SECOND EDITION

MODERN
POWER
SYSTEM
ANALYSIS
¨
TURAN GONEN

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
 2 Basic Concepts

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, a brief review of fundamental concepts associated with steady-state alternating cur-
rent circuits, especially with three-phase circuits, is presented. It is hoped that this brief review is
sufficient to provide a common base, in terms of notation and references, that is necessary to be able
to follow the subsequent chapters.

2.2 COMPLEX POWER IN BALANCED TRANSMISSION LINES

Figure 2.1a shows a per-phase representation (or a one-line diagram) of a short three-phase balanced
transmission line connecting buses i and j. Here, the term bus defines a specific nodal point of a
transmission network. Assume that the bus voltages Vi and Vj are given in phase values (i.e., line-
to-neutral values) and that the line impedance is Z = R + jX per phase. Since the transmission line
is a short one, the line current I can be assumed to be approximately the same at any point in the
line. However, because of the line losses, the complex powers Sij and Sji are not the same. Thus, the
complex power per phase* that is being transmitted from bus i to bus j can be expressed as

Sij = Pij + jQij = ViI* (2.1)

Similarly, the complex power per phase that is being transmitted from bus j to bus i can be
expressed as

Sji = Pji + jQ ji = Vj(−I)* (2.2)

Since

Vi − Vj
I= (2.3)
Z

substituting Equation 2.3 into Equations 2.1 and 2.2,

 V* − V* 
Sij = Vi  i * j 
 Z 
(2.4)
2
Vi − Vi Vj ∠θi − θ j
=
R − jX

* For an excellent treatment of the subject, see Elgerd [1].

13
14 Modern Power System Analysis

(a) (b)
Bus i Bus j
Z = R + jx
I
Sij Sji Vi

γ
+ +
Vj
Vi = |Vi| θi Vj = |Vj| θj
– –

FIGURE 2.1 Per-phase representation of short transmission line.

and

 V* − V* 
S ji = Vj  j * i 
 Z 
(2.5)
2
Vj − Vj Vi ∠θ j − θi
=
R − jX

However, as shown in Figure 2.1b, if the power angle (i.e., the phase angle between the two bus
voltages) is defined as

γ = θ i − θj (2.6)

then the real and the reactive power per-phase values can be expressed, respectively, as

Pij =
1
R +X
2 2 ( 2
R Vi − R Vi Vj cos γ + X Vi Vj sin γ ) (2.7)

and

Qij =
1
R +X
2 2 ( 2
X Vi − X Vi Vj cos γ + R Vi Vj sin γ ) (2.8)

Similarly,

Pji =
1
R +X
2 2 ( 2
R Vj − R Vi Vj cos γ + X Vi Vj sin γ ) (2.9)

and

Q ji =
1
R +X
2 2 ( 2
X Vj − X Vi Vj cos γ + R Vi Vj sin γ ) (2.10)

The three-phase real and reactive power can directly be found from Equations 2.7 through 2.10
if the phase values are replaced by the line values.
Basic Concepts 15

In general, the reactance of a transmission line is much greater than its resistance. Therefore, the
line impedance value can be approximated as

Z = jX (2.11)

by setting R = 0. Therefore, Equations 2.7 through 2.10 can be expressed as

 Vi Vj 
Pij =   sin γ (2.12)
 X 

Qij =
1
X ( 2
Vi − Vi Vj cos γ ) (2.13)

and

 Vi Vj 
Pji = −   sin γ = − Pij (2.14)
 X 

Q ij =
1
X( 2
Vj − Vi Vj cos γ ) (2.15)

EXAMPLE 2.1

Assume that the impedance of a transmission line connecting buses 1 and 2 is 100∠60° Ω, and
that the bus voltages are 73,034.8∠30° and 66,395.3∠20° V per phase, respectively. Determine
the following:

(a) Complex power per phase that is being transmitted from bus 1 to bus 2
(b) Active power per phase that is being transmitted
(c) Reactive power per phase that is being transmitted

Solution

(a)

 V* − V* 
S12 = V1  1 ∗ 2 
 Z 

 73, 034.8∠ − 30° − 66, 395.3∠ − 20° 

= (73, 034.8∠30°)  
 100∠ − 60°

= 10,104, 280.766.7∠3.56°
= 10, 085, 280.6 + j627, 236.51 VA
16 Modern Power System Analysis

(b) Therefore,

P12 = 10, 085, 280.6 W

(c)

Q12 = 627, 236.51 vars

2.3 ONE-LINE DIAGRAM

In general, electrical power systems are represented by a one-line diagram, as shown in Figure
2.2a. The one-line diagram is also referred to as the single-line diagram. Figure 2.2b shows the
three-phase equivalent impedance diagram of the system given in Figure 2.2a. However, the need
for the three-phase equivalent impedance diagram is almost nil in usual situations. This is because
a balanced three-phase system can always be represented by an equivalent impedance diagram
per phase, as shown in Figure 2.2c. Furthermore, the per-phase equivalent impedance can also be
simplified by neglecting the neutral line and representing the system components by standard sym-
bols rather than by their equivalent circuits. The result is, of course, the one-line diagram shown in
Figure 2.2a.
Table 2.1 provides some of the symbols that are used in one-line diagrams. Additional standard
symbols can be found in Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standard 315-1971 [2]. At
times, as a need arises, the one-line diagram may also show peripheral apparatus such as instrument
transformers (i.e., current and voltage transformers), protective relays, and lighting arrestors.
Thus, the details shown on a one-line diagram depend on its purpose. For example, the one-line
diagrams that will be used in load flow studies do not show circuit breakers or relays, contrary to
those that will be used in stability studies. Furthermore, those that will be used in unsymmetrical
fault studies may even show the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks separately.
Note that the buses (i.e., the nodal points of the transmission network) that are shown in Figure
2.2a have been identified by their bus numbers. Also note that the neutral of generator 1 has been
“solidly grounded,” that is, the neutral point has been directly connected to the earth, whereas the
neutral of generator 2 has been “grounded through impedance” using a resistor. Sometimes, it is
grounded using an inductance coil. In either case, they are used to limit the current flow to ground
under fault conditions.
Usually, the neutrals of the transformers used in transmission lines are solidly grounded. In
general, proper generator grounding for generators is facilitated by burying a ground electrode sys-
tem made of grids of buried horizontal wires. As the number of meshes in the grid is increased, its
conductance becomes greater. Sometimes, a metal plate is buried instead of a mesh grid (especially
in European applications).
Transmission lines with overhead ground wires have a ground connection at each supporting
structure to which the ground wire is connected. In some circumstances, a “counterpoise,” that is,
a bare conductor, is buried under a transmission line to decrease the ground resistance. The best-
known example is the one that has been installed for the transmission line crossing the Mohave
Desert. The counterpoise is buried alongside the line and connected directly to the towers and the
overhead ground wires.
Note that the equivalent circuit of the transmission line shown in Figure 2.2c has been repre-
sented by a nominal π*. The line impedance, in terms of the resistance and the series reactance
of a single conductor for the length of the line, has been lumped. The line-to-neutral capacitance
(or shunt capacitive reactance) for the length of the line has been calculated, and half of this value

* Read Chapter 3 for further information.

