Chapter 5:

Loops and Files

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The Increment and Decrement
Operators
++ is the increment operator.

It adds one to a variable.

val++; is the same as val = val + 1;

++ can be used before (prefix) or after (postfix) a

variable:
++val; val++;

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The Increment and Decrement
Operators
-- is the decrement operator.

It subtracts one from a variable.

val--; is the same as val = val - 1;

-- can be also used before (prefix) or after

(postfix) a variable:
--val; val--;

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Increment and Decrement
Operators in Program 5-1

Continued…

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Increment and Decrement
Operators in Program 5-1

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Prefix vs. Postfix
++ and -- operators can be used in
complex statements and expressions
In prefix mode (++val, --val) the
operator increments or decrements, then
returns the value of the variable
In postfix mode (val++, val--) the
operator returns the value of the variable,
then increments or decrements

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Prefix vs. Postfix - Examples
int num, val = 12;
cout << val++; // displays 12,
// val is now 13;
cout << ++val; // sets val to 14,
// then displays it
num = --val; // sets val to 13,
// stores 13 in num
num = val--; // stores 13 in num,
// sets val to 12

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Notes on Increment and
Decrement
Can be used in expressions:
result = num1++ + --num2;
Must be applied to something that has a location
in memory. Cannot have:
result = (num1 + num2)++;
Can be used in relational expressions:
if (++num > limit)
pre- and post-operations will cause different
comparisons

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 5.2
Introduction to Loops: The while
Loop

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Introduction to Loops:
The while Loop
Loop: a control structure that causes a
statement or statements to repeat
General format of the while loop:
while (expression)
statement;
statement; can also be a block of
statements enclosed in { }

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The while Loop – How It Works
while (expression)
statement;
expression is evaluated
if true, then statement is executed, and
expression is evaluated again
if false, then the loop is finished and
program statements following statement
execute

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The Logic of a while Loop

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The while loop in Program 5-3

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How the while Loop in Program 5-
3 Lines 9 through 13 Works

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Flowchart of the while Loop in
Program 5-3

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The while Loop is a Pretest Loop
expression is evaluated before the
loop executes. The following loop will
never execute:

int number = 6;
while (number <= 5)
{
cout << "Hello\n";
number++;
}

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Watch Out for Infinite Loops
The loop must contain code to make
expression become false
Otherwise, the loop will have no way of
stopping
Such a loop is called an infinite loop,
because it will repeat an infinite number of
times

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Example of an Infinite Loop

int number = 1;
while (number <= 5)
{
cout << "Hello\n";
}

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 5.3
Using the while Loop for Input
Validation

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Using the while Loop for
Input Validation
Input validation is the process of
inspecting data that is given to the
program as input and determining whether
it is valid.

The while loop can be used to create input

routines that reject invalid data, and repeat
until valid data is entered.

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Using the while Loop for
Input Validation
Here's the general approach, in
pseudocode:

Read an item of input.

While the input is invalid
Display an error message.
Read the input again.
End While

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Input Validation Example

cout << "Enter a number less than 10: ";

cin >> number;
while (number >= 10)
{
cout << "Invalid Entry!"
<< "Enter a number less than 10: ";
cin >> number;
}

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Flowchart for Input Validation

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Input Validation in Program 5-5

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 5.4
Counters

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Counters
Counter: a variable that is incremented or
decremented each time a loop repeats
Can be used to control execution of the
loop (also known as the loop control
variable)
Must be initialized before entering loop

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A Counter Variable Controls the
Loop in Program 5-6

Continued…

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A Counter Variable Controls the
Loop in Program 5-6

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 5.5
The do-while Loop

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The do-while Loop
do-while: a posttest loop – execute the loop,
then test the expression
General Format:
do
statement; // or block in { }
while (expression);

Note that a semicolon is required after

(expression)

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The Logic of a do-while Loop

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An Example do-while Loop

int x = 1;
do
{
cout << x << endl;
} while(x < 0);

Although the test expression is false, this loop will

execute one time because do-while is a posttest
loop.

