Alliance School of Applied Mathematics

Semester I
Engineering Mathematics I

Module 2: Single-variable Calculus (Differentiation)

Syllabus
Functions of single variable; Limit, continuity and
MODULE 2 differentiability. Rolle’s theorem-geometrical interpretation,
Single-variable
Lagrange’s and Cauchy’s mean value theorems and Application;
Calculus
(Differentiation) Extreme values of functions; Linear approximation;
Indeterminate forms and L' Hospital's rule.

Motivation:

In Differential Calculus, differentiation is implemented in all the field of applied mathematics.

Mean Value Theorem is one of the important topics of calculus. This theorem relates the slope of
the tangent at one point of the arc of the curve to the slope of its secant. In other word mean value
theorem relates the average value of the function with it derivative. Mean value theorem can be
applied in the comparison of instantaneous velocity with the average velocity in its engineering
applications. The mean value theorem is a very important result in Real Analysis and is very useful
for analyzing the behavior of functions in higher mathematics.

The operation of adding infinite terms is called infinite series. In mathematics the enumerated no
of objects when added they give the structure of infinite series which are required for the study of
finite structures with help of generating functions. Infinite series emphasizes methods for
discussing convergence and divergence of series. It also helps in expanding different functions
which can be expressed into convergent series.

Continuity: f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point in the

function interval
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0

A real-valued function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point 𝑥0 .

All elementary functions such as algebraic, exponential, trigonometric, logarithmic, and
hyperbolic functions are continuous functions. Also, the sum, difference, and product of
continuous functions is continuous. The quotient of continuous functions is continuous at all
those points at which the denominator does not become zero.

Differentiability: A real-valued function f ( x) is said to be differentiable at point x0 if

f (x) − f (x0 )
lim exists uniquely and it is denoted by f '(x 0 ) .
x→ x0 x − x0

A real-valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable in an interval if it is differentiable at

f (x + h) − f (x)
every in the interval or if lim exists uniquely. This is denoted by f '(x).
h→0 h
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Differential Calculus-I
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If a function is differentiable in an interval, then it is necessarily continuous in that interval. The

converse of this need not be true. That means a function is a continuous need not imply that it
is differentiable.

Closed interval: An interval of the form 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, that includes every point between a and
b and also the end points, is called a closed interval and is denoted by [a,b].
Open Interval: An interval of the form a < x < b , that includes every point between a and b
but not the end points, is called an open interval and is denoted by ( a , b ) .

𝑑 𝑑
13. (𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 14. (𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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Differential Calculus-I
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Rolle’s Mean value theorems

1. Introduction: The mean value theorem tells us (roughly) that if we know the slope
of the secant line of a function whose derivative is continuous, then there must be a
tangent line nearby with that same slope. This lets us draw conclusions about the
behavior of a function based on knowledge of its derivative.
2. Key Definitions:

Role’s Theorem: If a function f(x) is

(i) f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f (x) is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)

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(iii) f(a)=f(b)
then there exists at least one point c in (a, b) (i.e. a < c < b) such that f ’(c)=0.

Alternative or Another Statement of Rolle’s Theorem : If a function f ( x) is

(i) continuous in [ a , a + h ]

(ii) differentiable in ( a , a + h )

(iii) f (a) = f (a + h) ,

then there exists at least one real number  such that

f '( a + h ) = 0 , for 0    1.

Geometrical Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem: If graph of the function is a continuous

curve between x = a and x = b having a unique tangent at all points in ( a , b ) and

f (a) = f (b) then there exists at least one point P between x = a and x = b on the curve,

such that the tangent at this point is parallel to x – axis i.e. f '(c) = 0.

y y
f’ (c ) f’ (c )

f(a) f(b) f(a) f(b)

o a b x o x

Lagrange’s mean value theorem

Lagrange’s mean value theorem
Suppose f(x) is a function that satisfies the following.
(i) f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) is differentiable on the open interval (a,b)
f (b) − f (a )
f ' (c ) =
Then there is a number c such that a < c < b and b−a