Basic Concepts 17

1 2 3 4 Load
T1 T2
TL23
G1
G2

(a)

+ +

– –

+ +

– –

+ +

– –

(b)

+
–

Transformer Transmission line Transformer

Generator T1 T2 Load
G1 Generator
(c) G2

FIGURE 2.2 Power system representations: (a) one-line diagram; (b) three-phase equivalent impedance
diagram; (c) equivalent impedance diagram per phase.

has been put at each end of the line. The transformers have been represented by their equivalent
reactances, neglecting their magnetizing currents and consequently their shunt admittances. Also
neglected, are the resistance values of the transformers and generators, because their inductive reac-
tance values are much greater than their resistance values.
Also, not shown in Figure 2.2c, is the ground resistor. This is because of no current flowing in the
neutral under balanced conditions. The impedance diagram shown in Figure 2.2c is also referred
to as the positive-sequence network or diagram. The reason is that the phase order of the balanced
18 Modern Power System Analysis

TABLE 2.1
Symbols Used in One-Line Diagrams

Symbol Usage Symbol Usage

Circuit
Rotating machine breaker

Circuit
Bus breaker
(air)

Two-winding Disconnect
transformer

Three-winding or Fuse
transformer

Delta connection Fused

(3φ, three wire) disconnect

Wye connection Lightning

(3φ, neutral arrester
ungrounded)

Wye connection Current

(3φ, neutral transformer
grounded) (CT)

Transmission Potential
line or transformer
(VT)

Static
load Capacitor
Basic Concepts 19

voltages at any point in the system is the same as the phase order of the generated voltage, and they
are positive. The per-phase impedance diagrams may represent a system given either in ohms or in
per unit.
At times, as need arises, the one-line diagram may also show peripheral apparatus such as instru-
ment transformers (i.e., current and voltage transformers), protective relays, and lighting arrestors.
Therefore, the details shown on a one-line diagram depend on its purpose. For example, the one-line
diagrams that will be used in load flow studies do not show circuit breakers or relays, contrary to
those that will be used in stability studies. Furthermore, those that will be used in unsymmetrical
fault studies may even show the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks separately.

2.4 PER-UNIT SYSTEM

Because of various advantages involved, it is customary in power system analysis calculations to
use impedances, currents, voltages, and powers in per-unit values (which are scaled or normalized
values) rather than in physical values of ohms, amperes, kilovolts, and megavolt-amperes (MVA; or
megavars, or megawatts). A per-unit system is a means of expressing quantities for ease in compar-
ing them. The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity to an “arbitrarily”
chosen base (i.e., reference) value having the same dimensions. Therefore, the per-unit value of any
quantity can be defined as

physical quantity
Quantity in per unit = (2.16)
base vallue of quantity

where physical quantity refers to the given value in ohms, amperes, volts, etc. The base value is also
called unit value since in the per-unit system it has a value of 1, or unity. Therefore, a base current is
also referred to as a unit current. Since both the physical quantity and base quantity have the same
dimensions, the resulting per-unit value expressed as a decimal has no dimension and therefore is
simply indicated by a subscript pu. The base quantity is indicated by a subscript B. The symbol
for per unit is pu, or 0/1. The percent system is obtained by multiplying the per-unit value by 100.
Therefore,

physical quantity
Quantity in percent = × 100 (2.17)
base valuue of quantity

However, the percent system is somewhat more difficult to work with and more subject to pos-
sible error since it must always be remembered that the quantities have been multiplied by 100.
Therefore, the factor 100 has to be continually inserted or removed for reasons that may not be obvi-
ous at the time. For example, 40% reactance times 100% current is equal to 4000% voltage, which,
of course, must be corrected to 40% voltage. Thus, the per-unit system is preferred in power system
calculations. The advantages of using the per-unit include the following:

1. Network analysis is greatly simplified since all impedances of a given equivalent circuit
can directly be added together regardless of the system voltages.
2. It eliminates the 3 multiplications and divisions that are required when balanced three-
phase systems are represented by per-phase systems. Therefore, the factors 3 and 3 asso-
ciated with delta and wye quantities in a balanced three-phase system are directly taken
into account by the base quantities.
3. Usually, the impedance of an electrical apparatus is given in percent or per unit by its
manufacturer on the basis of its nameplate ratings (e.g., its rated volt-amperes and rated
voltage).
20 Modern Power System Analysis

4. Differences in operating characteristics of many electrical apparatus can be estimated by

a comparison of their constants expressed in per units.
5. Average machine constants can easily be obtained since the parameters of similar equip-
ment tend to fall in a relatively narrow range and therefore arc comparable when expressed
as per units according to rated capacity.
6. The use of per-unit quantities is more convenient in calculations involving digital computers.

2.4.1 Single-Phase System

In the event that any two of the four base quantities (i.e., base voltage, base current, base volt-
amperes, and base impedance) are “arbitrarily” specified, the other two can be determined immedi-
ately. Here, the term arbitrarily is slightly misleading since in practice the base values are selected
so as to force the results to fall into specified ranges. For example, the base voltage is selected such
that the system voltage is normally close to unity. Similarly, the base volt-ampere is usually selected
as the kilovolt-ampere (kVA) or MVA rating of one of the machines or transformers in the system,
or a convenient round number such as 1, 10, 100, or 1000 MVA, depending on the system size. As
aforementioned, on determining the base volt-amperes and base voltages, the other base values are
fixed. For example, the current base can be determined as

S B VA B
IB = = (2.18)
VB VB

where
IB = current base in amperes
SB = VA B = selected volt-ampere base in volt-amperes
VB = selected voltage base in volts

Note that,

SB = VA B = PB = QB = VBIB (2.19)

Similarly, the impedance base* can be determined as

VB
ZB = (2.20)
IB

where

ZB = XB = RB (2.21)

Similarly,

IB
YB = BB = GB = (2.22)
VB

* Defined as that impedance across which there is a voltage drop that is equal to the base voltage if the current through it
is equal to the base current.
Basic Concepts 21

Note that by substituting Equation 2.18 into Equation 2.20, the impedance base can be expressed as

VB V2
ZB = = B (2.23)
VA B /VB VA B

or

( kVB )2
ZB = (2.24)
MVA B

where
kVB = voltage base in kilovolts
MVA B = volt-ampere base in MVA

The per-unit value of any quantity can be found by the normalization process, that is, by dividing
the physical quantity by the base quantity of the same dimension. For example, the per-unit imped-
ance can be expressed as

Z physical
Z pu = (2.25)
ZB

or

Z physical
Z pu = (2.26)
V /(kVA B × 1000)
2
B

or

( Z physical )( kVA B )(1000)

