HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW

I. PRESSURE

- Pressure is defined as the physical force exerted on an

object. The force applied is perpendicular to the surface
of objects per unit area. The basic formula for pressure is
F/A (Force per unit area). Unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa).
- Fluid pressure refers to a measurement of the force per
unit area that acts on an object in the fluid or on a closed
container's surface.
- Hydrostatic Pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at any point of time due to the force of gravity.
Hydrostatic pressure is proportional to the depth Sample Problems:
measured from the surface as the weight of the fluid 1.) If a depth of a liquid of 1m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what
increases when a downward force is applied. is the specific gravity of the liquid?
2.) If the pressure 23m below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine
its unit weight, mass density and specific gravity.
3.) If the pressure in the air space above an oil (sg = 0.75)
surface in a closed tank is 115 kPa absolute, what is the gage
pressure 2m below the surface?
4.) A pressure gage 6m above the bottom of the tank containing
liquid reads 90 kPa. Another gage height 4m reads 103 kPa.
Determine the specific weight of the other liquid.
5.) An open tank contains 5.8m of water covered with 3.2m of
kerosene (γ= 8 kN/m3). Find the pressure at the interface and
at the bottom of the tank.
6.) The weight density of the mud is given by γ= 10+0.50h,
where γ is the unit weight in kN/ m3 and h in meters. Determine
𝐅 the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of 5m.
𝐏= ; 𝐏 = 𝛄𝐡̅
𝐀 7.) In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03
kPa and the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is
a.) Relationship between Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure,
231.30 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oil?
and Atmospheric Pressure

𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 + 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦

b.) Variation in Pressure

𝐏𝟐 = 𝐏𝟏 + 𝛄𝐡

c.) Pressure Head

𝐏
𝐡=
𝛄

8.) Compute the barometric pressure in kPa at an altitude of

1200m if the pressure at sea level is 101.30 kPa. Assume
isothermal conditions at 21 °C. Use R= 287 J/kg-K.

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9.) A vertical tube 3m long, with one end closed is inserted Sample Problem:
vertically, with the open end down, into a tank of water to such 11.) A vertical rectangular gate 1.50m wide and 3m high is
a depth that an open manometer connected to the upper end submerged in water with its top edge 2m below the water
of the tube reads 150mm of mercury. Neglecting vapor surface. Find the total pressure acting on one side of the gate
pressure and assuming normal conditions, how far is the lower and its location from the bottom.
end of the tube below the water surface in the tank? 12.) A vertical triangular gate with its top base horizontal and
10.) A bottle is consisting of a cylinder 15cm in diameter and 1.50m wide is 3m high. It is submerged in oil having a specific
25cm high, has a neck which is 5cm in diameter and 25cm long. gravity of 0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2m.
The bottle is inserted vertically in water, with the open end
down, such that the neck is completely filled with water. Find Determine the magnitude and location of the total hydrostatic
the depth to which the open end is submerged. Assume pressure acting on one side of the gate.
normal barometric pressure and neglect vapor pressure.
SITUATION: The gate in the figure is 1.5 m wide, is hinged at
II. HYDROSTATIC FORCE point A, and rests against a smooth wall at point B. Neglecting
the weight of the gate, compute:
- Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the 13.) The total force on the gate due to seawater pressure,
pressure loading of a liquid acting on submerged surfaces. 14.) The reaction at B, and
- It also refers to force exerted by a fluid due to the pressure 15.) The reaction at hinge A.
it generates when at rest or in a stationary state. This
pressure is exerted in all directions by the fluid particles
on all objects that are either submerged or inserted into it.

a.) Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

𝐅𝐇𝐲𝐝 = 𝛄𝐡̅𝐀

b.) Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

𝐅𝐇𝐲𝐝 = +𝐅𝐱𝟐 + 𝐅𝐲𝟐

Where Fx = γhA and Fy = γV

16.) A cylindrical tank with its axis vertical is 1meter in diameter

and 3.6m high. It is held together by two steel hoops, one at
the top and the other at the bottom. Three liquids A, B, and C
having specific gravities of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, respectively fill this
tank, each having a depth of 1.2m. On the surface of A there is
atmospheric pressure. Find the tensile stress in each hoop if
each has a cross-sectional area of 1250mm2.

17.) The submerged curve AB is one quarter of a circle of radius

2m and is located on the lower corner of a tank as shown. The
length of the tank perpendicular to the sketch is 4m. Find the
magnitude and location of the horizontal and vertical
components of the total force acting on AB.

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Here are steps in solving Dam Stability:

„ Step 1: Consider 1-unit length of the dam perpendicular to

the section.

„ Step 2: Determine all the forces acting on the dam.

