Computer Architecture & Organization

Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Architecture & Organization

Computer Architecture:
Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the computer or
Processor to be specific. It deals with details like physical memory, ISA (Instruction
Set Architecture) of the processor, the number of bits used to represent the data types,
Input Output mechanism and technique for addressing memories.
Computer Organization:
Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the computer
architecture .It deals with how operational attributes are linked together to meet the
requirements specified by computer architecture. Some organizational attributes are
hardware details, control signals, peripherals.
Software Components of Computer System:
Software is program where different instructions are written. Software components of
computer system is classified by two software.
1) System software
2) Application software.
1) System software - is computer software designed to provide a platform to
other software.
2) Application software - A software which is developed to help the user to perform
specific tasks is called application software.
S/W Components

System Software Application Software

(1) Operating
system User program
(2) Editors

3) Compilers

4) Interpreters

5) Translators

6)Assembler

7) Linker

8) Loader

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Four Basic Functions of Computer

1. Data Processing:
The computer must be able to process data. The data may take a wide variety of
forms and broad range of processing requirement.
2. Data Storage:
It is also essential that a computer store data Even if the computer is processing data
on the fly (ie data come in and get processed, and the results go out immediately) the
computer must temporarily store at least those pieces of data that are being worked
on at any given moment. Short term and long term data. Storage functions are equally
important.
3. Data Movement:
The computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world. The
computer's operating environment consists of devices that serve as either sources or
destinations of data. When data are received from or delivered to a device that is
directly connected to the computer. The process is known as Input/output (I/O) and
the device is referred to as it is peripheral.
4. Control:
There must be control of above three functions. This control is exercised by the
individual(s) who provides the computer with instructions. Within the computer, a
control unit manages the computer's resources and handles the performance of its
functional parts in response to those instructions.

GENERATIONS OF A COMPUTER
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was
being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying
hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and
software, which together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate
dates against each generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers

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S.N. Generation & Description

1 First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor
based.
5 Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor
based

The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central
Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were
prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could
be afforded only by very large organizations. In this generation mainly batch
processing operating system were used. Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape
were used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used
machine code as programming language.The main features of first generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology

 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non-portable
 Consumed lot of electricity

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Some computers of this generation were:

ENIAC
EDVAC
UNIVAC
IBM-701
IBM-650

Second generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were
used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable
and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and
magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation assembly language
and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The
computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system
The main features of second generation are:
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed
 Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM 1620
IBM 7094
CDC 1604
CDC 3600
UNIVAC 1108
Third generation
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The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation
used integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many
transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC was
invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable
and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming
operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation
The main features of third generation are:
 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
 A.C needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM-360 series
Honeywell-6000 series

Fourth generation
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation
used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000
transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip
made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation
computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it
gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In this generation time sharing, real
time, networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages
like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation

The main features of fourth generation are:

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 VLSI technology used

 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

DEC 10
STAR 1000

Fifth generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the
production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This
generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and
method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages
like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations
The main features of fifth generation are:
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing

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 Advancement in Superconductor technology

 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

Desktop
Laptop
NoteBook
UltraBook

Block Diagram of Computer

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FUNCTIONAL UNITS
• A computer consists of 5 functionally independent main parts:
1) Input,
2) Memory,
3) Arithmetic & logic,
4) Output and
5) Control units.
1. Input Unit
• The computer accepts the information in the form of program & data through an
input device. Eg: keyboard
• Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter/digit is automatically translated
into its corresponding binary-code and transmitted over a cable to either the memory
or the processor.
2. Memory Unit: Memory unit stores the program instructions (Code), data and
results of computations etc. Memory unit is classified as:
 Primary/Main Memory
 Secondary/Auxiliary Memory
Primary memory is a semiconductor memory that provides access at high speed. Run
time program instructions and operands are stored in the main memory. Main
memory is classified again as ROM and RAM. ROM holds system programs and
firmware routines such as BIOS, POST, I/O Drivers that are essential to manage the
hardware of a computer. RAM is termed as Read/Write memory or user memory that
holds run time program instruction and data. While primary storage is essential, it is
volatile in nature and expensive. Additional requirement of memory could be
supplied as auxiliary memory at cheaper cost. Secondary memories are non-volatile
in nature.
3. Arithmetic and Logic Unit: ALU consist of necessary logic circuits like adder,
comparator etc., to perform operations of addition, multiplication, comparison of two
numbers etc.
4. Control Unit: Control unit controls activities of all units by issuing control
signals.

