Topic 4

Unit X
XX

Soil science

Overview

UNIT 1 Page 81

Basic soil components ∙ The concept: Soil

∙ Functions and importance of soil in an ecosystem
∙ The major components of soil

UNIT 2 Page 85

Minerals (primary and ∙ The concept of minerals

secondary) ∙ Rock minerals

TOPIC 4 Page 80

Soil science

UNIT 3 Page 86

Rocks and their ∙ The concept: mother rock

formation ∙ Types of rocks

UNIT 4 Page 90

Weathering of rocks ∙ Concept of weathering

∙ The importance of weathering
∙ Weathering factors

∙ Factors that contribute to the formation of soil

∙ Topography or relief (geographical factors) in soil
formation
UNIT 5 Page 93
∙ Climatic factors that contribute to the formation
Soil forming factors of soil
∙ Biological factors that contribute to soil formation
∙ Parent material in soil formation
∙ Time as a soil-forming factor

UNIT 6 Page 96

Soil-forming processes
∙ Soil-forming processes active in soils

What you will cover in Topic 4

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Basic soil components

1.1 What is soil?

● Soil, air and water are the three major natural resources.
● Soil is the upper layer of the Earth → supports all plant and animal life.
● Soil consists of three main components:
● minerals from rocks (below or nearby the soil)
● organic matter (most important part of soil)
● the living organisms that live in the soil.
● Type of soil depends on the proportion of each of the above, as well as on:
● climate
● vegetation
● the surrounding terrain
● human activities.
● Soils have different textures depending on the size and amount of mineral particles,
e.g. sandy, silty and clayey soils.
● Organic matter (the most important part of soil) is partially decomposed organic
material, rich in nutrients. The darker the soil, the greater the concentration of
organic matter.
● Erosion can take place in soils that are not well looked after.

1.2 The main functions and importance of soil in an

ecosystem
● Soil is the basis of life.
● Soil is an ecosystem of plants and animals.
● plants and animals change the composition and structure of soil
● soil is important because it provides plants with food in the form of nutrients
(e.g. nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, boron and zinc).

1.2.1 Plants in a soil ecosystem

● Plant roots get energy to grow from sugars through photosynthesis.
● When roots have developed, they absorb soil nutrients and water to make the plant
grow.
● When plants die, the remaining nutrients stay in the roots and enrich the soil.

1.2.2 Animals in a soil ecosystem

● Visible: earthworms, ants and burrowing animals.
● Microscopic: bacteria, fungi and nematodes.

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1.2.3 Other reasons why soil is important

● It provides plants with anchorage
● It provides nutrients (minerals and water for photosynthesis)
● Soil is the habitat for soil micro- and macro-organisms
● Some soil particles are used for commercial purposes (e.g. glass)
● It cleans water as it percolates to form spring water
● Soil prevents floods and drought by absorbing rainwater, storing it and releasing it
later.

1.3 The major components of soil

1.3.1 Soil profile
Soils vary according to geographical location, climate, etc., but most soils have
a distinct profile or sequence of horizontal layers. These horizons result from the
processes of: chemical weathering, eluviation, illuviation and organic decomposition.

Parts of a soil profile

● O = Organic:
● The topmost layer of most soil – lying on the surface
of the soil at various levels of decomposition and
humus. Not present in cultivated fields.
● A = Topsoil:
● Darker (brown or black) than lower layers (but
not in arid or dry areas), loose and crumbly, with
varying amounts of organic matter. Consists of rock
material that has been chemically and physically
broken down and changed, and mixed with organic
materials, particularly plant roots. It is full of plant
and animal life. The most productive layer.
● B = Subsoil:
● Light colour, dense and low in organic matter. Also
consists of altered rock material, but contains much
less plant life (mainly roots) and living creatures. A soil profile

However, minerals can be broken down, and nutrients

released from this layer for use by roots of plants.
● C = Parent material:
● Usually below half a metre, this layer consists mostly of unconsolidated organic
and mineral material, unaltered rock or glacial deposits, the matter from which
the soil is formed.
● R = Bedrock:
● The solid rock that underlies the soil and other unconsolidated material. This
soil layer simply consists of unweathered bedrock.

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1.3.2 Soil components

Components of soil are grouped into two kinds:
● Inorganic components of soil –
● The inorganic components form the major part of soil: water, air and mineral
materials (small stones, sand, silt and clay) that never decay or rot.
● Organic component of soil –
● The organic component of soil is made up of decomposed leaves, roots, bones
and animal droppings, etc.
● It is called humus (formed in a process called humification).
● About 5% of the soil is humus.
● Our ancestors used decomposed organic matter = source of nutrients in the soil:
● Guano for nitrogen
● Wood ash for potash
● Animal bones and hooves for calcium and phosphorus.

The importance of humus

● Humus is a dark-coloured, loose colloid.
● It is the ‘life-force’ of soil → it helps the soil retain moisture and encourages the formation of
good soil structure.
● It helps to suppress diseases in the soil.
● The dark colour helps to absorb heat in the soil for microbial activities, seed germination and
chemical reactions.
● Improves soil structure by binding loose soil and preventing soil compaction.
● Increases the water-holding capacity of the soil and prevents drainage and erosion.
● Has great cation holding capacity → makes it very fertile
● Has a lasting effect as a source of plant nutrients in the soil.
● Releases minerals stored in decomposable materials into the soil for plants.

1.3.3 Soil air

● There are pores between soil particles: big (macro-pores) or small (micro-pores),
depending upon the type and size of the soil particles.
● Soil air is the volume of air that fills the soil pore spaces where there is no water.
● Soil air makes up about 25% of the total volume of the soil.
● The movement of air in the soil pore spaces is called aeration.
● Soil air contains gases, e.g. oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

The importance of oxygen in the soil

● It is necessary for the respiration of plants, roots and soil organisms
● It helps to decrease carbon dioxide concentration in the soil
● It is necessary for organic matter decomposition in the soil
● Seeds in the soil require oxygen to sprout
● Some chemical processes, like oxidation, take place in the presence of oxygen
● Soil air prevents the development of fungi in the soil that can harm plants.

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Practical ways to improve aeration

● Cultivation or tillage
● Ploughing
● Adding bulky organic material
● Draining waterlogged areas.

1.3.4 Soil water

Concepts related to soil water

● Saturation – all soil pores are filled with water; occurs right after a rain → represents 0 bars.
● Field capacity – moisture content of the soil after gravity has removed all the water it can.
Usually occurs 1–3 days after rain → represents 1/3 bar.
● Wilting point – soil moisture percentage at which plants cannot obtain enough moisture to
continue growing → represents 15 bars.
● Oven dry – soil that has been dried in an oven at 105ºC for 12 hours → all soil moisture
has been removed. (This point is not important for plant growth, but is important for
calculations, because soil moisture percentage is always based on oven-dry weight.)
● Plant available water – the water held in soil at a water potential of between -1/3 and -15 bar.

● Soil water makes up about 25% of the total volume of the soil.
● The volume of water found in a soil type depends on:
● soil structure – soil structure is the arrangement of particles into aggregates. Soil
structure also affects air movement and the resistance of the soil to erosion and
plant root growth
● soil texture – the composition of sand, silt and clay in a soil type
● soil content – this affects soil behaviour, like air movement, water movement
and the retention capacity for nutrients and water. Organic matter component of
the soil, exposure of the soil surface to solar radiation, the vegetative cover of the
soil surface and the topography of the land all influence soil content.

Categories of soil water

● Hygroscopic water = a very thin layer of soil water, when the soil is about air dry, that
attaches firmly to the soil particles. It is not accessible to plant roots.
● Capillary water = the quantity of water held in the soil macro- and micro-pores (basically =
the water absorbed by plant roots)
● Gravitational water = the excess water that moves freely after the capillary pores are
saturated → moves down deep into the soil as a result of the Earth’s gravitational pull.

How to conserve soil water

● Introduce organic matter into the soil
● Practise mulching in dry areas
● Control weeds regularly to reduce transpiration
● Adopt farm practices, such as regular stirring of the topsoil → encourages water
infiltration and discourages soil erosion.

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Minerals (primary and secondary)

2.1 The concept of minerals

● Minerals are the inorganic substances that occur in the crust of the Earth, in soils.
● Minerals originate from mother rocks through rock weathering.
● Rock weathering forms soil. The soil contains the same elements as the mother rock.

2.2 Rock minerals

● Rock minerals are also called the inorganic soil fraction → consists of various soil
particles (e.g. sand, silt clay stones and stones) → help determine soil type, texture
and characteristics (e.g. water holding capacity).
● Minerals are naturally occurring solid substances that occur in the Earth’s crust.
● They have definite chemical composition, crystalline structure, colour and hardness.
Some are good for commercial activities. Examples of minerals found in soil include:
● gold and diamond
● ore, e.g. iron ore and copper ore
● rock forming minerals, e.g. sand and clay.

2.2.1 Classification of rock minerals

● Primary minerals: Occur in their original form during the formation of rocks.
● When rocks are formed, they contain minerals that are in their original forms
with their basic properties like shape, colour and elements.
● Primary minerals are found in soil but are not formed in soil.
● Examples = apatite, calcite, dolomite, feldspars and quartz.
● Secondary minerals are formed in soils: When the primary minerals undergo
physical and chemical changes (e.g. oxidation and temperature variations), they
lose some of their original properties.
● They regroup to form new minerals that are different from their original forms.
● Secondary minerals are all the minerals that have undergone chemical changes
from their original forms.
● Examples = mica clays, kaolinite clay, and candites.

2.2.2 Characteristics used in mineral identification

● Colour = the first characteristics you notice. (Streak = the colour revealed below the
surface of a mineral when you scratch it.)
● Lustre = the way in which a mineral reflects light.
● Hardness, cleavage and fracture:
● Diamond is the hardest and talc is the softest mineral.
● Cleavage refers to the way minerals break. Minerals like Mica that break along
smooth, flat surfaces have perfect cleavage.
● Minerals like quartz that break with curved, rough surfaces have fracture.