Z pu = (2.27)
VB2

or

( Z physical )( kVA B )
Z pu = (2.28)
( kVB )2 (1000)

or

( Z physical )
Z pu = (2.29)
( kVB )2 /MVA B

or

( Z physical )( MVA B )
Z pu = (2.30)
( kVB )2
22 Modern Power System Analysis

Similarly, the others can be expressed as

I physical
I pu = (2.31)
IB

or

Vphysical
Vpu = (2.32)
VB

or

kVphysical
kVpu = (2.33)
kVB

or

VA physical
VA pu = (2.34)
VA B

or

kVA physical
kVA pu = (2.35)
kVA B

or

MVA physical
MVA pu = (2.36)
MVA B

Note that, the base quantity is always a real number, whereas the physical quantity can be a com-
plex number. For example, if the actual impedance quantity is given as Z∠θ Ω, it can be expressed
in the per-unit system as

Z ∠θ
Z pu = = Z pu ∠θ (2.37)
ZB

that is, it is the magnitude expressed in per-unit terms. Alternatively, if the impedance has been
given in rectangular form as

Z = R + jX (2.38)

then

Zpu = Rpu + jXpu (2.39)

Basic Concepts 23

where

Rphysical
Rpu = (2.40)
ZB

and

X physical
X pu = (2.41)
ZB

Similarly, if the complex power has been given as

S = P + jQ (2.42)

then

Spu = Ppu + jQpu (2.43)

where

Pphysical
Ppu = (2.44)
SB

and

Qphysical
Qpu = (2.45)
SB

If the actual voltage and current values are given as

V = V∠θV (2.46)

and

I = I∠θI (2.47)

then the complex power can be expressed as

S = VI* (2.48)

or

S∠θ = (V∠θV)(I∠−θI) (2.49)

Therefore, dividing through by SB,

S ∠φ (V ∠θV )( I ∠ − θ I )
= (2.50)
SB SB
24 Modern Power System Analysis

However,

SB = V B IB (2.51)

Thus,

S ∠θ (V ∠θV )( I ∠ − θ I )
= (2.52)
SB VB I B

or

Spu∠θ = (Vpu∠θV)(Ipu∠−θI) (2.53)

or

Spu = Vpu I pu
*
(2.54)

2.4.2 Converting from Per-Unit Values to Physical Values

The physical values (or system values) and per-unit values are related by the following relations:

I = Ipu × IB (2.55)

V = Vpu × VB (2.56)

Z = Zpu × ZB (2.57)

R = Rpu × ZB (2.58)

X = Xpu × ZB (2.59)

VA = VApu × VA B (2.60)

P = Ppu × VA B (2.61)

Q = Qpu × VA B (2.62)

2.4.3 Change of Base

In general, the per-unit impedance of a power apparatus is given on the basis of its own volt-ampere
and voltage ratings and consequently on the basis of its own impedance base. When such an appa-
ratus is used in a system that has its own bases, it becomes necessary to refer all the given per-unit
Basic Concepts 25

values to the system base values. Assume that the per-unit impedance of the apparatus is given on
the basis of its nameplate ratings as

MVA B (given)
Z pu(given) = (Z physical ) (2.63)
[kVB (given) ]2

and that it is necessary to refer the very same physical impedance to a new set of voltage and volt-
ampere bases such that

MVA B (new)
Z pu(new) = (Z physical ) (2.64)
[kVB (new) ]2

By dividing Equation 2.63 by Equation 2.64 side by side,

2
 MVA B (new)   kVB (given) 
Z pu(new) = Z pu(given)    (2.65)
 MVA B (given)   kVB (new) 

In certain situations, it is more convenient to use subscripts 1 and 2 instead of the subscripts
“given” and “new,” respectively. Then, Equation 2.65 can be expressed as

2
 MVA B ( 2)   kVB (1) 
Z pu(2) = Z pu(1)    (2.66)
 MVA B (1)   kVB ( 2) 

In the event that the kilovolt bases are the same but the MVA bases are different, from Equation
2.65,

MVA B (new)
Z pu(new) = Z pu(given) (2.67)
MVA B (given)

Similarly, if the MVA bases are the same but the kilovolt bases are different, from Equation 2.65,

2
 kV 
Z pu(new) = Z pu(given)  B (given)  (2.68)
 kVB (new) 

Equations 2.65 through 2.68 must only be used to convert the given per-unit impedance from
the base to another but not for referring the physical value of an impedance from one side of the
transformer to another [3].

2.4.4 Three-Phase Systems
The three-phase problems involving balanced systems can be solved on a per-phase basis. In that
case, the equations that are developed for single-phase systems can be used for three-phase systems
as long as per-phase values are used consistently. Therefore,
26 Modern Power System Analysis

S B (1φ)
IB = (2.69)
VB ( L − N )

or

VAB (1φ)
IB = (2.70)
VB ( L − N )

and

VB ( L − N )
ZB = (2.71)
IB

or

[ kVB ( L − N ) ]2 (1000)
ZB = (2.72)
kVA B (1φ)

or

[ kVB ( L − N ) ]2
ZB = (2.73)
MVA B (1φ)

where the subscripts 1ϕ and L–N denote per phase and line to neutral, respectively. Note that, for a
balanced system,

VB ( L − L )
VB ( L − N ) = (2.74)
3

and

S B ( 3φ )
S B (1φ) = (2.75)
3

However, it has been customary in three-phase system analysis to use line-to-line voltage and
three-phase volt-amperes as the base values. Therefore,

S B ( 3φ )
IB = (2.76)
3VB ( L − L )

or

kVA B (3φ)
IB = (2.77)
3 kVB ( L − L )
Basic Concepts 27

and

VB ( L − L )
ZB = (2.78)
3I B

[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2 (1000)
ZB = (2.79)
kVA B (3φ)

or

[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2
ZB = (2.80)
MVA B (3φ)

where the subscripts 3ϕ and L–L denote per three phase and line, respectively. Furthermore, base
admittance can be expressed as

1
YB = (2.81)
ZB

or

MVA B (3φ)
YB = (2.82)
[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2

where

Y B = BB = G B (2.83)

The data for transmission lines are usually given in terms of the line resistance R in ohms per
mile at a given temperature, the line inductive reactance X L in ohms per mile at 60 Hz, and the line
shunt capacitive reactance Xc in megohms per mile at 60 Hz. Therefore, the line impedance and
shunt susceptance in per units for 1 mi of line can be expressed as*

MVA B (3φ)
Z pu = (Z, Ω /mi) pu (2.84)
[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2

where

Z = R + jX L = Z∠θ Ω/mi

and

[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2 × 10 −6
Bpu = (2.85)
[ MVAB (3φ) ][ X c , MΩ /mi]

* For further information, see Anderson [4].