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Geometrical Interpretation of L.M.V.T.: If curve is continuous from a point A to a point B

and has tangent at every point on it then there exists at least one point C between A and B,

such that tangent at this point is parallel to the chord AB.

y f’(c )
f(b)

f(a)

o ac b x

Cauchy’s mean value theorem

Cauchy’s mean value theorem:

Let functions f(x) and g(x) be
(i) Continuous on [a,b]
(ii) Differentiable on the interior of (a,b).
further that g′(x) ≠0, ∀ x ∈(a,b).
f '(c) f (b) − f (a)
=
There exists a point c ∈(a, b) such that g '(c) g (b) − g (a)

Exercise
1. Verify Rolle’s Theorem
sin x
(i ) f ( x) = in [0,  ].
ex
2
(ii) f ( x) = 1− 3( x −1) 3 in 0  x  2. (iii) f ( x) = x in [−1, 1].

 x 2 +1, 0  x  1
(iv) f ( x) = 
3 − x, 1  x  2.
2. Verify Rolle’s theorem for
𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑏
(𝑖)𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋(𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑥) = log [ ] 𝑖𝑛[𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0.
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥
(ii) f(x) = x2m-1(a-x)2n in [0,a]

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2
(iii) x3 – 12x in [0,2√3]
1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
(iv) f(x) = {
𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑎𝑏 +𝑥 2
(v) log 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑥 in [a,b]
𝜋 5𝜋
(vi) 𝑒 𝑥 (Sin x - Cos x) in [ 4 , ]
4

3 Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the function

2
(i) f ( x) = x 3 in [−8, 8].
(ii) f(x) = 2x 2 -7x - 10 over [2,5] and find c using LMVT
−1 1
(iii) f(x) = Cot 𝜋𝑥 in [ , ]
2 2
1
(iv) x(x-1)(x-2) in [0, ]
2
2 3
(v) log x in [𝑒 , 𝑒 ]
-1
(vi) Sin x in [0,1]

4. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for

(i) x 2 & x 4 in [a, b] where a  0, b  0,

 
sin x & cos x in 0, 
(ii)  2
2 3
(iii) x & x in [1, 2]
1
(iv) log x and in [1,e]
𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥
(v) 𝑒 and 𝑒 in [a,b]

sinb−sina
6. Prove that = C𝑜𝑡 𝑐 where 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) using Cauchy mean value
cosa−cosb

theorem.

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Extreme values of functions – Maxima and Minima

Definition: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a maximum at x = a, if there exists a small number
′ℎ′, however small, such that f(a) > f(a − h) and f(a) > f(a + h), both.

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a minimum at x = a, if there exists a small number ′ℎ′,
however small, such that f(a) < f(a − h) and f(a) < f(a + h), both.

Note: The maximum and minimum values of a function taken together are called its extreme
values and the points at which the function attains the extreme values are called the turning
points of the function.

Conditions for Maxima and Minima:

1) 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum at x = a if 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) is ‘- ve’ [i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) changes sign
from ‘+ ve’ to ‘- ve’].

2) 𝑓(𝑥) is minimum at x = a if 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) is ‘+ ve’ [i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) changes sign
from ‘- ve’ to ‘+ ve’].

Procedure for finding maxima and minima:

1. Consider the given function as 𝑓(𝑥).

2. Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and equate it to zero. Solve 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and let its roots be a,b,c,….

3. Find 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) and then calculate the value of 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) at x = a, b, c, …

If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) < 0, 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum at x = a.

If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) > 0, 𝑓(𝑥) is minimum at x = a.

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4. Sometimes 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) maybe difficult to find out or 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 at x = a. In such cases, if

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes its sign from ‘+ ve’ to ‘- ve’ as x passes through a, then 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum
at x = a.
If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes its sign from ‘- ve’ to ‘+ ve’ as x passes through a, then 𝑓(𝑥) is
minimum at x = a.
If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) does not change its sign while passing through x = a, then 𝑓(𝑥) is neither
maximum nor minimum at x = a.