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Control signals issued by control unit govern the data transfers and then appropriate
operations take place. Control unit interprets decides the operation/action to be
performed.
5. Output Unit: Computer after performing operation returns the results, error
messages, etc. through output unit. The standard output device is a video monitor,
LCD/TFT monitor.
Other output devices are printers, plotters etc.
Von-Neumann Model

Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later
known as Von-Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and
Logical Memory Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where

instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still
used in most computers produced today.

A Von Neumann-based computer:

o Uses a single processor

o Uses one memory for both instructions and data.

o Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle

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Central Processing Unit

The part of the Computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called
the Central Processing Unit and is referred to as the CPU.

The Central Processing Unit can also be defined as an electric circuit responsible for
executing the instructions of a computer program.

The CPU performs a variety of functions dictated by the type of instructions that are
incorporated in the computer.

The major components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit
(CU) and a variety of registers.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for
executing the instructions. In simple words, ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.)
and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations to be carried out.

Control Unit

The Control Unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like
ALU, memory and input/output devices.

The Control Unit consists of a program counter that contains the address of the
instructions to be fetched and an instruction register into which instructions are fetched
from memory for execution.

Registers

Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU
are fetched from the registers.

Following is the list of registers that plays a crucial role in data processing.

Registers Description

MAR (Memory Address This register holds the memory location of the data
Register) that needs to be accessed.

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MDR (Memory Data This register holds the data that is being transferred to
Register) or from memory.

AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and

logic results.

PC (Program Counter) This register contains the address of the next

instruction to be executed.

CIR (Current Instruction This register contains the current instruction during
Register) processing.

Buses

Buses are the means by which information is shared between the registers in a multiple-
register configuration system.

A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register, through
which binary information is transferred one at a time. Control signals determine which
register is selected by the bus during each particular register transfer.

Von-Neumann Architecture comprised of three major bus systems for data transfer.

Bus Description

Address Address Bus carries the address of data (but not the data) between the
Bus processor and the memory.

Data Bus Data Bus carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the
input/output devices.

Control Control Bus carries signals/commands from the CPU.

Bus

Memory Unit

A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed
to transfer information in and out of the storage. The memory stores binary information

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in groups of bits called words. The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by
the number of words it contains and the number of bits in each word.

Two major types of memories are used in computer systems:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Harvard Architecture
Harvard Architecture is the digital computer architecture whose design is based on
the concept where there are separate storage and separate buses (signal path) for
instruction and data. It was basically developed to overcome the bottleneck of Von
Neumann Architecture.

Features
 Separate memory spaces
 Fixed instruction length
 Parallel instruction and data access
 More efficient memory usage
 Suitable for embedded systems
 Limited flexibility

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Advantages of Harvard Architecture

 Faster Processing: The availability of two buses for data and instructions
avoids a problem of contention where only one bus is used and this enhances the
velocity of the system.
 Improved Security: In this way the chance of memory corruption is at least cut
in half since data is not stored in the same locations as instructions.
 Efficient Use of Resources: It enables the use of different memory for data and
for instructions of different sizes as this help in optimal utilization of the buses
and other resources.
Disadvantages of Harvard Architecture
 Complexity: The design and the implementation of this type are more intricate,
thus necessitating other hardware facilities.
 Higher Cost: Since the concept of Harvard architecture calls for two sets of
memory and two separate buses, their implementation costs are comparatively
high than Von Neumann architecture.
 Less Flexibility Competitors: Changing or even improving the system can also
be a little tricky because of the different memory regions.

Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture

Parameters Von Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture

Definition A classic computer architecture A modern computer architecture

model that uses the stored- model based on the relay-based
program concept. model by Harvard Mark I.

Physical A single physical address is used Two separate physical addresses

Address to access and store both data and are used to store and access
instructions. instructions and data.

Buses (Signal A single bus is used to transfer Separate buses are used to transfer
Paths) both instruction and data. data and instructions.

Number of Two clock cycles are needed to Only one cycle is required to
Cycles execute a single instruction. execute an instruction.

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Cost This architecture is less costly This architecture is more expensive

compared to Harvard than Von Neumann Architecture.
Architecture.

Access to CPU The CPU cannot read/write data The CPU can read/write data and
and access instructions access instructions simultaneously.
simultaneously.

Uses This architecture is used in small This architecture is ideal for signal
computers and personal processing and microcontrollers.
computers.

Requirement Less hardware is required as it More hardware is required as

of Hardware only needs to access one separate data and address buses are
common memory. needed for individual memory.