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Rocks and their formation

3.1 The concept: mother rock

The Earth is built up of layers → from the inner core → then the outer core → followed by
the mantle → and finally the crust. crust
mantle
● The crust of the Earth consists of different
outer
combinations of minerals found in different core

types of rocks. inner

● The quantity and quality of minerals found core

in the different types of rocks differ.

● All soils are formed when rocks break
down.
● The rocks that break down to form soil
are called the mother rock or the parent
material.
● Soils formed from the mother rocks
or parent rocks have the physical and
chemical properties of the parent or mother
The Earth’s structure
rocks.

3.2 Types of rocks

We get three main types of rocks:
● Igneous rocks
● Sedimentary rocks
● Metamorphic rocks.

3.2.1 Igneous rocks

● Formed when molten magma or lava cools and solidifies → usually during volcanic
activity.
● May or may not form crystals below the surface of the Earth:
● If it is formed by the crystallisation of magma below the surface of the Earth,
igneous rocks = intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks.
● Intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystal sizes, because the cooling
of magma deep in the interior of the Earth is much slower than the cooling
process outside the Earths’ crust.
● Examples = dolerite, granite and gabbro.
● If the crystallisation of the magma takes place on the surface of the Earth, the
igneous rocks = extrusive or volcanic rocks.

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●Extrusive rocks are fine-grained in texture, because they cool down faster on
the surface and there is not time for large crystals to develop.
● Example = basalt.
● Igneous rocks have various properties and mineral deposits, for example, tin and
uranium are commonly associated with granites, while ores of chromium and
platinum are obtained from gabbros.
● Igneous rocks are generally opaque, rough and dark in colour. Most of the crushed
stones on our tarred roads are from igneous rocks.

3.2.2 Sedimentary rocks

● The Earth’s crust is constantly being eroded by rivers, runoff, glaciations and wind.
● The eroded pieces are carried along by water, wind and glaciers (agents of
erosion) and are eventually deposited as layers of sediment = bedding.
● Rocks form from this sediment (bedding), e.g. shale, sandstone and siltstone.
● Some sedimentary rocks are organically formed from the remains of plants, animals
and trees, e.g. limestone = shells of animals and coal = layers of carbonised trees
and plants.

3.2.3 Metamorphic rocks

● Metamorphic rocks have transformed physically and chemically as a result of heat
(150–2 000ºC).
● Any type of rock can undergo metamorphosis, e.g. sandstone to quartzite, limestone
to marble.

3.2.4 Properties of minerals

The table below shows the properties of some common minerals.
Economic or
Rock Products after
Occurrence Colour agricultural
type weathering
importance
Igneous and
Apatite Green Phosphates Phosphatic fertilisers
metamorphic rocks
Most sedimentary Agricultural lime
Calcite White or colourless Calcium
rocks Cement
In all rocks especially Colourless, white or Glass, abrasives and
Quartz Sand fraction of soil
igneous rocks pink electrical components
Clay, potassium and
Feldspars All igneous rocks Grey or white Potash
calcium
Most sedimentary Calcium and Dolomitic agricultural
Dolomite White or grey
rocks magnesium lime
Softest known
Talc Metamorphic rock White or grey Magnesium silicate mineral; used in
Talcum powder
Hardest known min-
Colourless, pale
Diamond Igneous rocks Carbon eral; used in jewellery
yellow or pale blue
and for cutting tools

The properties of some common minerals

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3.3 The cultivation properties and suitability of soil from

rocks
● The physical and chemical properties of a soil depend on the rocks from which the
soil is formed.
● Soil = rock that has broken down after millions of years of weathering (involving
water, wind, movement, chemical action and varying temperatures).
● Cultivation properties of soil and its suitability for agricultural purposes depend on
the composition of the original rock and the processes that have acted on it.

3.3.1 Soil from igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are intrusive or extrusive, according to how they are formed. So, the
suitability of soil formed from igneous rocks depends on whether the parent material is
of plutonic origin (extrusive) or volcanic origin (intrusive).
● When plutonic igneous rocks (e.g. granite) disintegrate → the soil particles that form
are large and course. They are generally not suitable for crop production because
they:
● make the soil loose
● have poor water holding capacity
● are usually light in colour
● are generally not fertile because they may be acidic with no nutritious value to
plants.
● Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks, for example, basalt, weather to form fine grains
consisting of clay.
● The soil from fine grains is fertile and suitable for many crops, because it:
● is smooth and plastic
● has good water holding capacity
● has good cation exchange capacity and so is very rich
● is dark in colour:
● dark soil colour is good for heat conduction and retention
● is ideal for soil microbe activities in the soil (makes soil fertile).

3.3.2 Soil from sedimentary rocks

Soils formed from sedimentary rocks that contain organic deposits are suitable for crop
cultivation. This is because:
● Sedimentary rocks erode easily.
● When sedimentary rocks disintegrate, different soil particles (clay, silt, sand)
come loose.
● Often, organic residue, like humus, may be a constituent of the sediments that
break loose.
● A good combination of soil particles (loamy soil) is formed from the sediments.

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● The dark colour from sedimentary rocks comes from organic matter inclusions in the
sedimentary rocks.
● Soils from most sedimentary rocks, like alluvial deposits, contain humus → are very
fertile (high mineral content).

3.3.3 Soil from metamorphic rocks

The suitability of the soil formed from metamorphic rocks depends upon the rock
type that went through metamorphosis to form the soil type. However, metamorphic
rocks are hard and resist erosion → so they are mostly not suitable for crop cultivation
because:
● They produce weak soils that contain few minerals good for plant growth.
● They usually produce red soils due to the way the parent materials are formed from
warmth, temperature changes and pressure.
● They weather slowly to resist acidification of soil.
● Soils that develop from rocks with low amounts of weatherable minerals
(ferromagnesian) and low iron content (quartz-mica schist), for example, calcite
and dolomite are:
● reddish yellow
● have silty clay textures and blocky structures
● low iron oxide content.

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Weathering of rocks

4.1 Concept of weathering

● Soils are formed from mother rock or parent material.
● Rocks are subjected to soil forming factors (e.g. weathering) over a period → the
outer layer of the rock loosens and crumbles to form soils.
● Rock weathering takes place through:
● mechanical or physical weathering
● chemical weathering
● biological weathering.
● Rock weathering forms soil → it releases biochemical elements, such as calcium,
potassium, iron and phosphorus into the soil as nutrients.

4.2 The importance of weathering

Weathering is important for the following reasons:
● Soil formation:
● Rock weathering is the basis of soil formation. It is important for the release of
biochemical elements that have no gaseous form, for example, calcium (Ca),
potassium (K) iron (Fe) and phosphorus (P).
● Nutrient cycling:
● Weathering of parent materials contributes to nutrient cycle formation in soil.
● Duricrust formation:
● Duricrust is a hard, thin layer near the surface of soil, usually a few millimetres
thick → formed by the accumulation of soluble minerals deposited by mineral-
bearing waters that move upwards, downwards or laterally by capillary action.
Minerals often found in duricrust include silica, iron, calcium and gypsum.
● Ore deposits:
● An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals with important elements
including metals. Ores are extracted through mining.
● Clay mineral formation:
● Clay minerals are formed over long periods of time by the gradual chemical
weathering of rocks. End product of rock weathering = clay mineral formation.
Clay is an important soil component because of its cation absorption capacity.
● Coastal landforms:
● The combined effect of waves, currents and tides results in rock disintegration.
Beach drifting transports sand grains along the beach as the waves strike the
shore. The continuous deposit of weathered materials over a long period of time
→ leads to the formation of landforms at the coast.
● Salt from the ocean:
● Salt in rocks = released from weathered rocks → drained into oceans →form salts.

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4.3 Weathering agents and processes

● The agents that are responsible for the breaking down of rocks (weathering) are
physical/mechanical, chemical and biological agents.
● So, soil formation always involves one or all of the processes below to bring about
soil formation.

4.3.1 Physical/mechanical weathering

● Physical or mechanical weathering causes the disintegration of rocks without
chemical change.
● The primary process in physical weathering is abrasion.
● All physical weathering agents involve energy in the breaking down processes.
● Physical weathering agents are:
● wind
● water (rain, rivers, ocean, and lakes)
● temperature.

Wind
Strong winds have much energy → can carry soil particles in their way.
● These soils can hit the surfaces of exposed rocks with a strong force → can further
remove particles from the rock surfaces.
● Over many years, a considerable pile of soil may be formed at the base of the rocks.
● This type of weathering is common in desert areas where evaporation is higher than
precipitation.

Water
Water has a dual role in rock weathering → causes physical and chemical weathering.
● Running water (e.g. streams) has the energy to carry loose stones downstream.
● The swiftness of the running water removes soil particles from the sides and the
riverbed.
● Loose stones carried by the running water rub against each other, causing them to
break into smaller particles.
● Strong sea waves carry and roll sea stones towards the beach. The stones rub against
each other → causes weathering.

Temperature changes
● Can cause weathering, e.g., with daily temperature variation → repeated cooling and
heating of a rock surface → weakens surface and it breaks in smaller pieces.

Note:
Chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand, for example, cracks due to physical
weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action + the chemical action of
minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration process.

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4.3.2 Chemical weathering

● The agents of chemical weathering are water, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
● The five main chemical processes involved in rock weathering are: dissolution/
solution (water); hydration (water); hydrolysis (water); carbonation (air); oxidation
(air).

Water as an agent of chemical weathering

● Dissolution/solution:
● Some rocks (e.g. gypsum and rock salt), dissolve in water when they stay in
water for years, because materials that bond the soil particles dissolve.
● Hydration:
● Water combines with rocks in rivers, ponds and in the sea. The rocks absorb
water gradually to become saturated. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the
water → cause the rocks to chemically change their original status to form a
weaker rock. The newly formed rock weakens → disintegrates to form soil.
● Hydrolysis:
● When a chemical disintegration of rocks takes place in the presence of water,
hydrolysis has taken place: H+ or OH- replaces an ion in the mineral.

