CHAPTER IV

STATISTICS

Data Management
 TOPICS

1. Frequency Distribution Table

2. Measures of Central Tendency
3. Measures of Dispersion
4. Measures of Relative Position
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• Use variety of statistical tools to process and
manage numerical data.
• Use the methods of linear regression and
correlation to predict the value of a variable given
certain conditions.
• Advocate the use of statistical data in making
important decisions.
Introduction to Data Management
When data are collected, it needs to be organized in
a fashion that will allow the researcher to do
analysis easily and correctly interpret the results.
The array and the frequency distribution table are
two ways of helping us to characterize the data. The
frequency distribution table classifies the observed
values into groups and the number of items falling
into each group is stated. Sometimes the user of
statistics will find frequency distributions already
constructed in the publications to which he may
refer; sometimes he will construct his own
frequency distribution by first considering the
appearance of the raw or unclassified data.
Introduction to Data Management
Raw data or unclassified data is the set of data in its
original form. It has not been organized in any
manner and is recorded in the order observed.
Example: Days - to – maturity for 40 short- term
investments

The arrangement of the days- to-maturity for 40 short term investments is random
and we have omitted the names of the bank clients in order to save space.
Introduction to Data Management
Array is the arrangement of the observed values
according to magnitude. It may be in ascending or
descending order.
Example: The table below shows an illustration of an
array or sorted data. Data are arranged in ascending
order.
Introduction to Data Management
Frequency distribution table is a summarized table
wherein the classes are either distinct values or
intervals with a frequency count.
The frequency distribution table can be in the form
of single value grouping or grouping by class
interval. Single value grouping is a frequency of
observed values wherein classes are distinct values.
The range of values is short and with unique values
occurring more than once. Grouping by class
intervals is a frequency count of observed values
wherein the classes are intervals.
Introduction to Data Management
Example: To illustrate single value grouping, suppose
we have data on the number of children of 50
married students taking Bachelor of Science in
Information Technology.
 Introduction to Data
Management
Suppose below is Single Value Grouping of Number
of Children of Married Students taking BS in IT
Introduction to Data Management
There are many ways to manage data. There are also
other ways to a clearer, a more elaborate, and more
complex Frequency Distribution Table. From the raw
data that is not grouped yet, we arrange them in
ascending or descending order to form an array or
we can create a table to make them easier to
interpret or make use as basis for decision making.
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
Suppose we got the scores of 50 BSIT 1A students in
their Final Exam for the subject Mathematics in the
Modern World.
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
Our task now is to create a Frequency Distribution
Table with Column heads for Class Limit, Class
Boundary, Tally, Frequency, Cumulative Frequencies
(> and <), and lastly the Class Mark (X). Making a
Frequency Distribution Table as detailed as this one
will make it very useful if we wish to do or utilize the
other statistical tools for grouped data. See below
how our Frequency Distribution Table will look like:
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
Class Class Tally Frequency < cf > cf Class
Limit Boundary (f) Mark (X)
LCL– UCL LCB– UCB

N = _______
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
Before we proceed with the actual filling out or
answering of the frequency distribution table, we should
follow some helpful steps.

Step 1 - Know your Population (denoted by N) or your

Sample (denoted by n). Population refers to the totality
of the respondents or subjects while a sample is just a
part or a representative or an entity taken from a
population. In our case, it was not mentioned that the 50
students were part of a bigger group. Thus, we can
assume that it is our Population which is 50.
N = 50.
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
NOTE: Before you proceed with Step 2, you can actually
arrange the scores in ascending or descending order to
make an array.

Step 2 - Determine the Highest Score (HS). In our given

set of data, HS = 100

Step 3 - Determine the Lowest Score (LS). In our given set

of data, LS = 66.

Step 4 - Compute the Range (R). Range = Highest Score

(HS) minus Lowest Score (LS). R = 100 - 66. R = 34.
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
Step 5 - Use the Sturge’s Formula (K) = 1 + 3.3 log N,
where N is our Population. If the given is the sample
size, we just change N to n.

In our given data, our population is 50. Thus, K = 1 +

3.3 log N
K = 1 + 3.3 log (50)
K = 1 + 3.3 (1.69897000434) K = 1 + 5.60660101432
K = 6.60660101432 or K = 6.6066 or K ≈ 7
(approximately 7 classes)
 Topic 1: Frequency Distribution
Table
Later we can also just use the 6.6066 (up to four decimal
places). By the rules of rounding numbers, it is estimated to
be 7, this means our table will most likely have 7 classes.
Thus, we can prepare 7 rows (below the heads of the table).

Step 6 - Compute the Class Width (C). Class Width (C) = R ÷ K.

