PHY-401

Waves and Oscillations

BS Physics
4th Semester

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed

Department of Physics
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
 Lecture 8: Topics to be Covered

1. Forced Oscillations and Resonances

2. Equation of Forced Oscillation
 Forced Oscillation

❑ Left on its own, the motion of an oscillator repeats with its

natural frequency 𝝎 . In the presence of a small damping

force, the frequency does not change very much from this
Figure: Undamped oscillation.
value.

❑ Another interesting class of situations occurs when we apply a

sinusoidal external force to the oscillator.

❑ The resulting oscillations are called forced oscillations.

Figure: Damped oscillation with the same

frequency as Undamped oscillation.
 Forced Oscillations

In the case of damped vibrations, the amplitude of vibrations decrease with the time approximately due to
dissipation of energy and the body eventually comes to rest. When a body experiences vibrations due to
the influence of an external driving force the dissipation forces can be overcome, and the body can
continue its vibrations without coming to a rest. Such vibrations are called forced vibrations.
Or,
Forced oscillations occur when an oscillating system is driven by a periodic force that is external to the
oscillating system. In such a case, the oscillator is compelled to move at the frequency of the driving
force.

Example:
When a tunning fork is struck on a rubber pad and its stem is placed on a
table, the table is set in vibrations with the frequency of the fork. These
oscillations of the fork are the forced oscillations/vibrations.
 Forced Oscillation (Continued)

➢ These forced oscillations occur at the frequency of the external force and not at the
natural frequency of the vibrating system.
➢ However, the amplitude of the oscillation depends on the relationship between the
natural frequency and the frequency of the applied force.
➢ A succession of small impulses applied at the proper frequency can produce an
oscillation of large amplitude.

For example, when you push a friend on a swing, applying

your pushes precisely at the same time in each cycle causes
your friend to move in an increasingly large arc.
 Forced Oscillation (Continued)

When we apply this force, Note that the motion is a

simple sinusoidal oscillation, but at the driving
frequency 𝝎′′ rather than at the natural frequency

𝝎.
Figure c shows the motion for a driving force of the
same amplitude but with 𝝎′′ = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝝎 .
The amplitude of the oscillation in Fig. c is about
twice as large as that in Fig. b. Figure: (a) A damped oscillator (b) The same
oscillator subject to an applied force with 0.5
𝝎 . (c) The forced oscillator with 0.8 𝝎 .
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator

Consider the old spring mass system with damping force. This time −𝜷𝒗
−𝒌𝒙
we applied an external force 𝑭𝒐 (𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) with driving 𝑭𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕
frequency 𝝎 along positive x-axis. 𝒎

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑎
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝛽𝑣 + 𝐹𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
From Newton’s second law
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ
So 𝑚𝑥ሷ = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝐹𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑘 𝛽 𝐹𝑜
𝑥ሷ = − 𝑥 − 𝑥ሶ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝛽 𝑘 𝐹𝑜 𝜷 𝒌
𝑥ሷ + 𝑥ሶ + 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 Where, = 𝟐𝜸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝝎𝟐𝒐
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝒎 𝒎
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator
𝑭𝒐
𝒙ሷ + 𝟐𝜸𝒙ሶ + 𝝎𝟐𝒐 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕
𝒎
Equation (ii) is called equation of motion of forced oscillations of an oscillator.
Solution of Equation:
The solution consist of two parts
1. Complementary Solution:
When the applied force is zero, i.e., 𝑭𝒐 = 𝑭𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 = 𝟎
Equation (ii) becomes 𝒙ሷ + 𝟐𝜸𝒙ሶ + 𝝎𝟐𝒐 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒆−𝜸𝒕
This is the equation of motion of the damped harmonic oscillator.

The solution of the equation is 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝒐 𝒆−𝜸𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎′ 𝒕 + 𝝓

The is called complementary solution of equation (i).

The solution represents free vibration of system, and it dies out due to presence of factor 𝒆−𝜸𝒕 .
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator
2. Particular Solution:
This is the solution when the applied force 𝑭𝒂 = 𝑭𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 acts on the system.

Since 𝑭𝒐 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕 = 𝑭𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 + 𝒊 𝑭𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕

This shows that 𝐹𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 (applied force) is real part of complex quantity 𝑭𝒐 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕.
From Equation (ii) 𝐹𝑜
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛾𝑥ሶ +𝜔𝑜2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑚
2
𝐹𝑜 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛾𝑥ሶ + 𝜔𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑚
Let suppose the solution of this equation is of the form

𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕
𝑑𝑥
and = 𝑥ሶ = 𝑖𝜔 𝑥𝑜 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑2 𝑥 2 𝜔 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = − 𝜔 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
and = 𝑥ሷ = 𝑖 𝑜 𝑜
𝑑𝑡 2
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator
Pitting in equation (iii)