Requirement This architecture requires less This architecture requires more

of Space space. space.

Usage of Space There is no wastage of space as There can be wastage of space as

the instruction memory can use the instruction memory cannot use
the unused space of data memory the unused space of data memory
and vice-versa. and vice-versa.

Execution The execution speed is slower as The execution speed is faster as it

Speed it cannot fetch instructions and can fetch both instructions and data
data simultaneously. simultaneously.

Controlling Control is simpler as it fetches Control is complex as it fetches

either instructions or data at a both instructions and data
time. simultaneously.

Interconnection Structure:
• Computer consist set of modules.
• There must be path for connecting this modules.
• The collection of paths connecting the various modules are called as
Interconnection Structure.

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Interconnection Structure:

Memory
• Each narrow arrow represents a single signal line.
• The wide arrows represent multiple signal lines carrying multiple bits of
information in parallel.
• It consist of N words of equal length. Each word is assigned a unique
numerical address (0, 1, …, N-1).
• A word of data can be read from or written into the memory that is read and
write control signals.

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• The location for the operation is specified by an address.

I/O module
• I/O is functionally similar to memory.
• There are two operations; read and write.
• I/O module may control more than one external device.
• We can refer each external device as a port and give a unique address (e.g., 0,
1, …, M-1). In addition, there are external data paths for the input and output
of an external device.
• I/O module may be able to send interrupt signals to the processor.
Processor
The processor reads in instructions and data, writes out data after processing, and
uses control signals to control the operation.
It also receives interrupt signals.
There are following types of transfers:
 Memory to processor: The processor reads an instruction or data from
memory.
 Processor to memory: The processor writes data to memory.
 I/O to processor: The processor reads data from an I/O device via an I/O
module.
 Processor to I/O: The processor sends data to the I/O device.
 I/O to or from memory: For these two cases, an I/O module is allowed to
exchange data directly with memory, without going through the processor,
using direct memory access (DMA).
BUS INTERCONNECTION

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Bus - Communication pathway which connects to or more devices.

Multiple devices can be connected to single bus.
Signal transmitted by any one device is available for all devices which are connected
to bus.
At time only one device can transmit the signal/data. (walky-talky)
If at a time two devices transmit dada then it will be overlap. Bus transmits logic 0/1
either serially, one by one. (Slow speed) or it transmits whole data at a time parallel
(Fast speed)
System bus- which connects major component Of Computer (I/o, cpu, mem.)
System bus consist 50-100 separate lines each line is assigned to particular Function.
There are 3 Functional groups system bus :
1) Data
2) Address
3) control
Apart from this, there is separate power line to supply power.
Data bus –It consist 8/16/32/ or more parallel signal line to move data:
Data bus lines are bidirectional.
Means cpu can read data from memory port as well as Send data to memes port.
Address bus-It consist 16/20/24 or more parallel signal lines, it is unidirectional
CPU sends the address of memory location or I/o port which is to be read/write.
Control bus- used to control the access to and use of data/address bus.
Control Bus transmit Command signal which specifies operation to be performed.
Control Bus transmit timing signal. - specifies validity of data & address information.
Control Signal Description
Memory Write Writes the data on data bus to the addressed memory location.

Memory Read Sends the data from the addressed memory location to the data
bus.

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I/O Read Sends data from the addressed I/O port to the data bus.

I/O Write Data from the data bus is sent to the designated I/O port.

Bus Request The activation of this control line signifies that the component
has signalled its desire to take control of the bus.
Bus Grant The activation of this control line signifies that the bus has been
allocated to the component that made the request.

Transfer ACK Indicates that data has been received.

Interrupt Request Indicates that there are pending interrupts.

Interrupt ACK When the pending interrupt is serviced, this control line
acknowledges it.
Reset This control line initializes all modules.

Bus Configuration: 1)The Traditional Bus Connection :

 Local bus connects cache memory and support one or more local devices
 Cache is attached to main memory, isolates main memory and Processor.
 Expansion Bus interface buffers data transfers between system bus and I/O
controllers.

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High Performance Architecture:

1. Local bus connects processor to cache controller which is connected to main
memory via system bus.
2. A) Cache controller is integrated to a bridge that connects high speed bus.
B) High Speed Bus connects to High Speed LANs (100 Mbps) .
Video and Graphic Workstation controllers, Interface Controllers to local peripheral
buses-SCSI and Fire wire.
3. Lower Speed devices are supported with an expansion bus with an interface
buffering traffic between the expansion bus and the high speed bus.

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