2 seconds. Or

The Time period (T) is the time taken in seconds to complete 1complete cycle. This
is the time from peak to peak in the time dimension. A cycle is complete when the
system is back in its initial state. e.g. for a pendulum, when the bob is at its lowest
point and travelling in the same direction as at the start.
 Key Terms

The frequency is the number of cycles per unit time.

𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = 𝒇 = 𝟏ൗ𝑻 (𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 )

The higher the frequency, the more rapid the oscillations.

For example, a pendulum with a period of 2 sec has a frequency of 0.5 sec-1

A special unit of frequency is the Hertz (HZ), named after German physicist Heinrich Hertz.

𝟏 𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆Τ𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏
 Key Terms

Equilibrium: The body is said to be in equilibrium at a point when net

force acting on the body at that point is zero.
Types of equilibrium:
1. Stable Equilibrium: If a slight displacement of particle from its
equilibrium position results only in small bounded motion about
the point of equilibrium, then it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
2. Unstable equilibrium: If a slight displacement of the particle
from its equilibrium position results unbounded motion away
from the equilibrium position, then it is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.
 Key Terms
Types of motion:
➢ Translatory motion
➢ Rotatory motion
➢ Vibratory motion
Translatory motion:
In translational motion, a body moves along a line without any rotation. The line may be straight or curved. A
car moving in a straight line has transnational motion. Similarly, an airplane moving straight is in translational
motion. Translatory motion is further divided into linear motion, circular motion, and random motion.
Rotatory motion:
The spinning motion of a body about its axis is called its rotatory motion.

Vibratory motion:
The motion of a body about its mean position is known as vibratory motion.
 Key Terms

Oscillatory Motion
If an object in periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path, the motion is called oscillatory or
vibratory motion.
 Hooke’s Law
Hooke's Law is a principle of physics that states that the that the force needed to extend or compress a
spring by some distance is proportional to that distance.

𝑭𝒔 = −𝒌𝒙

Fs is the spring force; k is the spring constant. It is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. A large k
indicates a stiff spring, and a small k indicates a soft spring, x is the displacement of the object from its
equilibrium position. 𝒙 = 𝟎 at the equilibrium position. The negative sign indicates that the force is
always directed opposite to the displacement.

Hooke’s Law Force

The force always acts toward the equilibrium position. It is called the restoring force. The direction of the
restoring force is such that the object is being either pushed or pulled toward the equilibrium position.
 Hooke’s Law Applied to a Spring – Mass System

a) When x is positive (to the right), F is negative

(to the left).

b) When x = 0 (at equilibrium), F is 0.

c) When x is negative (to the left), F is positive

(to the right)
 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

➢ Motion that occurs when the net force along the direction of motion obeys Hooke’s Law, or Motion
that repeats itself and the displacement is a sinusoidal function of time.

➢ Motion that occurs when the net force along the direction of motion obeys Hooke’s Law.

➢ The force is proportional to the displacement and always directed toward the equilibrium position.

➢ The force is proportional to the displacement and always directed toward The motion of a spring
mass system is an example of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
 x
Mass Attached to a Spring
By Hook’s Law 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 -----------(1)

By Newton’s 2nd Law

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 x = +A
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = 𝑚 2 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ -----(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 x=0
x = -A
From equations (1) and (2) we have;

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ = −𝑘𝑥 𝑥ሷ + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑘
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 where 𝜔2 =
𝑚
𝑘
𝑥ሷ + 𝑥 = 0 𝜔=
𝑘
= 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑚 𝑚
 Solution of the Equation

2
𝑥ሷ + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0 x

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Amplitude Phase x = +A
x=0
x = -A

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Angular frequency Phase constant
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑨 = 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒎 , for cosine function maximum displacement is ±1.

𝝎 = 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔ൗ𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓 = 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

𝝓 = 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔

𝟐𝝅Τ 𝒎
If the wave advances by a time 𝑻 = 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅 the cosine function repeats
𝒌
itself. This is called the time period of the oscillation i.e., the time in which the wave
repeats itself. Its unit is in sec.

The frequency of the scalation is 𝒇 = 𝟏Τ𝑻, so 𝒇 = 𝝎Τ𝟐𝝅and it is in Hz.

 The Displacement x Versus The Time t For Several SHM

In Figure we plot the displacement x versus the time t for

several simple harmonic motions described by Equation.

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
Three comparisons are made.
➢ In Fig. a, the two curves have the same amplitude and
frequency but differ in phase by 𝝅Τ𝟒 or 45°.
➢ In Fig. b, the two curves have the same frequency and
phase constant but differ in amplitude by a factor of 2.
➢ In Fig. c, the curves have the same amplitude and phase
constant but differ in frequency by a factor of 𝟏Τ𝟐 or in
period by a factor of 2.
Position of Particle at any Time in Simple Harmonic Motion

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
 Velocity in Simple Harmonic Motion

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑[𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]
=
𝑑𝑡

𝑣(𝑡) = −𝜔𝐴 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

 Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑑𝑣 𝑡
𝑎 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡)
=
𝑑𝑡 2

= −𝜔2 𝐴 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑎(𝑡) = −𝜔2 𝑥(𝑡)

Comparison of the Three Quantities
 Total Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
In an Isolated system, where there are no dissipative forces, the total mechanical energy remain constant
i.e. Conserved.
Total Energy= Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy

𝐸 =𝑈+𝐾
Where E is Total Energy, U is Potential Energy and K is the Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy:
As we know that 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑚 𝑥𝑚 𝑥𝑚
1 2
𝑈(𝑥) = − න 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = − න −𝑘𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 න 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚
2
0 0 0

1 2 1 2
𝑈 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
2 2
 Total Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

Kinetic Energy:
1
As we know that 𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2
2
1
= 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥𝑚
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
2
𝑘
where 𝜔2 = and 𝑚𝜔2 = 𝑘
𝑚

1 2
𝐾 = 𝑘 𝑥𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
2
 Total Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

Total Energy= Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy

𝑬=𝑼+𝑲
(a)
Putting values from previous work

1 2 2
1 2
𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝑘 𝑥𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
2 2
(b)
1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑥𝑚
2 Figure: The potential energy U, kinetic energy K,
and total mechanical energy E of a particle
undergoing simple harmonic motion (with φ = 0)
1 2 are shown as functions of (a) the time and (b) the
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚 displacement. Note that in (a) the kinetic and
potential energies each reach their maxima twice
2 during each period of the motion.
Figure: Simple harmonic motion for a block–spring system and its relationship to the motion of a simple pendulum.
The parameters in the table refer to the block–spring system, assuming that 𝑥 = 𝐴 at t = 0 thus, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
 Video Lectures to watch:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tNpuTx7UQbw (8.01x- Lect 10 - Hooke's Law, Springs,

Pendulums, Simple Harmonic Motion)

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GOdrEXTkWyI&list=PLIKpuUo6d5pIy313eSfqgHxx1P2cd5O7
n&index=181 (Energy in SHM)

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmuCOSwuoOs&list=PLIKpuUo6d5pIy313eSfqgHxx1P2cd5O
7n&index=182 (Dynamics of SHM)