C = R ÷K.
C = 34 ÷ 6.6066
C = 5.14636878273 or
C=5
NOTE: Class Width should always be rounded off to the nearest whole
number.
Step 7 - Start Filling out the Frequency Distribution Table.
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
CLASS LIMIT
This column can be in ascending or descending order. But, most of the
time statisticians practice to start with the Lowest Score, thus,
ascending order. In the table below, we started with the Lowest Score
which is 66. The Lower Class Limit (LCL) of the first class is 66 and by
using the Class Width which is 5, we can count off up to five numbers
from 66…. So - 66, 67, 68, 69, 70. From here, we can determine the
Upper Class Limit (UCL) of the same row - 70. On the second class, we
can start at 71 since the UCL of the first class is 70. Then we repeat the
process by counting five numbers from 71…. So - 71, 72, 73, 74, 75.
Thus, we now determined that the UCL of the second class is 75. We
repeat this process until we reach the last class of this column. The
last class is identified if we already covered or reached the Highest
Score of our given set of data. In this case, we stop at the 7th Class
(which we already predicted using the Sturge’s Formula in Step 5)
since the class interval 96 - 100 reached and covered the Highest
Score - 100.
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
CLASS BOUNDARY
Separate one class in a grouped frequency
distribution from another. The boundaries have one
more decimal place than the raw data and therefore
do not appear in the data. There is no gap between
the upper boundary of one class and the lower
boundary of the next class. The lower class
boundary is found by subtracting 0.5 units from the
lower class limit and the upper class boundary is
found by adding 0.5 units to the upper class limit.
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
TALLY
In tallying scores, we must be very careful and we
must do it one by one. We must use our raw data as
reference. It would be easier if the scores were
arranged beforehand in ascending or descending
order. We will tally the number of scores that fall
within each class.
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
FREQUENCY (f)
We simply convert the tally in to Hindi-Arabic
Numbers. N should be equal to the Population - if
not - try rechecking you tallies.
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
CUMMULATIVE FREQUENCY
Cumulative frequency is used to determine the
number of observations that lie above (or below) a
particular value in a data set. The cumulative
frequency is calculated using a frequency
distribution table, which can be constructed from
stem and leaf plots or directly from the data. For “ <
cf ” - we start by copying the frequency of the first
class (66 - 70) which is 2. To answer what is below it,
we must add frequency of the next class to it. The
process is repeated until the last class is reached.
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
For “ > cf ” - we start by copying the frequency of
the last class (96 - 100) which is 2. To answer what is
above it, we must add frequency of the next class to
it. The process is repeated until the first class is
reached
FILLING OUT OR ANSWERING THE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
CLASS MARK (X)
The Class Mark is simply the midpoint or the middle
score or the median of every class limit. For
instance, the class mark of 66 - 70
(66, 67, 68, 69, 70) is 68.
 TOPIC 2
Measures of Central Tendency
One of the most basic statistical concepts involves
finding Measures of Central Tendency of a set of
numerical data.

We will consider three types of averages, known as

the Mean, the Median, and the Mode. Each of these
averages is a measure of central tendency for the
numerical data.
 The Arithmetic Mean
In statistics it is often necessary to find the sum of a
set of numbers. The traditional symbol used to
indicate a summation is the Greek letter sigma, .
Thus the notation x, called summation notation,
denotes the sum of all the numbers in a given set.
We can define the mean using summation notation.
 The Arithmetic Mean
Statisticians often collect data from small portions of
a large group in order to determine information
about the group.
In such situations the entire group under
consideration is known as the population, and any
subset of the population is called a sample.
It is traditional to denote the mean of a sample by
(which is read as “x bar”) and to denote the mean of
a population by the Greek letter  (lowercase mu).
 Example 1 – Find the Mean

Six friends in a biology class of 20 students received

test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and 90

Find the mean of these test scores.

Solution:
The 6 friends are a sample of the population of 20
students. Use to represent the mean.
 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The mean of these test scores is 82.50

 The Median
Another type of average is the Median. Essentially,
the median is the middle number or the mean of the
two middle numbers in a list of numbers that have
been arranged in numerical order from smallest to
largest or largest to smallest.
Any list of numbers that is arranged in numerical
order from smallest to largest or largest to smallest
is a ranked list.
 Example 2 – Find a Median
Find the Median of the data in the following lists.
a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
Solution:
a. The list 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12 contains 7 numbers. The
median of a list with an odd number of entries is
found by ranking the numbers and finding the middle
number. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest
gives
1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
The middle number is 9. Thus 9 is the median.
 Example 2 – Solution cont’d

b. The list 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108 contains 6 numbers.
The Median of a list of data with an even number of
entries is found by ranking the numbers and
computing the mean of the two middle numbers.
Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives
23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108
The two middle numbers are 77 and 89. The mean
of 77 and 89 is 83. Thus 83 is the Median of the data.
 The Mode

A third type of average is the Mode.

 Example 3 – Find a Mode
Find the Mode of the data in the following lists.
a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21

Solution
a. In the list 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21, the
number 15 occurs more often than the other
numbers. Thus 15 is the mode.
 Example 3 – Find a Mode
Find the Mode of the data in the following lists.
b. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23

Solution
b. Each number in the list 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23
occurs only once. Because no number occurs
more often than the others, there is no Mode.
 Graded Recitation
average from a frequency table
 Seat Work Graded Recitation
average from a frequency table
 Seat Work Graded Recitation
average from a frequency table
THANK YOU