PROBLEMS:

1. Find the maxima and minima for the following functions:

a) x 3 − 3𝑥 + 2;
b) 2x 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6;
c) −3x 2 + 4𝑥 + 7;
d) 5x 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥.

2. Show that sin 𝑥 (1 + cos 𝑥) is a maximum when 𝑥 = π/3.

loge 𝑥
3. What is the maximum value of the function ?
𝑥

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𝑎
4. The function 𝑓(𝑥) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥; 𝑓(2) = 1, has an extremum at 𝑥 = 2.
Determine the value of a and b. Is this point (2,1), a point of maximum or minimum
on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)?

5. Discuss the maxima and minima for the function 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 .

6. Show that of all rectangles of given area, the square has the least parameter.

sin 3𝑥
7. What is the value of 𝑝 for which the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝 sin 𝑥 + has an extremum
3
𝜋
at 𝑥 = 3 .

8. It is given that at 𝑥 = 2, the function 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 8 attains its maximum value

on the interval [0,3]. Find the value of 𝑘.

9. A ball is thrown in the air. Its height at any time t is given by:
ℎ = 3 + 14t − t 2
What is its maximum height.

Linear approximation

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Engineering Mathematics I

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Questions:
1. Find the linear approximation of f(x)=√x at x=9 and use the approximation to estimate √9.1.
3 3
2. Find the linear approximation of f(x)= √𝑥 at x=8 and use the approximation to estimate √8.1
to five decimal places.
3. Find the linear approximation of f(x)=(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 at x=0. Use the approximation to estimate
(1.01)3 .

INDETERMINATE FORMS

L’Hospital Rule : If f(x) and g(x) are two functions of x which can be

expanded by Taylor’s series in the neighborhood of x=a and f(a)=g(a)=0,

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
then lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′ (𝑥)

Indeterminate Forms: There are seven types of indeterminate forms

given as follows:
0
•
0
∞
•
∞

• 0.∞
• ∞− ∞
• 1∞
• 00
• ∞0
where the limits for these can be calculated using L’Hospital Rule.

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NOTE:
𝟎 ∞
To apply the L’Hospital rule, we need the given function in or
𝟎 ∞

form.
Four standard limits :
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒙
(i) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =1
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

𝒙
(ii) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =1
𝒙→𝟎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒙

𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙
(iii) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =1
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

𝒙
(iv) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =1
𝒙→𝟎 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐬
𝑥− 𝑥 𝑥
1. Find lim ( ) Ans 2
𝑥−1−𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→1

𝑎 𝑥
2. Find lim ( − Cot ) Ans 0
𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑎
𝜋𝑥
𝑥 tan 2𝑎
3. Find lim (2 − )
𝑥→𝑎 𝑎

𝑒 2𝑥 − (1+𝑥)2
4. Find lim ( ) Ans 1
𝑥 log (1+𝑥)
𝑥→0

𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥−𝑥
5. Find lim ( ) Ans 1/6
𝑥→0 𝑥3

6. Find lim log tan 𝑥 tan 2𝑥

𝑥→0

1
(1+𝑥)𝑥 −𝑒 𝑒
7. Prove that lim ( ) =-2
𝑥→0 𝑥

8. Show that lim log 𝑥 Sin 𝑥 =1

𝑥→0

9. Evaluate lim tan 𝑥. log 𝑥 Ans 0

𝑥→0
1 2
10.Evaluate lim 2
- 𝐶𝑜𝑡 2 x Ans
𝑥→0 𝑥 3

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Text Books:

1. B.S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Latest edition, Khanna Publishers.

Reference Books:

1. Peter V. O’Neil, Engineering Mathematics CENGAGE Learning India Pvt Ltd

.Publishers.

2. B.V. Ramana, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Latest Edition, Tata Mc. Graw Hill
Publications
3. Erwin Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Latest edition, Wiley
Publications.

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