Air as an agent of chemical weathering

● Carbonation:
● During rainfall, the raindrops collect carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. When
the carbonated water combines with rocks → they form dilute carbonic acid
(weak acid). The acid dissolves rocks (e.g. limestone) → releases colloids and
granules from the limestone.
H20 + CO2 → H2C03 → H+ + HC03
water + carbon dioxide carbonic acid hydrogen ion bicarbonate ion
● Oxidation:
● During rainfall the raindrops combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere. The
oxygen reacts with rock minerals that contain iron → forms iron oxides → causes
rocks to break apart.

4.3.3 Biological weathering

● In biological weathering, living organisms (e.g. plants and animals) → cause rock to
decompose. For example: plant and tree roots can work their way into the crevices
of a rock → forces the rock apart → causes it to fracture.
● Some creatures (e.g. worms and termites) can be responsible for biologically
weathering rocks and rock particles → they physically break rocks apart during
physical activities such as boring.
● When plants and animals decay → they release carbon dioxide (CO2) into the air.
When the CO2 mixes with water → it forms carbonic acid → can break down the
minerals in rocks.

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Soil forming factors

Soil formation factors

Natural processes of soil formation take thousands of years to create very small amounts of soil.
● The process of soil formation and
development by soil forming factors is
climate
called pedogenesis. rocks

● There are five natural factors that

combine with the activities of people to
contribute towards the formation of soils:
● Soil formation can be represented by the
living topography
equation: things
● S = F (P, R, Cl, O, T), where SOIL
● S = Soil
● F = factors time
people's
● P = Parent material actions
● R = Relief/topography
● Cl = Climate
● O = Organisms
● T = Time

5.1 Topography/relief in soil formation

Topography/relief (geographical factors) = the appearance of the area, e.g. mountains,
valleys, water patterns, cliffs. Can affect the rate of soil formation in the following ways:
● Soil forming materials drop from high altitudes and pile up in valleys to form more
soil over the years than could be formed on the upper land surfaces. Temperature
differences between high and low altitudes causes rock disintegration.
● The effect of solar radiation, the impact of rainfall and wind action on soil formation
is greater on high lands than in valleys.
● Runoff erodes soil particles and debris, and deposits it lower down → causes more
soils to form in low-lying areas.

5.2 Climatic factors contributing to the formation of soil

Climatic factors or elements of climate → break down parent materials → form soils.

5.2.1 Sunlight and temperature

● The influence of sunlight and temperature are inter-related:
● the temperature of the parent material is the result of solar radiation.
● Hot / cold temperature variations → cause expansion and contraction → as a result,
rocks disintegrate.

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● High temperatures speed up chemical processes (e.g. oxidation).

● This action → causes the elements in the soil to be released causing lines of
weaknesses and eventual disintegration.
● Water stored in the pore spaces of rocks freeze in very cold regions.
● When water freezes, it expands → causes gradual disintegration.

5.2.2 Wind
● The effect of wind as a soil-forming agent is more visible in the areas with less or no
vegetation (e.g. deserts).
● When strong winds move over bare soil surface → the wind removes loose soil
particles. This is called abrasion.
● The soil particles deposited by wind pile up over years to form a sheet of soil.

5.2.3 Rain
● Torrential rain on sand stone removes particles of sand to form sandy soil.
● Swift and high volumes of runoff after torrential rains run over rock surfaces.
● The runoff removes loose soil particles as it moves down the slope.
● Friction between rolling stones → causes disintegrating.

5.3 Biological factors contribute to the formation of soil

5.3.1 Plants
● Roots penetrate layers of rocks. As the roots grow thicker → they cause disintegration
and crumbling.
● Decomposition of plants form humus.
● During respiration of plant roots, carbon dioxide is released into the soil.
● CO2 dissolves in soil water to form carbonic acid → causes rocks to disintegrate.

5.3.2 Animals
● Macro- and micro-organisms in the soil affect decomposition of waste materials to
form soil.
● Animals like rats, mice and rabbits that burrow deep in the soil scratch parent
materials to form soil.
● Droppings and beddings of animals decompose to form soil.

5.3.3 Human activities

Human activities, such as road construction, terracing, rock quarrying, excavation for
new settlements and mining, break down rocks.

5.4 Parent material in soil formation

All types of soils are formed from a source. Soils are formed from hard rocks (mother
rock), unconsolidated sediments and decomposed plants and animals (humus).

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5.4.1 Parent materials and geology

● The rate of soil formation, the structure of a soil, the texture of a soil and all other
physical and chemical characteristics of a soil depend on the geology of the area.
The geological processes provide the parent material.
● Melted rock flows away from inside the earth through volcanicity (the activity of
volcanoes) and eventually cools and hardens.
● During the process, minerals crystallise and new rock types are formed.
● These types of rocks are called igneous rocks.
● Igneous rocks are the original parent material rocks formed on the earth.
● All soil types formed from rocks on the earth depend upon the processes of their
development from the igneous rocks.
● The parent material also determines the minerals in soil.
● The structure, texture, aeration and drainage status of all soils are the result of
the mineral particles that originate from the parent material.

5.4.2 Parent materials and mineral soils (mineralogy)

● The minerals found in soils, but not formed in the soil, are primary minerals.
● Primary minerals come from igneous rocks and have not undergone any changes
since they were formed.
● Secondary minerals are formed when the primary minerals undergo physical or
chemical changes.
● Mineral parent material is the particle sizes that make the soil = sand, silt or clay.
● Mineral particles are classified according to the mode of deposition:
● Colluvium deposits → mineral materials are transported and deposited at the
base of cliffs and mountains by the force of gravity from cliffs.
● Alluvium mineral materials are transported by water during floods → they
have wide ranges in particle sizes.
● Outwash mineral materials are glacial materials that have been carried by
water after glacial melting → it usually is made up of a range of particle sizes,
from gravel to sand.
● Beach deposits are sandy = the result of wave action.

5.5 Time as a soil-forming factor

It takes time for soils to form from rocks → from the formation of the bedrock to the
period when soil particles are derived from the parent material:
● magma from volcanic eruptions takes time to settle and cool down.
● it takes hundreds of years for the agents of rock weathering to act on the parent
rocks to disintegrate or erode to form soils.
● the rate of disintegration and erosion depends upon the type of parent material and
the prevailing weathering agents.
● organic matter in the soil takes some time to decompose completely to form humus.

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Soil-forming processes

6.1 Soil-forming processes active in soils

6.1.1 Mineralisation
Mineralisation = the release of organic compounds during decomposition of organic
residues by oxidation to form soluble or gaseous chemical compounds.
● The chemical compounds may then take part in further soil processes or be utilised
by plant life.
● Mineralisation is an essential process in the formation of humus.

6.1.2 Humification
● The process whereby the carbon of organic residues is transformed and converted
into humic substances (humus) through biochemical processes.

6.1.3 Leaching
● The removal of soluble nutrients from an upper soil horizon to a lower soil zone
beyond the reach of plant roots.
● Leached nutrients are not available to plants.

6.1.4 Luviation
The movement of soluble minerals or colloidal suspension (substances with large
molecules) from one place to another within the soil.
● Soil horizons that:
● lose materials through luviations are called the eluvial layer
● receive material are the illuvial layer.

6.1.5 Gley soil

Gley soils are sticky and difficult to cultivate.
● Formed in waterlogged areas where there is little oxygen in the soil.
● Greenish-blue-grey or mottled colour.
● The grey colour is the result of the reduction, under anaerobic conditions, of
ferric iron to the ferrous state.

6.1.6 Plinthite formations

● Plinthite soils contain high iron and low humus content, and do not have most
essential elements → therefore poor for crop growth.
● The high iron content causes phosphorus to be fixed and made unavailable to
crops.
● It is a highly weathered mixture of clay with quartz and other diluents.
● It commonly appears as red mottles, usually in platy or rectangular patterns.

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6.1.7 Inversion
Human activities, e.g. ploughing and tilling, contribute to soil inversion = the topsoil is
fully turned upside down.
● Inversion is used to bury weeds deep in the soil to prepare land crops.
● Advantages are:
● weed seeds are buried deep in the soil to prevent sprouting
● it controls plant diseases and pests
● it encourages mineralisation of nitrogen
● microbial activities are encouraged
● it enhances even mixture of soil nutrients for both deep rooted and shallow
crops
● green manure and organic matter are incorporated into the soil.

6.1.8 Bioturbation
● Bioturbation = the churning of soil by organisms and plants roots organisms (e.g.
earthworms) and burrowers (e.g. moles, rats, rabbits) that dig deep into the soil and
push subsoil to the soil surface
● → this leads to a change in the composition of the soil.
● Bioturbation has similar advantages to soil inversion.

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Topic questions

Topic 4: Questions
● Answer the questions below.
● Give yourself one hour.
● Check your answers afterwards and do corrections.