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A do-while Loop in Program 5-7

Continued…

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A do-while Loop in Program 5-7

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do-while Loop Notes
Loop always executes at least once
Execution continues as long as
expression is true, stops repetition
when expression becomes false
Useful in menu-driven programs to bring
user back to menu to make another choice
(see Program 5-8 on pages 276-277)

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 5.6
The for Loop

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The for Loop
Useful for counter-controlled loop

General Format:

for(initialization; test; update)

statement; // or block in { }

No semicolon after the update expression or

after the )

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for Loop - Mechanics
for(initialization; test; update)
statement; // or block in { }

1) Perform initialization
2) Evaluate test expression
If true, execute statement
If false, terminate loop execution
3) Execute update, then re-evaluate test
expression

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for Loop - Example

int count;

for (count = 1; count <= 5; count++)

cout << "Hello" << endl;

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A Closer Look
at the Previous Example

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Flowchart for the Previous Example

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A for Loop in Program 5-9

Continued…

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A for Loop in Program 5-9

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A Closer Look at Lines 15 through
16 in Program 5-9

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Flowchart for Lines 15 through 16
in Program 5-9

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When to Use the for Loop
In any situation that clearly requires
an initialization
a false condition to stop the loop
an update to occur at the end of each iteration

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The for Loop is a Pretest Loop
The for loop tests its test expression
before each iteration, so it is a pretest
loop.
The following loop will never iterate:

for (count = 11; count <= 10; count++)

cout << "Hello" << endl;

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for Loop - Modifications
You can have multiple statements in the
initialization expression. Separate
the statements with a comma:
Initialization Expression
int x, y;
for (x=1, y=1; x <= 5; x++)
{
cout << x << " plus " << y
<< " equals " << (x+y)
<< endl;
}

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for Loop - Modifications
You can also have multiple statements in
the test expression. Separate the
statements with a comma:
Test Expression

int x, y;
for (x=1, y=1; x <= 5; x++, y++)
{
cout << x << " plus " << y
<< " equals " << (x+y)
<< endl;
}

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for Loop - Modifications
You can omit the initialization
expression if it has already been done:

int sum = 0, num = 1;

for (; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;

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for Loop - Modifications
You can declare variables in the
initialization expression:

int sum = 0;
for (int num = 0; num <= 10;
num++)
sum += num;

The scope of the variable num is the for loop.

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 5.7
Keeping a Running Total

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Keeping a Running Total
running total: accumulated sum of numbers from
each repetition of loop
accumulator: variable that holds running total
int sum=0, num=1; // sum is the
while (num <= 10) // accumulator
{ sum += num;
num++;
}
cout << "Sum of numbers 1 – 10 is"
<< sum << endl;

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Logic for Keeping a Running Total

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A Running Total in Program 5-12

Continued…

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A Running Total in Program 5-12

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 5.8
Sentinels

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Sentinels
sentinel: value in a list of values that
indicates end of data

Special value that cannot be confused with

a valid value, e.g., -999 for a test score

Used to terminate input when user may

not know how many values will be entered

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A Sentinel in Program 5-13

Continued…

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A Sentinel in Program 5-13

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 5.9
Deciding Which Loop to Use

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Deciding Which Loop to Use
The while loop is a conditional pretest loop
Iterates as long as a certain condition exits
Validating input
Reading lists of data terminated by a sentinel

The do-while loop is a conditional posttest loop

Always iterates at least once
Repeating a menu

The for loop is a pretest loop

Built-in expressions for initializing, testing, and updating
Situations where the exact number of iterations is known

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 5.10
Nested Loops

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Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside the body of
another loop
Inner (inside), outer (outside) loops:

for (row=1; row<=3; row++) //outer

for (col=1; col<=3; col++)//inner
cout << row * col << endl;

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Nested for Loop in Program 5-14

Inner Loop

Outer Loop

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Nested Loops - Notes
Inner loop goes through all repetitions for
each repetition of outer loop

Inner loop repetitions complete sooner

than outer loop

Total number of repetitions for inner loop

is product of number of repetitions of the
two loops.

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Coding Challenge – Distance
Travelled
Write a program that:
asks the user for the average speed of a
vehicle in kilometres per hour.
validate that the speed is not negative
asks how many hours it has travelled.
validate that the travelled hours is not less
than 1 hour
use loop to calculate the travelled distance of
the vehicle

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 and display the distance that vechile has
traveled for each hour
ex.
Hour Distance Traveled
----------------------------------
1 150
2 300
3 450

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 5.11
Using Files for Data Storage

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Why need file processing?
When a program needs to save data for
later use, it writes the date in a file
Then the data can be read from the file at
a later time
Files are used for permanent storage
instead of keyboard, monitor screen for
program input, output (temporary)
Allows data to be retained between
program runs
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Programs that are used in daily
business operations
Rely extensively on files
Payroll programs
employee data are kept in file
Inventory programs
Company’s products are kept in file
Accounting system
Company’s financial operations are kept in files

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Terminology
Saving data in a file :
Also means writing data to a file
Is called output file, since program stores its
output in the file
Retrieving data from a file:
Also means reading data from a file
When a piece of data is read from file, it is
copied from the file into a variable in RAM
Is called input file, since program gets input
from the file
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File stream object
Is created in memory
Is associated with a specific file
Provides a way for the program to work
with the file
Why called stream object?
A file is a stream of data