28 Modern Power System Analysis

In the event that the admittance for a transmission line is given in microsiemens per mile, the
per-unit admittance can be expressed as

[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2 (Y , µS)
Ypu = (2.86)
[ MVA B (3φ) ] × 10 6

Similarly, if it is given as reciprocal admittance in megohms per mile, the per-unit admittance
can be found as

[ kVB ( L − L ) ]2 × 10 −6
Ypu = (2.87)
[ MVA B (3φ) ][ Z , MΩ /mi]

Figure 2.3 shows conventional three-phase transformer connections and associated relations
between the high-voltage and low-voltage side voltages and currents. The given relations are correct
for a three-phase transformer as well as for a three-phase bank of single-phase transformers. Note
that, in the figure, n is the turns ratio, that is,

N1 V1 I 2
n= = = (2.88)
N 2 V2 I1

where the subscripts 1 and 2 are used for the primary and secondary sides. Therefore, an impedance
Z2 in the secondary circuit can be referred to the primary circuit provided that

Z1 = n 2 Z 2 (2.89)

Thus, it can be observed from Figure 2.3 that in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in
the direct ratio of turns, currents in the inverse ratio, and impedances in the direct ratio squared; and
power and volt-amperes are, of course, unchanged. Note that, a balanced delta-connected circuit of
ZΔ Ω/phase is equivalent to a balanced wye-connected circuit of ZY Ω/phase as long as

1
ZY = Z∆ (2.90)
3

The per-unit impedance of a transformer remains the same without taking into account whether
it is converted from physical impedance values that are found by referring to the high-voltage side
or low-voltage side of the transformer. This can be accomplished by choosing separate appropriate
bases for each side of the transformer (whether or not the transformer is connected in wye–wye,
delta–delta, delta–wye, or wye–delta since the transformation of voltages is the same as that made
by wye–wye transformers as long as the same line-to-line voltage ratings are used).* In other words,
the designated per-unit impedance values of transformers are based on the coil ratings.
Since the ratings of coils cannot alter by a simple change in connection (e.g., from wye–wye to
delta–wye), the per-unit impedance remains the same regardless of the three-phase connection. The
line-to-line voltage for the transformer will differ. Because of the method of choosing the base in
various sections of the three-phase system, the per-unit impedances calculated in various sections
can be put together on one impedance diagram without paying any attention to whether the trans-
formers are connected in wye–wye or delta–wye.

* This subject has been explained in greater depth in an excellent review by Stevenson [3].
Basic Concepts 29

IL nIL

VL–L VL–L
N1 N2
3 √3 n V
VL–L L–L
n

(a)

IL nIL

N1 N2 VL–L
VL–L
n

IL nIL
3 3

(b)

IL 3nIL

VL–L VL–L
N2
3 N1 3n
VL–L

nIL

(c)

nIL
IL 3
IL
VL–L 3 VL–L
N2
n 3VL–L
N1
n

(d)

FIGURE 2.3 Conventional three-phase transformer connections: (a) wye–wye connection; (b) delta–delta
connection; (c) wye–delta connection; (d) delta–wye connection.
30 Modern Power System Analysis

EXAMPLE 2.2

A three-phase transformer has a nameplate rating of 30 MVA, 230Y/69Y kV with a leakage reac-
tance of 10% and the transformer connection is wye–wye. Select a base of 30 MVA and 230 kV
on the high-voltage side and determine the following:

(a) Reactance of transformer in per units

(b) High-voltage side base impedance
(c) Low-voltage-side base impedance
(d) Transformer reactance referred to the high-voltage side in ohms
(e) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in ohms

Solution

(a) The reactance of the transformer in per units is 10/100, or 0.10 pu. Note that, it is the same
whether it is referred to the high-voltage or the low-voltage side.
(b) The high-voltage side base impedance is

[ kVB(HV ) ]2
ZB(HV ) =
MVA B(3φ )

230 2
= = 1763.3333 Ω
30

(c) The low-voltage side base impedance is

[ kVB(LV ) ]2
ZB(LV ) =
MVA B( 3φ )

692
= = 158.7 Ω
30

(d) The reactance referred to the high-voltage side is

X Ω(HV ) = Xpu × X B(HV)

= (0.10)(1763.3333) = 176.3333 Ω

(e) The reactance referred to the low-voltage side is

X Ω(LV ) = Xpu × X B(LV)

= (0.10)(158.7 Ω) = 15.87 Ω

or, from Equation 2.89,

X Ω(HV )
X Ω(LV ) =
n2
176.3333 Ω 176.33
333 Ω
= 2
= ≅ 15.87 Ω
 230 / 3  (3.3333)2
 
 69 / 3 

where n is defined as the turns ratio of the windings.

Basic Concepts 31

EXAMPLE 2.3

A three-phase transformer has a nameplate rating of 30 MVA, and the voltage ratings of 230Y kV/­
69Δ kV with a leakage reactance of 10% and the transformer connection is wye–delta. Select a
base of 30 MVA and 230 kV on the high-voltage side and determine the following:

(a) Turns ratio of windings

(b) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in ohms
(c) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in per units

Solution

(a) The turns ratio of the windings is

VHV(φ ) 230 / 3
n = = 1.9245
VLV(φ ) 69

(b) Since the high-voltage side impedance base is

[ kVB(HV ) ]2
ZB(HV ) =
MVA B(3φ )

[ 230 kV ]2
= = 1763.3333 Ω
30

and

X Ω(HV ) = Xpu × X B(HV )

= (0.10)(1763.3333 Ω) = 176.3333 Ω

Thus, the transformer reactance referred to the delta-connected low-voltage side is

X Ω(HV )
X Ω(LV ) =
n2
176.3333
= = 47.61Ω = X ∆
(1.9245)2

(c) From Equation 2.90, the reactance of the equivalent wye connection is

Z∆
ZY =
3
47.61Ω
= = 15.87 Ω = X Ω′ (LV )
3
32 Modern Power System Analysis

′ LV ) = reactance per phase at a low voltage of the equivalent wye.

where X Ω(
Similarly,

[ kVB(LV ) ]2
ZB(LV ) =
MVA B( 3φ )

692
= = 158.7 Ω
30

Thus,

X Ω′ (LV )
Xpu =
ZB(LV )

15.87 Ω
= = 0.10 pu
158.7 Ω

Alternatively, if the line-to-line voltages are used,

X Ω(HV )
X(LV ) =
n2
176.3333 Ω
= 2
= 15.87 Ω
 230 
 69 

and thus,

X Ω′ (LV )
Xpu =
ZB(LV )

15.87 Ω
= = 0.10 pu
158.7 Ω

as before.