1 What are the three main components of soil? (3)

2 Soils have a distinct profile consisting of horizontal layers. How are these
layers formed? (4)
3 Give five reasons why soil is important. (5)
4 Explain why humus is important in agriculture. (5)
5 How can aeration in the soil be improved? (4)
6 Describe the three characteristics used in mineral identification. (6)
7 Briefly describe how igneous rocks are formed. Give examples of the
different types of igneous rocks. (10)
8 Describe the processes of physical weathering. (15)
9 Name the three ways in which water causes chemical weathering. (3)
10 Soil formation can be represented by the equation S = F (P, R, Cl, O, T).
What do these letters stand for? (7)
11 How do animals contribute to soil formation? (3)
12 Briefly describe four soil-forming processes. (8)
[Total marks: 70]

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Topic X
51
XX

Animal studies

Overview
UNIT 1 Page 101 ∙ The development and domestication of farm
animals
Importance, economic
∙ The economic importance of the livestock industry
value and classification
∙ Ruminants and non-ruminants
of farm animals

UNIT 2 Page 105

∙ Beef cattle breeds
Cattle breeds ∙ Dairy cattle breeds
∙ Dual-purpose cattle breeds

∙ Sheep breeds based on their utilisation

UNIT 3 Page 110 ∙ Characteristics of a functional ram and ewe
Sheep breeds ∙ Wool breeds
∙ Mutton breeds
∙ Dual-purpose breeds
∙ Pelt breeds

UNIT 4 Page 115

∙ General characteristics of goats
TOPIC 5 Page 99 Goat breeds ∙ Dairy breeds
Animal studies ∙ Meat breeds
∙ Mohair breeds

UNIT 5 Page 118 ∙ Classification of pigs based on production purposes

∙ Differences between indigenous and improved
Pig breeds
breeds
∙ Description of various pork breeds
∙ Description of various bacon breeds

UNIT 6 Page 120

∙ Classification of poultry based on their production
Poultry breeds purposes
∙ Basic requirements for successful poultry
production

UNIT 7 Page 124 ∙ Classification of the main horse breeds

∙ Warm-blood and cold-blood horses
Horses, donkeys and
∙ Riding or light horse breeds
mules
∙ Draught horse breeds
∙ Donkeys and mules

UNIT 8 Page 126

Game animals ∙ Classification of game animals

∙ Importance of game farming

What you will cover in Topic 5

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Importance, value and classification of farm animals

Our ancestors domesticated animals → made farming with animals possible. The
development of different breeds of each of the species made these farm animals even
more useful to humans:
● farming with livestock provides a continuous source of protein, which allows us to
live in settlements instead of having to hunt for food.
● animal production provides South Africa with source of income when we export.
● a healthy livestock industry gives a country food security, which is the ability to be
independent of other countries for our food supply.
● South Africa is rich in wild animal species. Some species can be farmed on natural
veld for meat, trophies and skins. Preserving the ‘Big Five’ provides us with a source
of income from tourism, while allowing us to preserve the natural environment.

1.1 The development and domestication of farm animals

Twelve thousand years ago our ancestors were nomadic. They relied on the natural
environment for all their resources. They were called hunter-gatherers because they
survived by gathering food supplies, such as fruit, nuts and eggs, and by hunting.
● In what is today the Middle East, they developed a relationship with the grey wolf.
● Some of the tamer cubs became permanent companions of humans. They were
useful as they guarded families and helped with hunting.
● By keeping the tamest wolves and allowing them to breed with each other,
humans gradually created a new species of animal: the domestic dog.
● Through selection and breeding, humans selected the genes for tameness.
From this ancestral dog, the 400 dog breeds that exist today have been bred by
selecting them for various physical and behavioural characteristics. This was the
beginning of animal domestication.
● Groups of hunter-gatherers began to settle down and cultivate crops, such as barley
and oats. Using the same method they used for domesticating the dog, they tamed,
selected and bred other wild animals. This caused physical and behavioural changes
that made them suitable for farming.
● SHEEP were derived from a hairy sheep called the mouflon, from the mountains
of Asia.
● PIGS were derived from a species of wild boar found in Eurasia.
● GOATS were probably derived from the bezoar mountain goat of Iran.
● CATTLE were domesticated from the now extinct aurochs that roamed through
Europe, North Africa and Asia.
● CHICKENS were bred from a species of wild fowl from India and Asia.
● DONKEYS were derived from the wild ass of Egypt.
● HORSES were bred from a wild species that occurred on the Eurasian steppes.

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Not all wild animals carry the genes for domestication so humans, as they migrated to
various parts of the world, took their domestic animals with them.
● The wild animals of southern Africa were not found to be suitable for domestication,
but when the Khoekhoe migrated southwards they brought their cattle and fat-tailed
sheep with them.
● African migrations brought the ancestor of Nguni cattle.
● The Dutch brought pigs with them in 1652, and since then various breeds of livestock
have been imported, and these have been crossbred (mating animals from two
different breeds) with existing stock for increased production.

1.1.1 The concept and development of breeds

An animal breed is a variety of a particular animal species, for example, a fox terrier.
A breed is created by crossing closely related animals that resemble each other, to
establish and maintain a recognisable form or characteristic.
● Breeders of farm animals found that by selecting animals for a certain characteristic
and crossing them with similar animals, they produced a group of animals with the
same characteristics.
● When this process was continued with successive generations they could
produce a group of animals that were very different from the original stock.
● Crossbreeding is used in modern farming to produce an animal that combines
good characteristics of both breeds (e.g. the selection and crossbreeding of cattle
that produced more milk than others gave rise to the modern dairy animal).
● The advantages of pure breeds are that they have predictable or stable
characteristics that can be used by the farmer, for example, a production trait such
as milk production, or adaptability to climatic conditions.
● Purebred animals can develop genetic problems.

1.2 The economic importance of the livestock industry

The livestock industry in South Africa has great economic importance:
● it provides employment
● the products earn farmers and the country money in foreign currency.

In the agricultural sector, livestock plays a larger part than either field crops or
horticulture. The gross national income from animal products in 2010 was R64 billion.
● South Africa has about 50 000 large, well-developed commercial farms.
● Commercial farms provide about 10% of South Africa’s formal employment, as
well as work for casual labourers.
● Many farmworkers live on the farms and their children receive education at
farm schools. Commercial farms therefore provide livelihoods, housing and
basic education to about one million employees and six million of their family
members.

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● Livestock production on these farms almost meets the basic needs of our
population, but we still need to import.
● South Africa exports surplus products, mainly wool and mohair, totalling nearly
R2 billion in value.
● There are also about 240 000 small-scale farmers who provide a livelihood to their
family members and occasional employment to others.
● They supply local and regional markets where large numbers of informal traders
make a living.
● There are a further approximately 3 million farmers, mostly in the communal areas
of the former homelands, who are subsistence farmers, producing food primarily to
meet the needs of their families.

1.2.1 Cattle
Cattle have been a symbol of wealth since ancient times.
● Today South Africa has about 13,8 million cattle:
● 60% are owned by the commercial farming sector
● 40% are owned by rural farmers for personal use and do not come to market.
These cattle have great potential for contributing to food security, since we have
to import R1 billion worth of beef into the country.
● Cattle are economically important because they:
● provide a large percentage of our food requirements in the form of beef and dairy
products.
● earn income → in 2010, R14 billion was earned from slaughtered cattle and
calves, and R9 billion from milk production; cowhides are also sold.
● are still used as draught animals in the rural areas (oxen).
● source of wealth in black African communities → used for lobola.

1.2.2 Sheep
Sheep numbers have decreased from 40 million a few decades ago to 24,6 million.
● They are important because they can graze in the most arid parts of the country
● The annual wool production is 48,3 million kg, which earns roughly R1,6 billion.
South Africa is the world’s leading producer of Karakul.
● South Africa imports R1 billion of mutton per year.

1.2.3 Goats
Goats number roughly 6,3 million.
● Meat goats are raised for use in rural areas. The meat is seldom sold to main markets
because of the belief that it is unpalatable and because it has a bad smell, despite
the fact that the meat of young animals is tasty.
● Goat milk and cheese is becoming more popular.
● South Africa is a leading exporter in the world of mohair (Angora goats).

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1.2.4 Pigs
Pigs number 1,6 million.
● Commercial farming industry = intensive → produces pork, ham, bacon and lard.
● Pig hides are used for leather products and the hair is used in various industries.
● Indigenous pigs are an important subsistence animal in southern Africa.

1.2.5 Poultry
Poultry = all types of birds that produce meat, eggs or feathers (e.g. chicken, duck,
geese, quail, pheasant, guinea fowl). Chicken = most commonly farmed and important.
● The broiler chicken (meat) and egg industry is at times, depending on the size of
the maize crop, the biggest agricultural sector in South Africa, and the biggest
contributor to protein in our diet.
● More than 850 million broiler birds are hatched, grown and slaughtered annually
and 16 million eggs are produced daily.
● Despite this, a further R2 billion worth of poultry meat needs to be imported
annually.

1.2.6 Mules and donkeys

These animals are used mainly as work animals in the rural areas where machinery is
limited. Donkey carts can provide rural families with a means of transport.

1.2.7 Horses
Horses are now used mainly for racing, showing and jumping, or for other sports such
as polo and endurance riding. They are also used for work, for example in the mounted
police. Horse trails in the countryside encourage tourism.

1.2.8 Animal by-products

Livestock are kept mainly for products such as meat, milk, eggs and wool, but there are
many by-products from this industry:
● Manure: is used for soil fertilisation to ensure better crop yields; it can be sold for
garden use and also for use as fuel.
● Carcass by-products: although livestock are slaughtered mainly for meat and hides,
there are many other parts of the carcass that can be utilised for maximum economic
benefit:
● Carcass meal is made from the parts which are not sold as fresh meat and sold to
the pet food industry.
● Bones, hooves and ears of various animals are dried and sold for dog treats.
● Blood meal (dried powdered blood) is used in animal feeds or fertiliser.
● Intestines are used for sausage casings.
● Animal fat can be used for cooking, for making soap and other cosmetics, for
feedstock and for bioenergy.