2 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝐹𝑜 𝑖𝜔𝑡
− 𝜔 𝑥𝑜 𝑒 + 2𝛾𝑖𝜔 𝑥𝑜 𝑒 + 𝜔𝑜2 𝑥𝑜 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑚
𝑖𝜔𝑡 2
𝐹𝑜 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑒 −𝜔 + 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔 + 𝜔𝑜2 = 𝑒
𝑚
𝐹𝑜
𝑥𝑜 −𝜔2 + 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔 + 𝜔𝑜2 =
𝑚
𝑭𝒐ൗ
𝒎
𝒙𝒐 =
−𝝎𝟐 + 𝟐𝒊 𝜸 𝝎 + 𝝎𝟐𝒐
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥𝑜 = 2
𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔 2 + 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 − 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝑥𝑜 = 2 2
× 2
𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔 + 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔 2 − 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator
𝐹𝑜ൗ 2 2
𝑚 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔 − 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝑥𝑜 =
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 − 2𝑖 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ 2 2
𝑚 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔 − 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝑥𝑜 =
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 − 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝑥𝑜 = ×
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝑥𝑜 = × −
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2𝑖 𝛾 𝜔
𝑥𝑜 = × −
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥𝑜 = 2𝛾𝜔
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 =
C 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

× 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2
𝑭𝒐ൗ
𝒙𝒐 =
𝒎
× 𝒆−𝒊𝝓 𝟐 𝜸𝝎
𝟐 2𝛾𝜔
𝝎𝟐𝒐 −𝝎𝟐 + 𝟐 𝜸𝝎 𝟐 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 =
𝝓 𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2

Putting the value of 𝒙𝒐 in equation (iv) A B

𝝎𝟐𝒐 − 𝝎𝟐 𝜙= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
2𝛾𝜔
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2
𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕
 Equation of Motion of Forced Harmonic Oscillator
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥= × 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥= 𝒆𝒊 𝝎𝒕−𝝓
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝑭𝒐ൗ
𝒎
We required the real part of this equation 𝒙= 𝒄𝒐s 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓
𝟐
𝝎𝟐𝒐 −𝝎𝟐 + 𝟐 𝜸𝝎 𝟐

Amplitude: For amplitude, 𝒄𝒐s 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓 = 𝟏 Phase:

𝑭𝒐ൗ
𝒎 𝟐𝜸𝝎
𝒙𝒐 = 𝒙 = 𝝓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝟐 𝝎𝟐𝒐 − 𝝎𝟐
𝝎𝟐𝒐 − 𝝎𝟐 + 𝟐 𝜸𝝎 𝟐
 Amplitude under Forced Vibrations
Case-1 Low Driving Frequency:
When driving frequency 𝝎 is very small as compared to natural frequency 𝝎𝒐 and damping factor 𝜸 is
nearly equal to zero.
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝝎 ≪ 𝝎𝒐 and 𝜸 → 𝟎 𝑥𝑜 =
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥𝑜 =
𝜔𝑜2
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥𝑜 =
𝑘ൗ
𝑚
𝑭𝒐
𝒙𝒐 =
𝒌
This shows that greater the natural frequency smaller the amplitude.
 Amplitude under Forced Vibrations

Case-II Resonance:
When the driving frequency 𝝎 is coincides with the natural frequency 𝝎𝒐 , then the amplitude of vibrations
increases. The increase in the amplitude of vibrations at 𝝎 = 𝝎𝒐 and 𝜸 → 𝟎 is called resonance.
𝐹𝑜ൗ 𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚 𝑚
𝑥𝑜 = =
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2 0 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜
𝑥𝑜 =
2 𝛾𝜔
The amplitude tends to be infinite as 𝜸 → 𝟎, but infinite amplitude is
never attained because a definite amount of friction is always present.
Sharpness of the Resonance:
We have seen that the amplitude of the forced oscillations is
maximum when the frequency of the applied force is at resonant
frequency.
If the frequency changed from this value, the amplitude falls.
 Amplitude under Forced Vibrations
Case III High Driving frequency:
When driving frequency 𝝎 is very high as compared to natural frequency 𝝎𝒐 and damping factor 𝜸 is
nearly equal to zero.

𝝎 ≫ 𝝎𝒐 and 𝜸 → 𝟎
𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝝎𝒐 is neglected 𝑥𝑜 =
𝜔𝑜2 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2 𝛾𝜔 2

𝐹𝑜ൗ
𝑚
𝑥𝑜 =
𝜔2
𝐹𝑜
𝑥𝑜 =
𝑚𝜔 2
The greater the driving frequency, smaller will be the amplitude.
 Amplitude under Forced Vibrations

➢ It is interesting that the widths of the resonance curves shown

in Figure, depends on damping: the less the damping, the
narrower the resonance.
➢ The message is that if you want a driven oscillator to resonate
at a very specific frequency, you need as little damping as
possible. Little damping is the case for piano strings and
many other musical instruments.
➢ Conversely, if you want small-amplitude oscillations, such as
in a car’s suspension system, then you want heavy damping.
Heavy damping reduces the amplitude, but the tradeoff is that
the system responds at more frequencies.
 Video Lectures to Watch

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qgTQO2LqxaM (Introduction to Exponential Decay (Damped

Oscillations)

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UtkwsWZnp5o (Solution of Damped Harmonic Oscillators

equation)

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qxDvW8_fm7I (Damping and Damped Harmonic Motion)

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6wAgtvX_8w (Damping of Simple Harmonic Motion)

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wFokTkLLN8 (Forced Oscillations Normal Modes Resonance

Natural Frequencies Musical Instruments)