EXAMPLE 2.4

Consider the previous example that a three-phase transformer has a nameplate rating of 30 MVA,
and voltage ratings of 230Y kV/69Δ kV with a leakage reactance of 10%. Now, assume that this
transformer connection is not delta–wye but wye–wye. Select a base of 30 MVA and 230 kV on
the high-voltage side for the wye–delta transformer and solve it by converting to its equivalent
wye–wye connection first and determine the following:

(a) Turns ratio of windings

(b) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in ohms
(c) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in per units

Solution

First converting the delta low-voltage to its corresponding wye low-voltage as

3(69 kV ) = 119.5115 kV
Basic Concepts 33

(a) The turns ratio of the windings is

VHV(φ ) 230 / 3 230

n = = = 1.9245
VLV(φ ) 119.5115/ 3 119.5115

(b) Since the high-voltage side impedance base is

[ kVB(HV ) ]2
ZB(HV ) =
MVA B(3φ )

[ 230 kV ]2
= = 1763.3333 Ω
30

and

X Ω(HV ) = Xpu × X B(HV )

= (0.10)(1763.3333 Ω) = 176.3333 Ω

Thus, the transformer reactance referred to the delta-connected low-voltage side is

X Ω(HV )
X Ω(LV ) =
n2
176.3333
= = 47.61Ω = X ∆
(1.9245)2

(c) From Equation 2.90, the reactance of the equivalent wye connection is

Z
ZY =
3
47.61Ω
= = 15.87 Ω = X Ω′ (LV )
3

′ LV ) = reactance per phase at low-voltage of equivalent wye.

where X Ω(
Similarly,

[ kVB(LV ) ]2
ZB′ (LV ) =
MVA B( 3φ )

(119.5115)2
= = 476.1Ω
30

Thus,

X Ω(LV )
Xpu =
ZB′ (LV )

47.61Ω
= = 0.10 pu
476.1Ω
34 Modern Power System Analysis

EXAMPLE 2.5

Resolve Example 2.3 but violate the definition of turns ratio. Use it as the ratio of the line-to-line
voltage of the wye-connected primary voltage to the line-to-line voltage of the delta-connected
secondary voltage. Since the transformer is rated as 230Y kV/69Δ kV, solve it without converting
to its equivalent wye–wye connection first and determine the following:

(a) Turns ratio of windings

(b) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in ohms
(c) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in per units

Solution

(a) The turns ratio of the windings is

VHV(L−L) 230
n = = 3.3333
VLV(L− V) 69

Here, of course, the definition of the turns ratio has been violated.
(b) Since the high-voltage side impedance base is

[ kVB(HV ) ]2
ZB(HV ) =
MVA B(3φ )

[ 230 kV ]2
= = 1763.3333 Ω
30

and

X Ω(HV ) = Xpu × X B(HV )

= (0.10)(1763.3333 Ω) = 176.3333 Ω

Thus, the transformer reactance referred to the delta-connected low-voltage side is

X Ω(HV )
X Ω(LV ) =
n2
176.3333
= = 15.8703 Ω = X ∆
(3.3333)2

(c) From Equation 2.90, the reactance of the delta connection is

[ kVB(LV ) ]2
ZB(LV ) =
MVA B( 3φ )

(69)2
= = 158.7 Ω
30
Basic Concepts 35

Thus,
X Ω(LV )
Xpu =
Z B(LV )

15.8703 Ω
= = 0.10 pu
158.7 Ω

This method is obviously a shortcut, but one should apply it carefully.

EXAMPLE 2.6

Figure 2.4 shows a one-line diagram of a three-phase system. Assume that the line length between
the two transformers is negligible and the three-phase generator is rated 4160 kVA, 2.4 kV, and
1000 A and that it supplies a purely inductive load of Ipu = 2.08∠−90° pu. The three-phase trans-
former T1 is rated 6000 kVA, 2.4Y−24Y kV, with leakage reactance of 0.04 pu. Transformer T2 is
made up of three single-phase transformers and is rated 4000 kVA, 24Y−12Y kV, with leakage
reactance of 0.04 pu. Determine the following for all three circuits, 2.4-, 24-, and 12-kV circuits:

(a) Base kVA values

(b) Base line-to-line kilovolt values
(c) Base impedance values
(d) Base current values
(e) Physical current values (neglect magnetizing currents in transformers and charging currents
in lines)
(f) Per-unit current values
(g) New transformer reactances based on their new bases
(h) Per-unit voltage values at buses 1, 2, and 4
(i) Per-unit apparent power values at buses 1, 2, and 4
(j) Summarize results in a table

Solution

(a) The kVA base for all three circuits is arbitrarily selected as 2080 kVA.
(b) The base voltage for the 2.4-kV circuit is arbitrarily selected as 2.5 kV. Since the turns ratios
for transformers T1 and T2 are

N1 N2
= 10 or = 0.10
N2 N1
and
N1′
=2
N2′

1 2 3 4
2.4 kV 24 kV 24 kV 12 kV
N2 N1 N1 N2

G Load

T1 T2

FIGURE 2.4 One-line diagram for Example 2.4.

36 Modern Power System Analysis

the base voltages for the 24- and 12-kV circuits are determined to be 25 and 12.5 kV,
respectively.
(c) The base impedance values can be found as

[ kVB(L−L ) ]2(1000)
ZB =
kVA B(3φ )

[ 2.5 kV ]21000
= = 3.005 Ω
2080 kVA

and

[ 25 kV ]21000
ZB = = 300.5 Ω
2080 kVA

and

[12.5 kV ]21000
ZB = = 75.1Ω
2080 kVA

(d) The base current values can be determined as

kVA B(3φ )
IB =
3kVB(L−L )

2080 kVA
= = 480 A
3( 2.5kV )

and
2080 kVA
IB = = 48 A
3( 25kV )

and

2080 kVA
IB = = 96 A
3(12.5kV )

(e) The physical current values can be found based on the turns ratios as

I = 1000 A

N 
I =  2  (1000 A ) = 100 A
 N1 

 N′ 
I =  1  (100 A ) = 200 A
 N2′ 

(f) The per-unit current value is the same, 2.08 pu, for all three circuits.
(g) The given transformer reactances can be converted on the basis of their new bases using

2
 kVA B(new)   kVB(given) 
Zpu(new) = Zpu(given)   
 kVA B(given)   kVB(new) 
Basic Concepts 37

Therefore, the new reactances of the two transformers can be found as

2
 2080 kVA   2.4 kV 
Zpu(T1) = j 0.04    = j 0.0128 pu
 6000 kVA   2.5kV 

and

2
 2080 kVA   12kV 
Zpu(T2 ) = j 0.04    = j 0.0192pu
 4000 kVA   12.5kV 

(h) Therefore, the per-unit voltage values at buses 1, 2, and 4 can be calculated as

2.4 kV∠0°
V1 = = 0.96∠0° pu
2.5 kV

V2 = V1 − IpuZpu(T1)

= 0.96∠0° − ( 2.08∠ − 90°)(0.0128∠90°) = 0.9334∠0° pu

V4 = V2 − IpuZpu(T2 )

= 0.9334∠0° − ( 2.08∠ − 90°)(0.0192∠90°) = 0.8935∠0° pu

(i) Thus, the per-unit apparent power values at buses 1, 2, and 4 are

S1 = 2.00 pu

S2 = V2Ipu = (0.9334) (2.08) = 1.9415 pu

S4 = V4Ipu = (0.8935) (2.08) = 1.8585 pu

(j) The results are summarized in Table 2.2.