Vertical Forces: weight of the dam, weight of the water in the
upstream side, hydrostatic uplift, etc.

„ Step 3: Solve for the reaction, horizontal and vertical

components.

III. ANALYSIS OF DAM STABILITY

„ Step 4: Moments about the toe, righting and overturning
moments
- A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water
which is raised on its upstream side. These forces cause
„ Step 5: Location of Ry measured from the toe. Factors of
the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation and
safety against sliding and overturning.
overturn it about its downstream edge or toe. These
a.) Eccentricity, e
tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam
and gravitational forces which causes a moment opposite 𝐁 𝐑𝐌 − 𝟎𝐌
𝐞= −( )
to the overturning moment. The dam may also be 𝟐 𝐑𝐲
prevented from sliding by keying its base.
𝐑𝐌1𝟎𝐌
Note: 𝐱6 =
𝐑𝐲
- The weight of gravity dam will cause a moment opposite
to the overturning moment and the friction on the base i.) If e ≤ B/6, Ry is within the middle third and the foundation
will prevent the dam from sliding. The dam may also be pressure is trapezoidal acting from heel to toe. If e is exactly
prevented from sliding by keying its base into the bedrock. B/6, the shape of the foundation pressure is triangular acting
from zero heel to maximum toe.
- Stability analysis for gravity dams often is simplified into a Foundation Pressure:
two-dimensional rigid body analysis of a cross section of
𝐑𝐲 𝟔𝐞
the structure and is focused on stability against sliding and 𝐪= 8𝟏 ± <
𝐁 𝐁
overturning.

ii.) If e > B/6, Ry is outside the middle third and the foundation
pressure is triangular.

Foundation Pressure:

𝟐𝐑 𝐲
𝐪=
𝟑𝐱6

b.) Important Formulas in Solving Dam Stability

𝐑 𝐱 = ∑𝐅𝐇

𝐑 𝐲 = ∑𝐅𝐕

𝐑𝐌 − 𝟎𝐌
𝐱6 =
𝐑𝐲

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- presence of gravity exerts an upward force known as the

𝛍𝐑 𝐲 buoyant force on any object immersed in them. Buoyancy
𝐅𝐒𝐒 = > 𝟏. 𝟎
𝐑𝐱
results from the differences in pressure acting on opposite
𝐑𝐌 sides of an object immersed in a static fluid.
𝐅𝐒𝐎 = > 𝟏. 𝟎 Buoyant Force:
𝐎𝐌

𝐁𝐅 = 𝛄𝐕𝐃
Sample Problem: Ratio of Volume Displaced:
A concrete dam retaining water is shown in the figure. If the
𝐬𝐠 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝛄𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
specific weight of concrete is 23.5 kN/m³. Assume hydrostatic 𝐕𝐃 = ⋅𝐕= ⋅𝐕
𝐬𝐠 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝛄𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝
uplift varies uniformly from full hydrostatic pressure at the
heel of the dam to zero at the toe and that the coefficient of
Draft of the Body:
friction between the dam and the foundation is 0.45.
𝐬𝐠 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝛄𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
18.) Find the factor of safety against sliding. 𝐃 = ⋅𝐇= ⋅𝐇
𝐬𝐠 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝛄𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝
19.) The factor of safety against overturning.
20.) The pressure intensity at the heel. Area Submerge:
21.) The pressure intensity at the toe.
𝐬𝐠 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝛄𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
𝐀 = ⋅𝐀= ⋅𝐀
𝐬𝐠 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝛄𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝

IV. ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY

- A body at rest in a fluid is acted upon by a force pushing

upward called the buoyant force, which is equal to the Sample Problem:

weight of the fluid that the body displaces. If the body is

22.) An iceberg having a specific gravity of 0.92 is floating on
completely submerged, the volume of fluid displaced is
salt water of specific gravity of 1.03. If the volume of the ice
equal to the volume of the body.
above the water is 1000 m3, what is the total volume of the ice?

- states that anybody immerse in a fluid is acted upon by an

23.) A stone weighs 460N in air. When submerged in water, it
upward force (buoyant force) equal to the weight of the weighs 300N. Find the specific gravity of the stone.
displaced fluid.
24.) A block of wood 0.20m thick is floating in sea water. The
- The net upward force acting on the body is called the specific gravity of wood is 0.65 while that of sea water is 1.03.
buoyant force. Find the minimum area of a block which will support a man
weighing 80 kg.
- Buoyancy is the tendency of an object to float in a fluid. All
liquids and gases in the Sample Problems:
A block of wood 0.60m x 0.60m x h meters in dimension was
thrown into the water and floats with 0.18m projecting above
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the water surface. The same block was thrown into a container
of a liquid having a specific gravity of 0.90 and it floats with
0.14m projecting above the surface. Determine the following:

25.) value of h
26.) specific gravity of the block
27.) weight of the block

28.) A 5kg steel plate is attached to one end of a 0.10m x 0.30m

x 1.20m wooden pole, what is the length of the pole above
water? se s.g. of wood= 0.50 and s.g. of steel= 7.85. Neglecting
Sample Problems:
and considering the buoyancy of steel.
31.) A hydrometer weighs 0.0214 N and has a stem at the upper
end which is 2.79mm in diameter. How much deeper will it
29.) A wooden buoy (sg= 0.62) is 50mm by 50mm by 3m long
float in oil (sg= 0.78) than in alcohol (sg=0.821)?
is made to float in sea water (sg=1.025). How many N of steel
(sg= 7.85) should be attached to the bottom to make the buoy
32.) A plastic cube of side L and a specific gravity 0.82 is placed
float with exactly 450mm exposed above the water surface?
vertically in water. Is the cube stable?

30.) A hallow cylinder 1m in diameter and 2 m high weighs

33.) A solid wood of cylinder of specific gravity 0.60 is 600mm
3825 N. How many kN of lead weighing 110 kN/m3 must be
in diameter and is 1200mm high. If placed vertically in oil (sg=
fastened to the outside bottom of the cylinder to make it float
0.85), would it be stable?
with 1.50m submerged in water? How many kN of lead if it is
placed inside the cylinder?
34.) A block of wood sg= 0.64 is in the shape of a rectangular
parallelepiped having a 10cm square base. If the block floats in
V. STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
salt water with its square base horizontal, what is its maximum
height for stable equilibrium in the upright position?
- Metacentric Height (MG) is a measurement of the initial
static stability of a floating body. It is calculated as the
A rectangular scow 9m wide, 15m long, and 3.6m high has a
distance between the center of gravity of a ship and its
draft in sea water of 2.40m. Its center of gravity is 2.70m above
metacenter.
the bottom of the scow.
35.) find the initial metacentric height
𝐌𝐆 = 𝐌𝐁𝟎 ± 𝐆𝐁𝟎
36.) The righting or overturning moment when the scow tilts
until one side is just at the point of submergence
Where: MBo = I/ VD , I is moment of inertia along the waterline, VD
is the volume displaced

37.) The waterline section is 1500 kN barge as shown. It’s

center of gravity is 1.50m above the center of buoyancy.
Compute the initial metacentric height against rolling and
pitching.

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VI. STRESSES IN THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL 𝐏𝐃

𝛔𝐂𝐋 =
𝟒𝐭
- A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is
Sample Problem:
subjected to tensile forces, which resist bursting,
39.) A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter
developed across longitudinal and transverse sections.
with a wall thickness of 20 mm, is subjected to an internal
pressure of 4.5 MN/m2.
FOR CYLINDRICAL TANK
a.) Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the
a.) Circumferential or Tangential Stress
steel.
b.) To what value may the internal pressure be increased if the
stress in the steel is limited to 120 MN/m2?

40.) A 10mm thick steel pipe with inside diameter of 600mm

conveys water under a head of 480m.
a.) What is the tensile stress of the pipe in MPa
b.) What is the stress in the pipe wall if the head is increased to
500m of water
c.) What is the required thickness under a head of 500m if the
allowable tensile stress of the pipe is 118 MPa and assuming that
𝐏𝐃 the joints are 80% efficient.
𝛔𝐓 =
𝟐𝐭
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
b.) Longitudinal Stress 1. In order to measure the pressure difference between two
points in a pipeline carrying water, an inverted U-tube is
𝐏𝐃 connected to the points and air under atmospheric pressure is
𝛔𝐋 =
𝟒𝐭 entrapped in the upper portion of the U-tube. If the
Where: P is pressure of the vessel, D is the diameter of the tank
manometer deflection is 0-8 m and the downstream tapping is
and t is the thickness
0.5 m below the upstream point, find the pressure difference
between the two points.
2. A manometer is attached to a tank containing three different
fluids, as shown in the figure. What will be the difference in
elevation of the mercury column in the manometer?

FOR SPHERICAL TANK

A.) Circumferential/ Longitudinal Stress

SITUATION: For the open tank, with piezometers attached on

the side, containing two different immiscible liquids, as shown
in the figure, find:

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the horizontal. Its lower base is 2.5 m from the surface of

mercury. Use sg = 13.56.
13. What is the force acting on one side of the plane?
14. What is the location of the hydrostatic force from the base?
15. The location of the hydrostatic force from the water
surface.
16. A square frame 3.5 m by 3.5 m in dimension is submerged
in water vertically with its top 4 m from the surface. If oil (s =
0.80) occupies the top meter, determine the horizontal force
acting on the frame.