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Using Files for Data Storage
Steps:
Include fstream header file
Open the file
Use the file (read from, write to, or both)
Close the file

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Files: What is Needed
Use fstream header file for file access
File stream types:
ifstream for input from a file
ofstream for output to a file
fstream for input from or output to a file
Define file stream objects:
ifstream infile;
ofstream outfile;

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Opening Files
Create a link between file name (outside the program)
and file stream object (inside the program)
Use the open member function:
infile.open("inventory.dat");
outfile.open("report.txt");
Filename may include drive, path info.
Output file will be created if necessary; existing file will
be erased first
Input file must exist for open to work

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Testing for File Open Errors
Can test a file stream object to detect if an open
operation failed:
infile.open("test.txt");
if (!infile)
{
cout << "File open failure!";
}
Can also use the fail member function

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Using Files
Can use output file object and << to send
data to a file:
outfile << "Inventory report";
Can use input file object and >> to copy
data from file to variables:
infile >> partNum;
infile >> qtyInStock >>
qtyOnOrder;

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Writing to file (Example 5-15)
// This program writes data to a file.
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ofstream outputFile;
outputFile.open("demofile.txt");

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Example 5-15
cout << "Now writing data to the file.\n";

// Write four names to the file.

outputFile << "Bach\n";
outputFile << "Beethoven\n";
outputFile << "Mozart\n";
outputFile << "Schubert\n";

// Close the file

outputFile.close();
cout << "Done.\n";
return 0;
}
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Example 5-18
// This program writes user input to a file.
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ofstream outputFile;
string name1, name2, name3;

// Open an output file.

outputFile.open("Friends.txt");

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 // Get the names of three friends.
cout << "Enter the names of three friends.\n";
cout << "Friend #1: ";
cin >> name1;
cout << "Friend #2: ";
cin >> name2;
cout << "Friend #3: ";
cin >> name3;
// Write the names to the file.
outputFile << name1 << endl;
outputFile << name2 << endl;
outputFile << name3 << endl;
cout << "The names were saved to a file.\n";

// Close the file

outputFile.close();
return 0;
}
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Reading from file (Example 5-19)
// This program reads data from a file.
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ifstream inputFile;
string name;

inputFile.open("Friends.txt");
cout << "Reading data from the file.\n";

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 Reading from file (Example 5-19)
inputFile >> name; // Read name 1 from the file
cout << name << endl; // Display name 1

inputFile >> name; // Read name 2 from the file

cout << name << endl; // Display name 2

inputFile >> name; // Read name 3 from the file

cout << name << endl; // Display name 3

inputFile.close(); // Close the file

return 0;
}

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Using Loops to Process Files
The stream extraction operator >> returns
true when a value was successfully read,
false otherwise

Can be tested in a while loop to continue

execution as long as values are read from
the file:
while (inputFile >> number) ...

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Closing Files
Use the close member function:
infile.close();
outfile.close();
Don’t wait for operating system to close
files at program end:
may be limit on number of open files
may be buffered output data waiting to send
to file

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Letting the User Specify a Filename

In many cases, you will want the user to

specify the name of a file for the program
to open.
In C++ 11, you can pass a string object
as an argument to a file stream object’s
open member function.

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Letting the User Specify a
Filename in Program 5-24

Continued…

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Letting the User Specify a
Filename in Program 5-24

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Using the c_str Member Function
in Older Versions of C++
Prior to C++ 11, the open member
function requires that you pass the name
of the file as a null-terminated string, which
is also known as a C-string.
String literals are stored in memory as
null-terminated C-strings, but string
objects are not.

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Using the c_str Member Function
in Older Versions of C++
string objects have a member function named c_str
It returns the contents of the object formatted as a
null-terminated C-string.
Here is the general format of how you call the c_str
function:
stringObject.c_str()
Line 18 in Program 5-24 could be rewritten in the
following manner:

inputFile.open(filename.c_str());

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 5.12
Breaking and Continuing a Loop

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Breaking Out of a Loop
Can use break to terminate execution of
a loop

Use sparingly if at all – makes code harder

to understand and debug

When used in an inner loop, terminates

that loop only and goes back to outer loop

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The continue Statement
Can use continue to go to end of loop
and prepare for next repetition
while, do-while loops: go to test, repeat
loop if test passes
for loop: perform update step, then test,
then repeat loop if test passes
Use sparingly – like break, can make
program logic hard to follow

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