TABLE 2.2
Results of Example 2.4
Quantity 2.4-kV Circuit 24-kV Circuit 12-kV Circuit
kVAB(3ϕ) 2080 kVA 2080 kVA 2080 kVA
kVB(L−L) 2.5 kV 25 kV 12.5 kV
ZB 3.005 Ω 300.5 Ω 75.1 Ω
IB 480 A 48 A 96 A
Iphysical 1000 A 100 A 200 A
Ipu 2.08 pu 2.08 pu 2.08 pu
Vpu 0.96 pu 0.9334 pu 0.8935 pu
Spu 2.00 pu 1.9415 pu 1.8585 pu
38 Modern Power System Analysis

2.5 CONSTANT IMPEDANCE REPRESENTATION OF LOADS

Usually, the power system loads are represented by their real and reactive powers, as shown in
Figure 2.5a. However, it is possible to represent the same load in terms of series or parallel combi-
nations of its equivalent constant-load resistance and reactance values, as shown in Figure 2.5b and
2.5c, respectively [4].
In the event that the load is represented by the series connection, the equivalent constant imped-
ance can be expressed as

Z s = Rs + jXs (2.91)

where
2
V ×P
Rs = (2.92)
P2 + Q2

2
V ×Q
Xs = (2.93)
P2 + Q2

where
Rs = load resistance in series connection in ohms
Xs = load reactance in series connection in ohms
Z s = constant-load impedance in ohms
V = load voltage in volts
P = real, or average, load power in watts
Q = reactive load power in vars

The constant impedance in per units can be expressed as

Zpu(s) = Rpu(s) + jXpu(s) pu (2.94)

where

S B × (Vpu )2
Rpu(s ) = ( Pphysical ) pu (2.95)
P2 + Q2

and

S B × (Vpu )2
X pu(s ) = (Qphysical ) pu (2.96)
P2 + Q2

Rp
Rs Xs
P + jQ |

Xp

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 2.5 Load representations as: (a) real and reactive powers; (b) constant impedance in terms of series
combination; (c) constant impedance in terms of parallel combination.
Basic Concepts 39

If the load is represented by the parallel connection, the equivalent constant impedance can be
expressed as

Rp × X p
Zp = j (2.97)
Rp + X p

where

V2
Rp =
P

and

V2
Xp =
Q

where
Rp = load resistance in parallel connection in ohms
Xp = load reactance in parallel connection in ohms
Z p = constant-load impedance in ohms

The constant impedance in per units can be expressed as

Rpu ( p) × X pu ( p)
Z pu ( p) = j pu (2.98)
Rpu ( p) + X pu ( p)

where

2
S V 
R pu ( p) = B  pu (2.99)
P  VB 

or

Vpu2
Rpu ( p) = pu (2.100)
Ppu

and

2
SB  V 
X pu ( p) = pu (2.101)
Q  VB 

or

Vpu2
X pu ( p) = pu (2.102)
Qpu
40 Modern Power System Analysis

2.6 THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMERS

Figure 2.6a shows a single-phase three-winding transformer. They are usually used in the bulk
power (transmission) substations to reduce the transmission voltage to the subtransmission voltage
level. If excitation impedance is neglected, the equivalent circuit of a three-winding transformer can
be represented by a wye of impedances, as shown in Figure 2.6b, where the primary, secondary, and
tertiary windings are denoted by P, S, and T, respectively.
Note that, the common point 0 is fictitious and is not related to the neutral of the system. The
tertiary windings of a three-phase and three-winding transformer bank is usually connected in delta
and may be used for (1) providing a path for zero-sequence currents, (2) in-plant power distribu-
tion, and (3) application of power-factor-correcting capacitors or reactors. The impedance of any of
the branches shown in Figure 2.6b can be determined by considering the short-circuit impedance
between pairs of windings with the third open. Therefore,

ZPS = ZP + ZS (2.103a)

ZTS = ZT + ZS (2.103b)

ZPT = ZP + ZT (2.103c)

where

1
ZP = ( Z PS + Z PT − ZTS ) (2.104a)
2

1
ZS = ( Z PS + ZTS − Z PT ) (2.104b)
2

1
ZT = ( Z PT + ZTS − Z PS ) (2.104c)
2

where
ZPS = leakage impedance measured in primary with secondary short-circuited and tertiary open
ZPT = leakage impedance measured in primary with tertiary short-circuited and secondary open
ZST = leakage impedance measured in secondary with tertiary short-circuited and primary open

ZS IS
S
IS
Tertiary Secondary

+ IP ZP 0
IP NS VS P
+ –
Primary

+
VP NP ZT IT VS
– IT + +
NT VT T –
– VP
– +
VT
–

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.6 Single-phase, three-winding transformer: (a) winding diagram; (b) equivalent circuit.
Basic Concepts 41

ZP = impedance of primary winding

ZS = impedance of secondary winding
ZT = impedance of tertiary winding

In most large transformers, the value of ZS is very small and can be negative. Contrary to the
situation with a two-winding transformer, the kVA ratings of the three windings of a three-winding
transformer bank are not usually equal. Therefore, all impedances, as defined above, should be
expressed on the same kVA base. For three-winding three-phase transformer banks with delta- or
wye-connected windings, the positive- and negative-sequence diagrams are always the same. The
corresponding zero-sequence diagrams are shown in Figure 5.10.

2.7 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
Figure 2.7a shows a two-winding transformer. Viewed from the terminals, the same transformation
of voltages, currents, and impedances can be obtained with the connection shown in Figure 2.7b.
Therefore, in the autotransformer, only one winding is used per phase, the secondary voltage being
tapped off the primary winding, as shown in Figure 2.7b. The common winding is the winding
between the low-voltage terminals, whereas the remainder of the winding, belonging exclusively
to the high-voltage circuit, is called the series winding and, combined with the common winding,
forms the series-common winding between the high-voltage terminals.
In a sense, an autotransformer is just a normal two-winding transformer connected in a special
way. The only structural difference is that the series winding must have extra insulation. In a vari-
able autotransformer, the tap is movable. Autotransformers are increasingly used to interconnect
two high-voltage transmission lines operating at different voltages. An autotransformer has two
separate sets of ratios, namely, circuit ratios and winding ratios. For circuit ratios, consider the
equivalent circuit of an ideal autotransformer (neglecting losses) shown in Figure 2.7b. Viewed from
the terminals, the voltage and current ratios can be expressed as

V1
a= (2.105a)
V2

I1
Is

Series
Vs Ns winding

I1 I2 + I2
V1
–

+ + +
V1 N1 N2 V2 Vc Nc Common V2
– – winding –

Ic

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.7 Schematic diagram of ideal (step-down) transformer connected as: (a) two-winding trans-
former; (b) autotransformer.
42 Modern Power System Analysis

Nc + Ns
a= (2.105b)
Nc

Nc + Ns
= (2.105c)
Nc

and

I2
a= (2.106)
I2

From Equation 2.105c, it can be observed that the ratio a is always larger than 1.
For winding ratios, consider the voltages and currents of the series and common windings, as
shown in Figure 2.7b. Therefore, the voltage and current ratios can be expressed as