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1.3 Ruminants and non-ruminants

● Ruminants = cattle, sheep, goats and wild antelope (herbivores):
● Regurgitate their semi-digested food for chewing into finer particles (chewing
the cud).
● Unable to digest it themselves. Stomachs divided into four parts (i.e. rumen,
reticulum, omasum and abomasum) in which micro-organisms break down the
cellulose in the plant material.
● Rumination allows the material to be broken down further so the micro-
organisms can digest the plant fibre more effectively.
● When the micro-organisms have broken down the plant matter, the stomach
content moves down into the intestines where the absorption of nutrients
occurs.
● Non-ruminants = horses, pigs and poultry:
● Monogastric: one simple stomach.
● However, like ruminants, horses are herbivores and they have a long colon or
hindgut in which micro-organisms help with breakdown of plant material.
● Pigs, like humans, are omnivores, which means they eat both plant and animal
material. Unlike ruminants and horses, they cannot use grass as food.
Species and
Adult Young Castrated Adult Young
alternate Young
male male male female female
terminology
Species and alternate Castrated Adult fe- Young
Adult male Young male Young
terminology male male female
Cattle
ox (plural
(bovine) bull steer cow heifer calf
oxen)
Sheep
(ovine) ram - wether ewe - lamb
Goats
(caprine) ram/buck - wether doe/nanny - kid
Pigs
(porcine, swine, hogs) boar - barrow sow gilt piglet
Horses
(equine) stallion colt gelding mare filly foal
Donkeys jack colt gelding jenny filly foal
Chickens rooster - capon hen - chick
Terms used in livestock science

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Cattle breeds

2.1 Bos indicus and Bos taurus

2.1.1 Bos indicus (African type)
● Also called zebu → originated in South Asia, possibly in India.
● also known as humped cattle → characterised by: fatty hump on their shoulders,
drooping ears and a large dewlap (loose fold of skin hanging under the throat).
● well adapted to hot, arid climates: the hump helps in the storage of water, the
loose skin helps in heat dissipation; also have sweat glands all over their bodies.
● fairly resistant to African diseases and parasites.
● farmed throughout the tropics, for beef, dairy and as draught oxen.
● there are about 75 breeds of zebu: some came to Africa → became established as
separate breeds; others were imported more recently from Asia.

2.1.2 Bos taurus (European type) or taurine cattle

● Originated in Europe, northeastern parts of Asia and some parts of Africa.
● Thrive in cooler climates, they are not adapted to hot, dry places as they do not have
humps or dewlaps, and they usually have their sweat glands on their noses.
● Vary in size and body structure, depending on the uses for which they were bred.
● Some are plump and round, others lean and angular.
● Seldom used for draught.
● Beef breeds produce good quality meat,and dairy breeds produce plentiful milk.
● They do better on good quality food.
● Tend to be susceptible to drought and African diseases.
● Hybrids or crosses have been developed by interbreeding taurine breeds with zebu.
● This achieves the taurines’ good quality of meat and quantity of milk, along with
the zebus’ ability to thrive in hot climates.

2.2 Beef cattle breeds

● First domesticated cattle were used for their milk and meat, and also as draught
animals (this role was largely taken over by the horse, and later by machinery).
● In time, specialisation took place and cattle were specially selected for milk
production (dairy cattle) or for meat production (beef cattle).
● Those bred for both are called dual-purpose animals.

2.2.1 General characteristics of a beef bull and cow

● Beef breeds are developed to provide meat, and so they need to grow fast, gain good
weight per quantity of fodder consumed, and produce good meat (carcass) quality.
● Good meat has a high cutability (a large percentage of lean meat), and marbling (fat
between the muscle, known as ‘taste fat’, is well-distributed).

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● Bulls should have a large frame size, with a compact, block-like conformation, good
depth, muscular straight shoulders and well-developed hindquarters.
● Able to stand squarely on four strong feet with well-structured legs to ensure
easy gait over long distances. They must be fertile and sire 50 calves per year.
● A mature cow should be lean and refined.
● Cows must have well-developed udders. They should be fertile and able to calve
easily, with low mortality.

2.2.2 Description of various beef breeds

South Africa → farm with indigenous and exotic breeds. Indigenous breeds = bred from
stock originated in Africa; exotic breeds = bred from stock originated elsewhere.

Some of our indigenous breeds

Afrikaner
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Descended from zebu ancestors. It is Deep red colour. Hardy, heat-tolerant and well
thought to have crossed into Africa Long spreading horns. adapted to withstand arid veld
from Yemen about 2 000 years ago, Large animals; a cow can weigh conditions.
gradually migrating southwards, and 600 kg and a bull 1000 kg. Legs are adapted for walking
reaching the southern tip of Africa Thick hides and their meat is effortlessly up to 40 km a day.
with the Khoekhoe, who herded them tender. Resistant to most of the
and used them for meat and milk. They have a docile temperament, country’s endemic diseases,
Later, the Boer farmers modified them and the cows have excellent such as redwater, heartwater
into strong draught animals; it was mothering abilities. and gallsickness.
largely Afrikaner oxen that drew the They are remarkable for their Short shiny hair discourages
Voortrekker wagons on the Great Trek longevity. tick attachment.
of 1835.
Drakensberger
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Like Afrikaners, they came with the Glossy black, smooth-coated, Perform well in the harsh sour
Khoekhoe. The Dutch, on their arrival medium- to large-framed breed. veld, and they do even better
in South Africa, soon acquired some. Placid. in the sweet veld.
During the Great Trek: several trekkers Excellent calving abilities. Resistant to African diseases,
left the Cape with this breed, which Tender meat. ticks, ultra-violet radiation
they called Vaderland cattle. Most and eye problems.
of these families settled along the Can withstand extremes in
Drakensburg range, and today the temperature and climate.
cattle are known as Drakensbergers. Strong legs with a hard hoof
They have now spread throughout ensuring an easy gait over
South Africa. rough terrain.
Nguni
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Originally came with the Nguni people Multicoloured with variously Like our other indigenous
from the north; they appear to be a patterned hides, but noses are breeds, Nguni thrive in
hybrid of Zebu and taurine East African always black-tipped. climatically the most harsh
cattle. The mainstay of traditional Zulu Their horns come in a variety of and disease-ridden areas.
culture. Shaka bred pure white Ngunis shapes.
for his royal herd, and produced Despite their medium size, they
different colour patterns for the make excellent draught animals.
several regiments of his army.

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Some of our exotic breeds

Hereford
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
From Herefordshire in England. The Red with a white head. Suited to hard work and poor
first two bulls were imported in 1890 Short down-turned horns. grazing.
to improve our national herds. Later Not resistant to African
cows were added, so we now have a diseases or ultra-violet
pure Hereford breed. radiation.
Sussex
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Sussex cattle originated on the poor Red-brown coat with a creamy Non-selective grazing habits
clay soils and pastures of Sussex in white switch to the tail. and are able to thrive under
southeastern England. In 1903 the Medium-sized, long-bodied harsh conditions.
Agricultural College of Potchefstroom White horns. They have a thin summer coat
sent someone to England to select a Placid, but can be stubborn. and many sweat glands, but
cattle breed suited to our conditions, Suited to draught work. grow a thick coat in winter:
and the Sussex was chosen. suited to both hot summers
and cold winters.
Charolais
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
A French breed that settled in the Creamy white to wheaten in Can easily withstand a variety
fertile Charolles area. colour with a pink muzzle of weather conditions and
One bull and three cows were Pale hooves and horns. temperatures.
imported to South Africa in 1955. (Now being bred black and red Good draft animals.
as well).
They are medium- to large-
framed with a general
coarseness of appearance.
Aberdeen Angus
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Developed from cattle native to the Solid black or red, although the From Scotland, is therefore
counties of Aberdeenshire and Angus udder may be white adapted for extreme
in Scotland. Ten Aberdeen-Angus Naturally polled (no horns). winters, and winter rainfall,
cattle were imported to South Africa in Undemanding and good-natured. e.g. Western Cape. Fully
1895 (to a Free State farm). pigmented eyes: resistant to
eye cancer.
Widely used in crossbreeding
to pass on the polled trait,
and to reduce the likelihood
of difficult calving.
Brahman
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Imported from India, it is named for Typical hump, dewlap and large Able to withstand heat and
the sacred cow of Hinduism. droopy ears of the zebu. Coat is are extensively crossbred to
short and can be light to dark gain their advantages in hot
grey, various shades of red, or climates.
black. Oily skin and smooth coat,
Usually horned, though some which helps to repel insects.
bloodlines are naturally polled. Resistant to parasites and
Docile and intelligent. African diseases.

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2.3 Dairy cattle breeds

● Farmers should choose a dairy breed that is adapted to the climate and conditions
of the farm environment, as some breeds tend to be more heat resistant and better
foragers than others.
● The commonly used dairy breeds are exotic and therefore susceptible to African
diseases, particularly those borne by ticks.

2.3.1 General characteristics of a dairy bull and cow

● Dairy breeds are developed to convert forage efficiently into milk for human
consumption and for the production of various dairy products.
● The cows need to be able to provide surplus milk, well in excess of that required by
their young.
● For commercial purposes, consistently high yields with a good butterfat and protein
composition are essential.
● Cows should have a feminine appearance, with a wedge-shaped outline. They
should not be over-muscular, heavy, or have fat deposits.
● They need a good pelvic shape for easy calving. They should be productive through
a long lifespan.
● Udders should be well formed for ease of milking and strong for capacity. Cows
should be very good-natured for easy management in the dairy.
● Bulls should be strong, masculine, well-formed and hardy. They should have good
general muscle development with no excessive fat, and must be reproductively
sound and efficient.

2.3.2 Description of various dairy breeds

Holstein-Friesland
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Bred in the north of what is Bred to have distinctive black and white Not very heat resistant.
today known as the Netherlands markings, though red and white is now Not very good foragers.
(North Holland and Friesland), acceptable. They are large framed. Their
the Dutch settlers brought them outstanding characteristic is their high
to South Africa. yield of milk, though it has a relatively low
butterfat content. They are good-natured and
easy to milk.
Jersey
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
From island of Jersey in the Fawn-coloured and relatively small, with Adapted to a wide
English Channel. Were first cows weighing up to 450 kg. range of climatic
imported to South Africa in Characterised by extreme leanness, with and geographical
1881. almost hollow backs, and very good udders. conditions.
Milk is ‘yellow’ – a high butterfat content and Heat resistant.
the highest protein content of all the breeds. Good foragers.
Cows are famous for their good Can be frail and
temperament, but the bulls are sometimes vulnerable to disease.
aggressive.

