Measurements and Instrumentation

UNIT-I-INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS

 Measurement
 Basic requirements
 Significance of measurement
 Methods of measurement
 Instrument and measurement systems
 Evolution of instruments
 Classification of Instruments
 Types of Instrumentation system
 Elements of generalized measurement system
 Functional elements of an instrument
 Static and dynamic characteristics
 Errors in measurement
 Statistical evaluation of measurement data
 Standards
 Calibration

1. Measurement:

 Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of comparison

between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and predetermined or
predefined standards.
 Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values.
Measurements and Instrumentation
2. Basic requirements for a meaningful measurement:

 The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and
should be commonly accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable (verifiable).

3. Significance of Measurement

 Importance of Measurement is simply and eloquently expressed in the following

statement of famous physicist Lord Kelvin: ”I often say that when you can
measure what you are speaking about and can express it in numbers, you know
something about it; when you cannot express in it numbers your knowledge is of
meager and unsatisfactory kind”

4. Methods of Measurement

Direct Methods
Indirect Methods

 DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the unknown quantity (called the

measurand ) is directly compared against a standard.

 INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct methods are not always possible,

feasible and practicable. In engineering applications measurement systems are
used which require need of indirect method for measurement purposes.
Measurements and Instrumentation
5. Instruments and Measurement Systems
Measurement involves the use of instruments as a physical means of determining
quantities or variables.
Because of modular nature of the elements within it, it is common to refer the
measuring instrument as a MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.

6. Evolution of Instruments
Mechanical
Electrical
Electronic Instruments.

MECHANICAL: These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
But their disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of
dynamic and transient conditions.
ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than
mechanical methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The
response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.
ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices and
weak signal can also be detected
7. Classification of Instruments
Absolute Instruments.
Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the magnitude if the quantity under
measurement terms of physical constants of the instrument.
SECONDARY: These instruments are calibrated by the comparison with absolute
instruments which have already been calibrated.
Further it is classified as
Deflection Type Instruments
Null Type Instruments.
 Functions of instrument and measuring system can be classified into three. They
are:
Measurements and Instrumentation
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
 Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.

8. Types of Instrumentation System

Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been refined for the purpose of presentation )
Dumb Instrumentation (data must be processed by the observer)

9. Elements of Generalized Measurement System

Primary sensing element.

Variable conversion element.
Data presentation element.
PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It converts the output of the primary sensing
element into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original signal.
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
Measurements and Instrumentation
10. Functional Elements of an Instrumentation System

PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA

QUANTITY
TO BE SENSING CONVER MANIPULA TRANSMISS PRESENTA
MEASURED ELEMENT -SION TI-ON IO-N TION
ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

TERMINATING
DETECTOR INTERMEDIATE STAGE STAGE
TRANSDUCER
STAGE

11. Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

Application involved measurement of quantity that are either constant or varies slowly
with time is known as static.
 Accuracy
 Drift
 Dead Zone
 Static Error
 Sensitivity
 Reproducibility
Static Characteristics
 Static correction
 Scale range
 Scale span
 Noise
 Dead Time
 Hysteresis.
 Linearity
Measurements and Instrumentation

 ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an instrument reading approaches the true value
of the quantity being measured.
 TRUE VALUE: True value of quantity may be defined as the average of an infinite
no. of measured value.
 SENSITIVITY is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output response to that
of input response.
 STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the difference between the measured value and true
value of the quantity.
Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments because it is rarely apparent and
cannot be maintained.
It is classified as
 Zero drift
 Span drift or sensitivity drift
 Zonal drift.
Noise
A spurious current or voltage extraneous to the current or voltage of interest in an
electrical or electronic circuit is called noise.

12. Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement System

 Speed of response
 Measuring lag
 Fidelity
 Dynamic error

SPEED OF RESPONSE: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement

system responds to changes in measured quantity. It is one of the dynamic characteristics
of a measurement system.
Measurements and Instrumentation
FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamic Error
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error. It is one the dynamic characteristics.
Measuring Lag
It is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
 Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a change in measured
quantity has occurred.
 Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins after a dead zone after
the application of the input.
13. Errors in Measurement
Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
Known Error
Systematic Errors
 INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors arise due to 3 reasons-
Due to inherent short comings in the instrument

Due to misuse of the instrument

Due to loading effects of the instrument

 ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors are due to conditions external to the

measuring device. These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust or of

external electrostatic or magnetic field.
 OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on account of parallax is the observational

error.
Measurements and Instrumentation

Residual error
This is also known as residual error. These errors are due to a multitude
of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another. The
happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped together and called
“Random” or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by these are called random or residual
errors.

14. Statistical evaluation of measurement data

Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of

readings taken.
Deviation
 Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of the group

of readings.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the

sum of the individual deviations squared divided by the number of readings.

Problem
Question: The following 10 observation were recorded when measuring a voltage:
41.7, 42.0, 41.8, 42.0, 42.1, 41.9, 42.0, 41.9, 42.5, 41.8 volts.Calculate Mean, Standard
Deviation, Probable Error and Range.
Answer
 Mean=41.97 volt
 S.D=0.22 volt
 Probable error=0.15 volt
 Range=0.8 volt.
Measurements and Instrumentation
15. Calibration
Calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the

instruments against a known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy.
Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either

 a Primary standard

a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated.

an instrument of known accuracy.

16. Standards
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term
„standard‟ is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical
quantity.
Types of Standards
International Standards (defined based on international agreement )

Primary Standards (maintained by national standards laboratories)

Secondary Standards ( used by industrial measurement laboratories)

Working Standards ( used in general laboratory)