Vs N s
= (2.107)
Vc N c

and

I c I 2 − I1
= (2.108a)
Is I1

I2
= −1 (2.108b)
I1

From Equation 2.105c,

Ns
= a −1 (2.109)
Nc

Therefore, substituting Equation 2.109 into Equation 2.107 yields

Vs
= a −1 (2.110)
Vc

Similarly, substituting Equations 2.106 and 2.109 into Equation 2.108b simultaneously yields

Ic
= a −1 (2.111)
Is

For an ideal autotransformer, the volt-ampere ratings of circuits and windings can be expressed,
respectively, as
Basic Concepts 43

Scircuits = V1I1 = V2 I2 (2.112)

and

Swindings = VsIs = VcIc (2.113)

The advantages of autotransformers are lower leakage reactances, lower losses, smaller excit-
ing currents, and less cost than two-winding transformers when the voltage ratio does not vary too
greatly from 1 to 1. For example, if the same core and coils are used as a two-winding transformer
and as an autotransformer, the ratio of the capacity as an autotransformer to the capacity as a two-
winding transformer can be expressed as

Capacity as autotransformer VI V1I1 a

= 11 = = (2.114)
Capacity as two-windiing transformer Vs I s (V1 − V2 ) I1 a − 1

Therefore, maximum advantage is obtained with a relatively small difference between the volt-
ages on the two sides (e.g., 161 kV/138 kV, 500 kV/700 kV, and 500 kV/345 kV). Therefore, a large
saving in size, weight, and cost can be achieved over a two-windings per-phase transformer. The
disadvantages of an autotransformer are that there is no electrical isolation between the primary
and secondary circuits and there is a greater short-circuit current than the one for the two-winding
transformer.
Three-phase autotransformer banks generally have wye-connected main windings, the neutral
of which is normally connected solidly to the earth. In addition, it is common practice to include a
third winding connected in delta, called the tertiary winding.

2.8 DELTA–WYE AND WYE–DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

The three-terminal circuits encountered so often in networks are the delta and wye* configurations,
as shown in Figure 2.8. In some problems, it is necessary to convert delta to wye or vice versa. If
the impedances Z ab, Zbc, and Z ca are connected in delta, the equivalent wye impedances Z a, Zb, and
Z c are

Z ab Zca
Za = (2.115)
Z ab + Z bc + Zca

Z ab Z bc
Zb = (2.116)
Z ab + Z bc + Zca

Z bc Zca
Zc = (2.117)
Z ab + Z bc + Zca

If Z ab = Zbc = Z ca = Z,

Z
Z a = Z b = Zc = (2.118)
3

* In Europe, it is called the star configuration.

44 Modern Power System Analysis

a Zab b

Z Zb
a

bc
Z ca

Z
Zc

FIGURE 2.8 Delta–wye or wye–delta transformations.

On the other hand, if the impedances Z a, Zb, and Z c are connected in wye, the equivalent delta
impedances Z ab, Zbc, and Z ca are

ZaZb
Z ab = Z a + Z b + (2.119)
Zc

Z b Zc
Z bc = Z b + Z c + (2.120)
Za

ZcZ a
Zca = Zc + Z a + (2.121)
Zb

If Z a = Zb = Z c = Z, then

Z ab = Zbc = Z ca = 3Z (2.122)

2.9 SHORT-CIRCUIT MVA AND EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE

Often, when a new circuit is to be added to an existing bus in a complex power system, the short-
circuit MVA (or kVA) for that bus has to be known or determined. Such short-circuit MVA (or kVA)
data provide the equivalent impedance of the existing power system up to that bus. After determi-
nation of the short-circuit MVA, one can easily find the associated short-circuit impedance of the
system. The short-circuit MVA is found for both three-phase faults and for single line-to-ground
faults, separately.
Basic Concepts 45

2.9.1 Three-Phase Short-Circuit MVA

At a given three-phase bus, three-phase short-circuit MVA can be determined from the following
equation:

3 ( kVL − L ) I f (3φ)
MVA sc (3φ) = (2.123)
1000

where
kVL−L = system line-to-line voltage in kV (rated system voltage)
If(3ϕ) = total three-phase fault current in amperes

2.9.1.1 If Three-Phase Short-Circuit MVA Is Already Known

Then, the three-phase short-circuit fault current can be determined from

1000 MVA sc (3φ)

I f ( 3φ ) = A (2.124)
3 kV( L − L )

then the equivalent impedance can be found as

VL − N
Z sc = Ω (2.125a)
I f (3φ)

or

1000 kVL − L
Z sc = Ω (2.125b)
3 I f ( 3φ )

or

kVL2− L
Z sc = Ω (2.125c)
MVA sc (3φ)

Since base impedance is found from

kVB2( 3φ )
ZB = (2.126)
MVA B (3φ)

then the per unit impedance can found from

ZΩ( sc )
Z pu = (2.127a)
ZB
46 Modern Power System Analysis

or

MVA 3φ × Z sc
Z pu = 2
(2.127b)
kVB(L − L)

Thus, the positive-sequence Z to the fault location can be found as

MVA B(3φ)
Z1( pu ) = pu (2.128)
MVA sc

In general,

Z1 = Z 2 (2.129)

Also, it is assumed that Z1 = X1 unless the X/R ratio of the system is known so that the angle can
be found.

2.9.2 Single-Phase-to-Ground Short-Circuit MVA

At a given single-phase bus, single-phase-to-ground short-circuit MVA can be determined from the
following equation:

3 ( kVL − L ) I f (SLG)
MVA f (SLG)SC = (2.130)
1000

where
kVL−L = system line-to-line voltage in kV (rated system voltage)
If(SLG) = total single-phase fault current in amperes

2.9.2.1 If Single-Phase Short-Circuit MVA Is Already Known

Then the single-phase-to-ground short-circuit fault current can be determined from

1000 MVA f (SLG)SC

I f (SLG) = A (2.131)
3 kV( L − L )

But,

If(SLG) = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 (2.132)

or

3VL − N
I f (SLG) = (2.133)
Z 0 + Z1 + Z 2

or

3VL − N
I f (SLG) = (2.134)
ZG
Basic Concepts 47

where

Z G = Z 0 + Z1 + Z 2 (2.135)

From Equations 2.125c and 2.127,

3kVL2− L
ZG = Ω (2.136)
MVA f (SLG)SC

and

3MVA B
ZG = pu (2.137)
MVA f (SLG)SC

From

Z 0 = Z G − Z1 − Z 2 (2.138)

or in general,

X0 = XG − X1 − X2 (2.139)

since the resistance involved is usually very small with respect to the associated reactance value.

EXAMPLE 2.7

A short-circuit (fault) study shows that at bus 15 in a 132-kV system, on a 100 MVA base, short-
circuit MVA is 710 MVA and the single-line-to-ground short-circuit MVA is 825 MVA. Determine
the following:

(a) The positive and negative reactances of the system

(b) The XG of the system
(c) The zero-sequence reactance of the system

Solution

(a) The positive- and negative-reactances of the system are

100 MVA
X1 = X 2 = = 0.1408 pu
710 MVA

(b) The XG of the system is

300 MVA
XG = = 0.3636 pu
825 MVA

(c) The zero-sequence of the system is

X0 = 0.3636 − 0.1408 = 0.2228 pu

Note that, all values above are on a 100-MVA, 132-kV base.