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Guernsey
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
From the Isle of Guernsey, a tiny Fawn and white coloured. Although larger Efficient grazers and
island in the English Channel than the Jersey, they are similar in many can adapt to a wide
off the coast of France, where respects, such as excellent temperament, range of farming
they had been taken by French ease of calving and milk with high butterfat practices.
monks. Were imported to South content. Like the Jersey, they are
Africa in 1923. a little fragile.
Ayrshire
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
From the county of Ayr in Speckled red to brown and white, although Relatively hardy.
southwest Scotland. they were originally black. Good foragers.
Were first imported in 1893. Medium sized. Can produce well under
Milk is white, but has a relatively high harsh conditions.
butterfat content.

2.4 Dual-purpose cattle breeds

2.4.1 General characteristics of the dual-purpose cattle breeds
● Sometimes, in order to provide both beef and dairy, the herd will be a mixture of
dairy and beef breeds.
● However, it is easier and more economical to have one breed, a dual-purpose breed,
able to meet both requirements. This is provided for by hardy animals that:
● grow fast
● calve easily
● produce surplus milk
● provide good carcass.

2.4.2 Description of various dual-purpose cattle breeds

Simmentaler
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
From valleys of the Simme River Colour varies from pale fawn to dark red, Have adapted well
in Switzerland. spotted with white. The face is usually white. to many different
Imported in 1905 by Pres. Steyn Shortish horns curve up and back. environments.
to his farm near Bloemfontein.
Red Poll
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Developed in England in the late They are deep red with a white tail switch, A very efficient grazer
1800s. naturally polled. Tends to suffer in very
Bought to South Africa by Cecil harsh climates.
John Rhodes.
Pinzgauer
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
From the mountainous forests Predominantly chestnut with white markings. Resilient and robust.
of central Europe. Imported They are known for their longevity. Strong legs for rough
to Namibia in 1902, and then terrain.
acquired in South Africa.

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Sheep breeds

3.1 Sheep breeds based on their utilisation

● First domesticated sheep were used for their hides, milk, and meat. When people
learned how to spin wool into strong fibres (about 6 000 years ago), sheep began to
be favoured for their fleece.
● Worldwide, there are now more than 200 different breeds of domestic sheep, and
each can be classified into one of the following groups, according to utilisation:
● Mutton breeds:
● They produce meat (mutton and lamb).
● These are non-wool breeds.
● Wool breeds:
● They produce varying qualities of wool.
● Fine wool is used for the clothing industry.
● Medium wool is usually felted into blankets, or used for jerseys and socks.
● Coarse fibres are used to make carpets and tapestries.
● Dual-purpose breeds:
● They produce both quality wool and mutton.
● Pelt breeds:
● Lambs are slaughtered to give a superior pelt used in high-quality garments.

3.2 Characteristics of a functional ram and ewe

● Sheep should be robust with strong straight legs and hard well-formed hooves.
● They should have good teeth and a proper bite.
● Rams should show a bold masculine appearance and carry good fleshing.
● Ewes should have a well-balanced udder with two functional medium-sized teats.

3.3 Wool breeds

The main wool breed is the Merino due to its skin area, follicle density, fibre diameter
and fibre length, which are well suited to wool breeding.

3.3.1 General characteristics of wool and the wool breed

The wool from one sheep is called a fleece, from many sheep, a clip. A sheep produces
from 1 to 12 kg of wool annually. The weight of clean wool produced is determined by:
● Skin area:
● The bigger the sheep, the greater the area of skin on which wool can grow. Due
to their larger size, rams usually produce more wool than ewes of the same
breed. Skin area should not be increased by wrinkles, as loose skin is susceptible
to skin disease.

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● Follicle density:
● Wool fibres are produced from follicles in the skin. The total number of follicles
per skin area is called the ‘population density’. Sheep with a denser population
of follicles produce a greater quantity of wool, which is also of finer texture.
The follicles come in two types: primary and secondary. The ratio of primary to
secondary follicles is called the S/P ratio. The sheep with the finest fleece will
have the highest population density and the highest S/P ratio.
● Fibre diameter:
● this is the most critical factor in determining what the wool will be used for, and
consequently, its price. Samples can be taken and tested. The diameter of the
primary and secondary follicles is written as dp/ds and is measured in microns.
Ultra-fine grades of wool are less than 17,5 microns, while strong grades are
closer to 22,6 microns. The sheep with the finest fleece will have a low dp/ds
ratio.
● Fibre length (closely related to staple length):
● The longer the fibre, the more wool. Sheep with long staple will have higher
yields.

Wool breeds are selected for their large frames, plain bodies (few wrinkles), open faces,
long staple, dense fleeces, good character, and ease of handling. Colour can also be
considered: the whitest wool is often the most sought after as it is easier to dye.

Description of Merino breed

Merino
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
The Phoenicians introduced Merinos Medium to large framed Various types of
to North Africa. From there they were rams have long spiral horns growing Merino have been
taken to Spain, which soon became close to the head. Although the quality developed to adapt
noted for its fine wool. Initially, of meat is very good, it is not that to different regions,
exporting Merinos was a crime plentiful., Wool is fine and soft and from the drier Karoo
punishable by death; the king had produced in quantity. A good ram to the wetter or
sole right to export them. In 1790 produces up to 12 kg of wool a year. It irrigated areas. The
the king gave some to the House of is mostly used in the clothing industry, original Merinos did
Orange, they did not thrive in the and since Merino wool is excellent not do well in high
Netherlands and were passed on to at regulating body temperature, it is rainfall areas, such as
the Dutch government in South Africa: often used in high quality performance in Holland.
we became the first country outside athletics wear (running, cycling,
Europe to own Merinos. In 1800s the mountain climbing etc.).
wool industry was the most profitable
economic activity. Great Trek – the
trekkers took flocks into the interior.
Since then they have been crossbred
with Merinos from other countries to
form our own resilient South African
strain. Out of our current population of
25 million sheep, nearly 15 million are
Merinos.

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3.4 Mutton breeds

Sheep production for mutton is divided into fat-tailed breeds and mutton breeds.

3.4.1 General characteristics of fat-tailed and mutton breeds

Fat-tailed breeds (Blackhead Persian, the Ronderib Afrikander, Van Rooy, Karakul):
● Characterised by their large tails and hindquarters.
● The carcass quality is quite good, with most of the fat concentrated in the tail area
(up to 5 kilograms per 27 kilogram carcass).
● Specifically bred for the unique quality of the fat stored in the tail area.
● The fat is semi-fluid and readily adaptable as a form of butter, and is used for
cooking and sausage making, though animal fats have decreased in popularity.
● They are hardy and adaptable and able to withstand desert life.

Description of fat-tailed breeds

Ronderib Afrikander
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
An indigenous sheep, bred A fat-tailed meat sheep with a soft, shiny They are heat tolerant and
from the big, wide tailed, covering of wool and hair. well adapted to harsh dry
long-legged, hairy sheep of the Have been bred to produce white wool. climates, as they store
Khoekhoe. Amber coloured horns. energy in their tails.
As their name suggests, they are They have long thin legs for
characterised by a round-ribbed, rather walking great distances in
than the usual flat-ribbed appearance. search of grazing and water.
The tail has three sections and is very They are very resistant
distinctive. It hangs down near the to African diseases and
hocks and can weigh up to 6 kilograms. parasites.
Van Rooy
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
In 1906 Senator Van Rooy of It is a fat tailed, white sheep with just Good ability to utilise natural
Bethulie district experimented enough wool between its bristly hair to grazing in arid areas.
with breeding a sheep out of the protect it from cold. Drought tolerant.
Ronderib Afrikander that would
have excellent conformation for
slaughter lamb production. The
result was a hardy breed named
after Van Rooy.

3.4.2 General characteristics of mutton breeds

A worldwide trend towards more lean meat = preference for mutton breeds.
● Must have a round neck and loin, a straight back and straight well-muscled legs.
● Specialised mutton breeds:
● mature fast
● have high feed conversion efficiency
● high weight gains
● high carcass yield
● produce good quality mutton.

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Description of mutton breeds

Dorper
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Developed in South Africa in the 1930s Black or white headed. The Blackhead Persian brought
by crossing the fat-tailed Blackhead It produces a short, light to the Dorper its hardiness,
Persian ewes with a Dorset Horn coat of wool and hair that thriftiness, fertility and valuable
ram. The name is abbreviated from a is shed in late spring skin. The Dorset Horn strain
combination of Dorset and Persian. They and summer. The Dorper brought fast-growing, heavily
were bred to produce a high quality skin is much sought muscled lambs.
carcass under extreme conditions. after, it comprises a high With its thick, protective skin it
The second largest breed in South Africa percentage (20%) of the is well adapted to survive in the
and has spread to other countries like income in South Africa. most arid areas of the country.
Australia and America. Has the ability to browse as well
as graze, so it can eat plants left
by other sheep.
Does not need shearing
Not prone to blowfly strike like
long-woolled sheep.
Damara
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
The Damara arrived in southern Africa It is a fat-tailed meat sheep The Damara has a high level of
hundreds of years ago. The indigenous with a long tail that tapers immunity to blue tongue and
people of Namibia farmed and traded down to a thin end. It has a resistance to parasites. It
with them. The name is derived from a lively appearance and is suited to the drier parts of
the Damara area of Namibia. Their hard, strong teeth. It has southern Africa and to any veld
commercialisation and characterisation strong flocking instincts, type.
started in the late 1950s and early a long productive lifetime,
1960s, leading to their importation to good mothering ability and
South Africa and their establishment as is very fertile.
a popular breed.

3.5 Dual-purpose breeds

Due to the fluctuation of wool demand, and consequently wool prices, it is economically
sound to use breeds that can go to the mutton market when wool is down, and vice
versa. These are known as dual-purpose breeds.

