Dr.

Ali Younis
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Introduction (Voltage, current and resistance)
• Atomic Structure
• Electrical Charge
• Voltage, Current, and Resistance
• Voltage and Current Sources
• Resistors
• The Electric Circuit
• Basic Circuit Measurements
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The Car Lighting system is a simple types of electric circuits, each bulb has a
resistance which control the current and the current controls the brightness of the
light
• In this chapter you will know that
1. Theoretical concept of electric current, voltage and resistance
2. Essential elements of electric circuits
3. Voltage and current devices
4. Types of resistance
5. Protective devices such as fuse and circuits breakers
6. Measuring devices
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Voltage is the potential energy of the electric charge required to make the
current
• Current is the movement of the electron through a circuit
• Resistance in a circuit limits the amount of current
• Will be explained later in detailed

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Atoms consists of electron protons and neutrons
• Atomic structure including electrons shell and orbits, valence electrons, ions
and energy level will explain
• The configuration of electron in each atoms is the key factor in determining
how well a given conductor , semiconductor material conducts electric
currents
• Atom is the simplest particle of the element, that specifies the characteristics
of each element
• Each element has a unique atomic structure
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The Bohr model of an atom is shown
• The atom consists of a central nucleus surrounding
by orbiting electrons
• The nucleus consists of a positive charged particle
called proton and uncharged particles called
neutrons
• The negative charged particles surrounding the
nucleus called electrons
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Each atoms has a certain numbers of electrons and protons distinguish it
from the atoms of the other elements
• The atomic structure of two atoms are shown below

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Defined as the number of proton in the nucleus
• All elements in the periodic table are arranged according to their atomic
number
• In the normal or neutral stat, all atoms has an equal number of electron and
proton, where the number of positive and negative charged particle are equal
and the atom has a net charge of zero
• In this case the atom is electrically balanced

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom at certain distance from the nucleus
• Shell is the energy levels of the orbits numbering (N) from 1 2 3 with 1 for the
shell near the nucleus
• The line spectrum of hydrogen atom is shown
• The lowest level (n=1) called the ground states and
represents the most stable atoms with single electron
in the outer shell
• Each electron can acquire energy to go to higher
level or loss energy to go to lower level
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The attractive force between negative charged electron and positive charged
proton are reduced with the distance from the nucleus increases, so the
higher level electron are less tight bound to the nucleus
• This shell is know as valence shell and its electron are known as valence
electrons
• These valence electrons contribute to chemical reaction and bounding with
the structure of the material and determine material electrical properties

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Free electrons: are electrons which absorb a photon energy and escape from the
atoms
• Ions are atoms which left with a net charge due to loss electron (Positive ion) or
gain electron (negative Ion)
• The most common atom used in electrical circuit is copper atom, which has 29
electrons in four shells
• The electron in each shell can be found by 2𝑁 2 with N is the number of the shell
• The outer shell has one electron (Valence electron) when gain some energy become
free electron
• A peace of copper at the light have a sea of free electron
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Conductors
1. Allow the current to flow
2. Have a large number of free electron
3. Have one to three valence electrons
4. As silver and copper
• Semiconductors
1. Are closely below the conductors in their ability to conduct current
2. Have lower number of free electrons
3. Have four valence electrons
4. As silicon and germanium
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Isolators
1. Materials that are poor conductor for current ( prevent current)
2. Have very few free electrons
3. Have more then four valence electrons
4. As Wood
• Notes
1. Silver is better than cooper but copper is cheep so it used in electrical circuits
2. Semiconductor forms many of electron devices such as diode, transistor and ICs

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • An electric property of matters that exists because of an excess or
deficiency of electron and symbolized by 𝑄
• Static electricity : is the presence of a net positive or negative charge in a
material
• Material with charge of the same polarity are repelled and with charge of
different polarity are attracted as shown.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The forces between charges (repulsive or attractive force) called the electric
field which consists of invisible lines of forces as shown
• Coulomb is the unit of charge (𝐶)
• One Coulomb is the total charge possessed by 6.25 × 1018 electrons
• The charge of any number of electron will be
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑄=
6.25×1018
• A single electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10−19