SITUATION: A 13 kN sphere is attached to a 5 kN sphere by a

3. The elevation of the liquid surface in piezometer A. cable. Both spheres have the same diameter of 1.25 m and the
4. Elevation of the liquid in piezometer B. weight and volume of the cable is negligible. If the spheres are
5. Total pressure at the bottom of the tank. thrown in water, determine the following:
17. The draft of the 5 kN sphere
SITUATION: Calculate the pressures in 18. The tension in the cable.
19. The exposed volume of the 5 kN sphere in cu.m.

SITUATION: A concrete dam retaining water as shown in the

figure. If the specific weight of the concrete is 23.5 kN/m3.
Assume there is no hydrostatic uplift. Coefficient of friction is
0.46.

6. A
7. B
8. C
9. D

SITUATION: A vertical rectangular gate 2.25 m wide and 3 m

high, hinged at the top, has water on one side.

20. Calculate the Factor of Safety against Sliding

21. Calculate the Factor of Safety against Overturning

SITUATION: A radial gate, 2 m long, hinged about a horizontal

axis, closes the rectangular sluice of a control dam by the
application of a counter-weight W.

10. What is the hydrostatic force acting on the gate?

11. The location of the Hydrostatic Force from the water
surface.
12. What force applied at the bottom of the gate at an angle of
60° with the vertical is required to open the gate when the
water surface is 1.75 m above the top of the gate?

22. The total hydrostatic thrust on the gate when the storage
SITUATION: A trapezoidal plane (Bupper = 1.5 m, BLower = 2.5 m,
depth is 4m
H = 1.5 m) is submerged in mercury with an angle of 50° with
23. For the gate to be stable, the counterweight W.

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SITUATION: A sector gate pf radius 3 m and length 4 m retain

water as shown in the figure, find the following for the
resultant hydrostatic thrust

SITUATION: A stone weighs 7.5 N when immersed in water

and 8.35 N when immersed in alcohol having a specific gravity
of 0.82. Unit weight of water is 9.81 kN/m3.
34. What is the volume of the stone?
35. What is the weight of the stone?
24. Magnitude
36. What is the density of the stone?
25. Direction
26. Location
SITUATION. A gravity dam as shown in the figure with a top
width 20 m, bottom width 100 m and is 100 m high. If 𝜇 = 0.47.
SITUATION: A rectangular barge 10 m wide and 20 m long is
Assume full hydrostatic uplift at the heel and zero at the toe.
5 m deep and weighs 6 MN when loaded without any ballast.
The barge has two compartments each 4 m wide and 20 m
long, symmetrically placed about its central axis, and each
containing 1 MN of water ballast. The water surface in each
compartment is free to move. The center of gravity without
ballast is 3 m above the bottom and on the geometrical center
of the plan.
27. Calculate the metacentric height for rolling
28. If 100 kN of the deck load is shifted 5 m laterally, find the
approximate heel angle of the barge

30. A branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the motion of

fluids and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids
and in motion relative to them.
31. For the setup shown, calculate the absolute pressure at a.
Assume standard atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa.
37. Determine the Factor of Safety against sliding.
38. Determine the Factor of Safety against overturning.
39. The system shown in the figure is used to accurately
measure the pressure changes when the pressure is increased
by ∆𝑝 in the water pipes. When ∆ℎ = 90 mm, what is the change
in the pipe pressure?

32. A device used for measuring intensities of pressure exerted

by the atmosphere.
33. A force of 460 N is exerted on lever AB, as shown in the
figure. End B is connected to a piston which fits into a cylinder
having a diameter of 60 mm. What force FD acts on the larger
piston, if the volume between C and D is filled with water?

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40. A block has mas of 400 kg in air. When submerged in

seawater, it weighs 2943 N. What is the specific gravity of the
block?
41. A dam 5 m on top and 20 m at the bottom and 24 m high
has water 19 m deep acting on its vertical side. What is the
factor of safety against overturning? Assume weight of
masonry to be 2400 kg/m3. Full Hydrostatic at the Heel to Zero
at the Toe.
42. A cylindrical buoy, 200 mm. in outside diameter and
weighing 2000N. floats in sea water (sp.gr. = 1.03) with its axis
vertical. The concrete anchor is 0.025 cu.m. in volume and is
attached to the lower end of the buoy. Weight of concrete in
air is 2400 kg/cu.m. If the vertical exposed length of the buoy
is to be 100 mm. above the water surface determine the total
depth of the buoy
43. An iceberg having a specific gravity of 0.93 floats in salt
water having a specific gravity of of 1.03. If the volume of ice
above the water surface is 1100 cu. m. what is the total volume
of the iceberg

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