3.5.1 Description of various dual-purpose breeds

Dohne Merino
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
To keep pace with the fluctuating wool Large-framed. Specifically bred for adaptability
market over the last half century, the White wool. to all farming regions in South
agricultural department has modified Naturally polled. Africa.
flocks through breeding to ensure
their economic viability. This led to the
development at the Dohne Agricultural
Research Station of the highly efficient
dual-purpose sheep, the Dohne Merino,
a breed that produces both top quality
meat and ultra-fine wool (60:40 mutton
to wool).

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Dorset Horn
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
The county of Dorset in England. Medium sized with pink nose. Prone to diseases: high mortality
Spiral horns. rate.
Wool is of the highest quality:
fine, densely grown, and very
white.
Known for its all round qualities
as a meat and wool producer and
its ability to lamb throughout the
year.
Dormer
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
A cross between Dorset Horn rams It has the Merino wool The main object of developing the
and South Africa Mutton Merino characteristics, but a better Dormer was to achieve a mutton
ewes; the name is an abbreviated mutton conformation. breed that could adapt to the cold
combination of the two. and wet conditions of the winter
Developed in South Africa to meet rainfall areas of South Africa.
the need for a slaughter lamb that Disease resistant.
could produce meat rapidly and Has a long breeding season and
economically. lambs easily.

3.6 Pelt breeds

The lambs are slaughtered for their skins very soon after birth. The pelts are used to
manufacture exclusive garments. The economic advantage of pelt breeding in our very
arid areas is considerable since the ewe ceases lactation and her nutritional needs are
then about half that of a lactating ewe.

3.6.1 Description of the Karakul breed

Karakul
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Karakul sheep were imported from Hardy, fat-tailed sheep with a Remarkable for their adaptability
Asia to Namibia, and from there narrow body, sloping rump and to arid and semi-desert areas.
they spread to the North Western coarse, wiry hair. Lambs are
Cape and surrounds. They were evaluated within 36 hours after
upgraded by crossing with birth and some are slaughtered
indigenous breeds. for their pelts. Mature Karakuls
are shorn twice a year: floor-rugs
and curtains.

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Goat breeds

4.1 General characteristics of goats

● Different goat breeds were developed to produce milk, meat and fibre.
● Most breeds have a pair of horns, unless they carry the dominant poll gene.
● Both male and female goats can have beards.
● Some breeds of sheep and goats look similar, but can be distinguished by the tails:
in goats = short and point upwards; in sheep, tails hang down and usually = larger.
● Female has an udder with two teats.

4.2 Dairy breeds

● The dairy doe is fine and feminine, with a thin neck, strong spine, wide sprung ribs
and barrel shaped chest.
● Does may have wattles (fleshy growths) on either side of the neck. The udder when
full must not droop below the hocks. Depending on the breed, does can produce an
average of 3 litres of milk a day, with an average of 3,5% of butterfat.
● Bucks, or males, are more strongly built and often have beards

4.2.1 Description of dairy breeds

Saanen
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Originate from the The largest dairy goat with the highest milk Sensitive to sunlight so
Saanen Valley in production and butterfat content (3–4%). needs shade; tan forms are
Switzerland. Creamy white in colour with smooth, short recommended for use in hot
hair. Erect ears that point forward. countries.
Toggenburg
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Originate from Medium-sized dairy goat. Sensitive to heat and does better
Switzerland. Coat colour varies from light fawn to dark in cooler climates.
chocolate, with white marking on the face
and legs.
A medium milk producer with low butter-fat
content of the milk.

4.3 Meat breeds

● More heavily muscled than the dairy breeds, although there is some variation in
size.
● Either horned or polled and usually have floppy ears. They mostly have short,
smooth hair, although they may grow some down in winter.
● The meat of young animals is palatable, but because it is low in fat it can be tough if
overcooked or cooked at high temperatures.

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4.3.1 Description of meat breeds

Savanna goat
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
South Africa’s indigenous goats were The indigenous goats varied in horn White savannahs are
originally called Savanna goats. size, coat type, colour, ear length pure white yet highly
From these the white savannah goat and size because they had been the suitable for hot dry
was developed, which is now exported product of natural selection rather than climates because they
to other countries. selective breeding. White savannahs have black skin, which
have short white hair, floppy ears and protects them from
backward curving horns. ultraviolet radiation.
Boer goat
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
The Boer goat was improved by Usually white with brown heads. Hardy, but is still
crossbreeding the indigenous African Floppy ears and backward curving susceptible to the tick-
goat with an Indian breed for better horns. borne disease called
muscling, growth rate, fertility and Heavily built, full-grown bucks heartwater.
carcass traits. They are now used weighing roughly 120 kg and does
for meat production in many other 90 kg.
countries, as well as in South Africa.
Kalahari Red
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Selected from red coloured animals Reddish colour, with a short shiny hair Developed to survive
of various breeds, including the coat. in hot semi-desert
indigenous goats and red Boer goats. Floppy ears and backward curving conditions.
horns. Very athletic, disease
resistant and has a
voracious appetite.

4.4 Mohair breeds

The Angora goat produces a long, curling, silky fibre called mohair, which is highly
sought after. It is similar to the fibre produced by the Cashmere goat.

4.4.1 Description of the Angora breed

The Angora goat
Origin Characteristics Adaptation
Angora goats originate from Lightly built, smaller than Good foragers and because they browse
the region of Ankara in Turkey. most sheep and goat breeds, rather than graze.
A small flock was imported the average weight being Ideal for semi-desert regions where
into South Africa in 1838 and 75 kg. other species do not thrive, e.g. Valley
these animals formed the The bucks have pronounced Bushveld habitat (EC), which is the main
basis of the current Angora horns, which tend to form a mohair producing area in South Africa
industry. They are some of the spiral in older animals, while Yet they are fragile: newborn kids and
few purebred animals left in the does have smaller horns newly shorn animals are susceptible
the world. that do not spiral. to chilling during cold, wet weather.
Angoras produce a unique Susceptible to heartwater. The ewes have
fibre called mohair, which a tendency to abort, probably because
grows in long silky curls. the animals are highly inbred.

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Mohair wool
● Mohair is chemically similar to wool, but it has a smoother surface and has a thin,
smooth scale.
● These features make the fibre strong, elastic and shiny and able to retain dye
pigments well.
● Mohair is classified according to the ringlet or locks produced:
● Type C, or highly curled hair, is the finest type, of highest value in the market.
● Type B, which is a flat wavy type, is bulkier.
● Kid mohair, which is very fine, is used for luxury knitted garments like jerseys,
shawls and scarves.
● Mohair from adults is used for making suits, coats, rugs, blankets, curtains and
upholstery.

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Pig breeds

5.1 Classification of pigs based on production purposes

● When pigs were first domesticated they were used for their meat (pork) and also for
their fat (lard).
● When commercial farmers began to practise intensive pig farming, they evaluated
the speed at which pigs grew and when fat was laid down on the muscle so that they
could produce the correct animal for market requirement, for example
● a pig for meat, or
● a pig with more fat for bacon and lard production.
● Commercial pigs are bred to produce meat rapidly on high quality feed.

5.1.1 Pork production

● Pork is produced from young pigs:
● 14–16 weeks old
● weigh roughly 60–70 kg when they are slaughtered.
● Porkers are fed with a diet that encourages rapid growth and maximal meat
production with minimal fat deposits.

5.1.2 Bacon production

● Bacon is produced from older, heavier pigs weighing 70–90 kg.
● The meat of an older animal has more fat deposits than a younger one → makes it
suitable for producing bacon.
● Young boars intended for bacon production must be castrated before they reach
maturity.
● Such boars are called barrows.

5.2 Differences between indigenous and improved breeds

With the exception of the wild pig species, there are no real indigenous pig breeds in
South Africa. Those regarded as African have probably arisen from imported breeds
that originally became feral (wild) and then developed their own characteristics as
they adapted to conditions. These indigenous breeds differ from the pig breeds used in
intensive commercial production systems in that they can forage for food.

5.2.1 The Kolbroek

● Is thought to have come from China.
● It is a short, heavy pig with a flat face.
● It can live in semi-wild conditions in rural areas where it forages for food.

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5.2.2 The Windsnyer (Wind cutter)

● Is a narrow-bodied, long-nosed breed with a sharp back.
● They can be black, brown or spotted.
● It can survive well on waste and scraps around households and farms.

5.3 Description of various pork breeds

A small pool of breeds is used in the commercial intensive pork production units,
namely the Large White, Landrace, Duroc, Hampshire, and Chester White. These breeds
are continually crossbred to produce piglets that:
● have good food conversion efficiency
● are able to produce the lean meat required by the market.

5.3.1 Large White

● Very large, sturdy pink-coloured pig with a thin, white hair coat.
● A characteristic head with a short snout, dished face and erect ears.
● The sows are good mothers.
● Less susceptible to stress than, for example, the Landrace.
● It is the most numerous breed in intensive systems.

5.3.2 Landrace
● Originated in Denmark and was then improved by breeders in the USA.
● It is a white pig with a long body and flatter back than most other breeds.
● It has a long, narrow head, smooth jowls and large heavy ears.
● The rump is long and meaty and the hams are plump.
● It is the second most numerous breed, and is used in crosses with the Large White.

5.4 Description of various bacon breeds

Modern piggeries slaughter baconers at a heavier mass than porkers. Male piglets
intended for bacon production are castrated.

5.4.1 Hampshire
● Black pig with a white belt across the body and shoulders.
● It is used for cross breeding with other breeds to improve performance.

5.4.2 Tamworth
● A distinct bacon type breed of English pig, but is not used much in South African
piggeries.
● Long rather than wide.
● Brown haircoat.
● Rugged, thrifty and active.