48 Modern Power System Analysis

REFERENCES
1. Elgerd, O. I., Electric Energy Systems Theory: An Introduction. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.
2. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics
Diagrams, IEEE Std. 315-1971 [or American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Y32.2-1971]. IEEE,
New York, 1971.
3. Stevenson, W. D., Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981.
4. Anderson, P. M., Analysis of Faulted Power Systems. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA, 1973.

GENERAL REFERENCES
AIEE Standards Committee Report, Electr. Eng. (Am. Inst. Electr. Eng.) 65, 512 (1946).
Clarke, E., Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems, Vol. 1, General Electric Co., Schenectady, New York, 1943.
Eaton, J. R., Electric Power Transmission Systems. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972.
Elgerd, O. I., Basic Electric Power Engineering. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1977.
Gönen, T., Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2008.
Gross, C. A., Power System Analysis. Wiley, New York, 1979.
Gross, E. T. B., and Gulachenski, E. M., Experience of the New England Electric Company with generator
protection by resonant neutral grounding. IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. PAS-92 (4) 1186–1194 (1973).
Neuenswander, J. R., Modern Power Systems. International Textbook Co., New York, 1971.
Nilsson, J. W., Introduction to Circuits, Instruments, and Electronics. Harcourt, Brace & World, New York,
1968.
Skilling, H. H., Electrical Engineering Circuits, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York, 1966.
Travis, I., Per unit quantities. Trans. Am. Inst. Electr. Eng. 56, 143–151 (1937).
Wagner, C. F., and Evans, R. D., Symmetrical Components. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1933.
Weedy, B. M., Electric Power Systems, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York, 1979.
Zaborsky, J., and Rittenhouse, J. W., Electric Power Transmission. Rensselaer Bookstore, Troy, New York,
1969.

PROBLEMS
1. Assume that the impedance of a line connecting buses 1 and 2 is 50∠90° Ω and that the bus
voltages are 7560∠10° and 7200∠0° V per phase, respectively. Determine the following:
(a) Real power per phase that is being transmitted from bus 1 to bus 2
(b) Reactive power per phase that is being transmitted from bus 1 to bus 2
(c) Complex power per phase that is being transmitted
2. Solve Problem 1 assuming that the line impedance is 50∠26° Ω/phase.
3. Verify the following equations:
(a) Vpu(L–N) = Vpu(L–L)
(b) VApu(1ϕ) = VApu(3ϕ)
(c) Z pu(Y) = Z pu(Δ)
4. Verify the following equations:
(a) Equation 2.24 for a single-phase system
(b) Equation 2.80 for a three-phase system
5. Show that ZB(Δ) = 3ZB(Y).
6. Consider two three-phase transmission lines with different voltage levels that are located
side by side in close proximity. Assume that the bases of VAB, VB(1), and IB(1) and the bases
of VAB, VB(2), and IB(2) are designated for the first and second lines, respectively. If the
mutual reactance between the lines is Xm Ω, show that this mutual reactance in per unit
can be expressed as

MVA B
X pu(m ) = (physical X m )
[kVB (1) [kVB (2) ]
Basic Concepts 49

7. Consider Example 2.3 and assume that the transformer is connected in delta–wye. Use a
25-MVA base and determine the following:
(a) New line-to-line voltage of low-voltage side
(b) New low-voltage side base impedance
(c) Turns ratio of windings
(d) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in ohms
(e) Transformer reactance referred to the low-voltage side in per units
8. Verify the following equations:
(a) Equation 2.92
(b) Equation 2.93
(c) Equation 2.94
(d) Equation 2.96
9. Verify the following equations:
(a) Equation 2.100
(b) Equation 2.102
10. Consider the one-line diagram given in Figure P2.1. Assume that the three-phase trans-
former T1 has nameplate ratings of 15,000 kVA, 7.97/13.8Y − 69Δ kV with leakage imped-
ance of 0.01 + j0.08 pu based on its ratings, and that the three-phase transformer T2 has
nameplate ratings of 1500 kVA, 7.97Δ kV − 277/480Y V with leakage impedance of
0.01 + j0.05 pu based on its ratings. Assume that the three-phase generator G1 is rated
10/12.5 MW/MVA, 7.97/13.8Y kV with an impedance of 0 + j1.10 pu based on its ratings,
and that three-phase generator G 2 is rated 4/5 MW/MVA, 7.62/13.2Y kV with an imped-
ance of 0 + j0.90 pu based on its ratings. The transmission line TL23 has a length of 50 mi
and is composed of 4/0 ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced) conductors with an
equivalent spacing (Dm) of 8 ft and has an impedance of 0.445 + j0.976 Ω/mi. Its shunt
susceptance is given as 5.78 μS/mi. The line connects buses 2 and 3. Bus 3 is assumed to
be an infinite bus, that is, the magnitude of its voltage remains constant at given values and
its phase position is unchanged regardless of the power and power factor demands that may
be put on it. Furthermore, it is assumed to have a constant frequency equal to the nominal
frequency of the system studied. Transmission line TL14 connects buses 1 and 4. It has a
line length of 2 mi and an impedance of 0.80 + j0.80 Ω/mi.

1 2 3
T1
TL23

G1

4 5
T2
I5
TL14
Load 5

G2

Load 1

FIGURE P2.1 One-line diagram for Problem 2.10.

50 Modern Power System Analysis

TABLE P2.1
Table for Problem 10
Quantity Nominally 69-kV Circuits Nominally 13-kV Circuits Nominally 480-V Circuits
kVAB(3ϕ) 5000 kVA 5000 kVA 5000 kVA
kVB(L–L) 69 kV
kVB(L–N) 39.84 kV
IB(L)
IB(ϕ)
ZB
YB

Because of the line length, its shunt susceptance is assumed to be negligible. The load
that is connected to bus 1 has a current magnitude |I1| of 523 A and a lagging power factor
of 0.707. The load that is connected to bus 5 is given as 8000 + j6000 kVA. Use the arbi-
trarily selected 5000 kVA as the three-phase kVA base and 39.84/69.00 kV as the line-to-
neutral and line-to-line voltage base and determine the following:
(a) Complete Table P2.1 for the indicated values. Note the IL means line current and Iϕ
means phase currents in delta-connected apparatus.
(b) Draw a single-line positive-sequence network of this simple power system. Use the
nominal π circuit to represent the 69-kV line. Show the values of all impedances and
susceptances in per units on the chosen bases. Show all loads in per unit P + jQ.
11. Assume that a 500 + j200-kVA load is connected to a load bus that has a voltage of 1.0∠0° pu.
If the power base is 1000 kVA, determine the per-unit R and X of the load:
(a) When load is represented by parallel connection
(b) When load is represented by series connection