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Poultry breeds

6.1 Classification of poultry based on their production

purposes
The poultry industry supplies more than 60% of all the animal protein consumed in
South Africa annually. Poultry production is classified according to the scale and type
of farming employed for raising the birds. For example:
● Intensive production systems = the major methods for raising poultry and producing
poultry products.
● The birds are raised in large numbers in small, usually specifically designed
houses.
● It is a highly sophisticated industry, based on scientific principles and requires
constant and intense management and high quality feed.

6.1.1 Broiler production

● Broilers are heavy breeds used for meat production.
● They are bred for their fast growth rate.
● Large numbers of broiler chickens are raised in specifically designed houses and fed
specifically balanced diets from when they hatch.
● At six to seven weeks, at a weight of about 2 kg, they are slaughtered for their
meat, which is then sold fresh, frozen, or as value-added products, such as chicken
fingers, portion, etc.
● This competitive industry requires the most efficient birds with respect to growth
rate, survivability and feed conversion. Only the modern breeds, such as Cobb 500
and Ross broilers, meet these stringent standards.

6.1.2 Egg production

● Layer hens and dual-purpose hens are kept for the production of fresh eggs.
● They are lighter and grow more slowly than broiler fowls and so it is not economical
to raise roosters of these breeds on expensive balanced grower feed.
● The 22 million layers in South Africa lay about 300 eggs per year, producing about
6.6 billion eggs per year.
● Layer birds are raised on the ground until they are at point of lay (16 weeks) at which
time they are put into specifically designed layer houses, 3 or 4 to a small wire cage
called ‘battery cages’. In these small cages they live, eat and lay eggs for 52 weeks,
producing up to 300 eggs each.
● The breeds used need to be efficient with respect to egg production, egg quality,
survivability and feed conversion. Hi-Line, Hybro and Amberlink meet these very
stringent standards.

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Poultry breeds
System Intensive Intensive Semi-intensive Extensive
Type Heavy breeds Light breeds Dual purpose Indigenous breeds
Dual purpose (meat Subsistence (meat
Product Broilers (meat) Layers (eggs)
& eggs) & eggs)
Breeds Cobb 500 (USA) Hi-Line (USA) Koekkoek (SA) Ovambo
Hybro
Ross (UK) Boschvelder (SA) Venda
(Netherlands)
Amberlink (USA) Rhode Island Red Naked-neck
New Hampshire
Australop

A summary of the breeds used in various production systems in South Africa

6.1.3 Other types of poultry production systems

● Breeder farms on which layers or broilers are bred. Old breeders are sold as spent
hens or Cornish hens → slaughtered for meat.
● Semi-intensive production and free range farms → are favoured by members of the
public who prefer a more humane and organic type of farming system where the
birds have more space.
● Subsistence or backyard farming.
● Hobby farming.

6.2 Basic requirements for successful poultry production

6.2.1 Housing
The housing requirements depend on the intensity of the system employed to rear
the birds.
● Extensive systems:
● housing is a simple shelter against the elements.
● Semi-intensive backyard systems:
● normally consists of a small shed to provide shelter and a place for the hens to
lay their eggs. It allows them to forage in the day, but they can be closed in at
night for protection against the weather and predators. In commercial farming,
semi-intensive free-range systems also exist.
● Intensive production systems:
● hold between 100 and 10 000 birds, all of the same age. From 12 to 20 birds
occupy one square metre of house floor space. Because of the density of the
birds, ventilation is very important, as the build-up of ammonium gas from the
faeces can cause diseases of the lungs. Some of the intensive houses are air
conditioned to maintain optimal temperature, humidity and fresh airflow. Other
requirements are:

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● a concrete floor to allow disinfection

● absorbent bedding such as sawdust
● orientation of the house along a north-south direction
● walls for shade and protection against wind
● a double-sloped corrugated iron roof at least 2 m from the ground, with a 60
cm overhang to keep rain out.
● Layer houses:
● similar to intensive systems, but hens are kept in rows of small, raised, wire
cages (5 or 6 per cage). They are automatically fed and given water through
piping with nipples in each small cage. Droppings fall through the cage to the
floor for easy cleaning. Eggs roll into a collector.

6.2.2 Management
● Management systems for intensive production systems of broilers and egg
production must be scientific and use an ‘all in – all out’ system that allows effective
disease control. For example:
● In broiler houses 10 000 day-old broiler chicks are placed in the house and then
kept for 6 weeks, after which all are sent for slaughter.
● During week 7, the house is emptied, the litter removed and the house cleaned
and disinfected.
● The next week a new batch of day old chicks is brought in.
● Layers are also managed according to an ‘all in – all out’ system, but the cycle is 52
weeks long.
● Other important management activities include:
● supplying the correct type of feeders and drinkers with proper spacing and
height to ensure all birds can feed and drink
● instituting vaccination and medication against the diseases.
● In the case of both broilers and layers extra hours of light (daylight) can be provided
to increase production.

6.2.3 Breeding
Breeding for intensive production systems (e.g. the broiler and layer breeds) are selected
for specific characteristics as shown in the table below.

Broilers Layers
Fast growth rate Good egg laying (>300 eggs per 52 weeks)
Good feed conversion rate Good feed conversion
Uniformity of size and growth rate Uniform size and colour of eggs
Good skin colour Hard shells
Disease resistance Disease resistance
Good temperament Good temperament

Breed characteristics of broiler and layer poultry

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6.2.4 Nutrition
● Extensively raised poultry find most of their own food consisting of wild seeds,
greens and insects.
● Their production can be improved by giving them a supplement of leftover food
or a small amount of ready mixed feed.
● Feeding intensively raised broiler chickens or layers requires well balanced rations
which give high levels of production, a fast growth rate in broilers and almost an egg
a day for a full year from layers.
● Most big producers produce their own scientifically balanced concentrate feeds
→ made mainly from maize, sunflower and soya to which vitamins and minerals
are added.
● Some poultry producers buy ready-made feeds from specialist feed companies
→ supplied as mash, crumbles or pellets.

Broilers have a starter, a grower and a finisher ration. Layers also get a starter ration,
followed by a layer grower mash.
● The amounts to be fed differ with the age of the birds and also with the type of bird,
for example, whether it is a layer or broiler.
● The food must be stored properly to protect it against insects and rodents.

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Horses, donkeys and mules

7.1 Classification of the main horse breeds based on their

purposes
● Light horse breed = riding horse → suitable for dressage, jumping, racing and polo.
● Draft horse breeds = bigger and stronger → used to pull loads, such as carts, farm
implements and carriages.
● All our horses have been imported, but some local breeds like the Boerperd and the
Nooitgedacht have been bred and adapted to local conditions.
● The Basuto pony is a small, hardy breed that has been adapted for the cold
mountainous regions in Lesotho where it is used as a riding horse, providing local
people with transport in difficult terrain.
● The zebra is the only indigenous member of the equine family in southern Africa.

7.2 Warm-blood and cold-blood horses

After horses were domesticated in the northern hemisphere, various types developed
due to the different environmental conditions:
● In Europe a large, heavily muscled horse with a long hair coat was selected, which
was suited to doing heavy work because of its strength and its calm temperament.
This gave rise to the so-called cold blood breeds.
● In the Middle East, smaller, light-bodied horses developed = thin skinned, long-
legged, fast, sensitive and energetic. These horses were referred to as the hot bloods.
● Since the development of the various breeds, there has been crossbreeding of the
hot bloods with cold bloods to produce horses suitable for particular purposes.
These are now referred to as warm bloods.
● Most modern breeds are warm bloods because some crossbreeding has occurred.

7.3 Riding or light horse breeds

The light horse breeds are those that have mainly hot blood characteristics of slim body
and slim legs: this makes them suitable for athletic activities, e.g. racing or jumping.

7.3.1 Arabs or Arabian horses

● Predominantly a hot blood breed, originating from the Middle East.
● They are small (14–15 hands), short backed, but very strong horses with a distinct
head shape and high tail carriage.
● They are good natured, quick learners and have a willingness to please, which
makes them suitable for riding and endurance.
● The coat colour is usually grey although there are other colours.
● The skin has dark pigmentation that protects them from the sun.

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7.3.2 Saddle horse (American Saddlers)

● Developed in Kentucky in the USA for riding.
● Have a high stepping gait and very upright head carriage = good for showing.
● Comfortable gait and steady temperament = pleasure riding and jumping.

7.4 Draught horse breeds

Draught horses are mainly cold bloods (size and strength).

7.4.1 Percheron
● Originated in France during the 1600s. First used as a war-horse, later used for
pulling coaches, ploughs or carts in agriculture and heavy industries.
● As machinery has replaced them, they have been crossbred with hot or warm
blood breeds. Now used for riding, cattle herding and even meat production.
● The typical Percheron = very large (16–17 hands high). It has a grey coat and has
large heavy hooves and long hair, or feathering, around the hooves.
● They are placid and easy to handle despite their great size and strength.

7.4.2 Hackney
● Developed in England.
● A warm blood used specifically for pulling carriages. It has great stamina and can
trot at high speed for long distances, because of its powerful hindquarters and
characteristic high knee and hock action.
● The average Hackney is 15 hands high and can be brown or black.

7.5 Donkeys and mules

7.5.1 Donkeys
● Averaging nine hands high, with large ears, a woolly hair coat and powerful bodies.
● Derived from desert animals, they are hardy and able to survive on poor vegetation,
but do not do well in wet, swampy areas.
● Were used as working animals on farms or in villages for transport, riding, pulling
carts and in food or water mills (still used in the rural areas of developing countries).
● Some communities use donkeys as a food source.
● They are resistant to horse sickness, an African disease that kills horses.

7.5.2 Mules
● Some equine species can cross breed, but most matings are sterile (no offspring). An
exception is the mating of horses and donkey: produces a mule. Less often a horse
stallion and a donkey jenny produce a ‘hinny’.
● Exceptionally strong and are used for farming and forestry.
● Resistant to African horse sickness.

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