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Voltage , current, and resistance are the basics quantities in all electric circuits
• Voltage in necessary to produce current and resistance limits the amount of
current in the circuits
• They are related using Ohm’s law Energy in Joule
• Voltage (Volt 𝑉)
𝑊 Charge in Coulomb
1. Work or energy per unit charge symbolized by 𝑉 where 𝑉 = 𝑄
2. One volt is the potential difference (voltage)between two points when one
joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to
the other
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Positive ion an atom lost an electron due to some energy
• Negative ion an atom gained an electron

• The amount of energy to free the valence electron is related to the number
electron in the outer shell
• The more complete the outer shell the more stable the atom and high energy
is required to free electron

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Current (Ampere 𝐴)
1. Electrical current is the rate of flow of charge as shown

Random motion of free electron on material Electrons flow from negative to positive
Charge in Coulomb when a voltage is applied
𝑄
𝐼= Time in sec
𝑡
1. One ampere (1 𝐴) is the amount of current that exists when a number of
electron having a total charge of one coulomb moving through a given cross
section area in one second as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Resistance (𝑅 Ω)
1. Is the opposition to current in ohms as shown
2. One ohm 1 Ω of resistance exists if there is on ampere of current in a
material when one volt is applied a cross the material
3. Conductance is the eases of current flow and is the reciprocal of resistance
1
𝐺= and measure in Mho’s (℧) or Siemens (𝑆)
𝑅

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • A voltage Source : Provides electrical energy or electromotive force (emf)
• A Current source provides a constant current to a load
• Ideal voltage source: can provide a constant voltage for any current required
by the load
• Voltage source may be AC or DC as shown
• The VI characteristics of the ideal voltage source is

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Battery is a type of voltage sources that convert chemical energy to electrical energy
• The battery cell consists of four components
1. Positive electrode: has a deficiency of
electron due to chemical reaction
2. negative electrode: has a surplus of
electron due to chemical reaction
3. Electrolyte provides a mechanism for charge flow between positive and negative
electrode
4. Separator electrically isolated positive and negative electrode
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The materials used in battery cell determine the voltage it provides
• The chemical reaction at each electrode produces a fixed potential at each
electrode (Exp. In the Lead acid cell -1.685 at positive and 0.365 at negative
so the total voltage is 2.05)
• The typical voltage for the Lead acid cell is 2.15 due to some other factors
• The voltage of any battery cell depends on the cell chemistry
• Exp. Nickel cadmium cell is about 1.2 V and Lithium cells is about 4 V
• The capacity of the cell is the number of electrons that can be obtained
from it and is measure the amount of current that can be supplied over time
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Battery normally consists of multiple cells connected in series or parallel
• Series connection increase the total battery voltage with constant current
• Parallel connection increase the battery current (capacity) with constant
voltage

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Battery has two major classes
1. Primary battery: is used once and discard because their chemical reactions
are irreversible
2. Secondary battery can be recharged and used many times because they are
characterized by reversible chemical reaction
• Batteries can be have many sizes as AAAA-AAA-AA- C
• Battery of watches and hearing aids are called coin battery

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Batteries can be classified according to their chemical reaction to:

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The operation of the solar cell is based on the photovoltaic effect where the
light energy converts to electrical energy as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Electrical generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy using a
principles of electromagnetic induction as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Convert the AC voltage source from the outlet to DC voltage source as
shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Thermocouples: is a thermoelectric types of voltage source that is
commonly used to sense the temperatures
• Piezoelectric sensor: based on piezoelectric effect where a voltage is
generated when a piezoelectric material is mechanically deformed by an
external forces
• Piezoelectric material such as quartz and ceramic

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 Current Sources
• Ideal Current source can provide a constant current for any load (does not
exists in real)
• The symbol and VI characteristics are shown
• Typical commercially current source are

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • A components that is specifically designed to have a certain a mount of
resistance
• applications
1. Limit circuit current
2. Voltage dividers
3. Current dividers
• Classification
1. Fixed resistors
2. Variable resistors
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Available with large selection of resistor value that are set during
manufacturing and can’t be changed easily
• Constructs using variable methods and materials
• The common types are

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Make from
1. Finely ground carbon
2. Insulating filler
3. Resin binder
• The ratio of carbon to
insulating filler determine the
resistor value
• The mixture is formed into
rod and a conductive leads are
used for connection
• The entire resistor is encapsulated in an insulation material for protection as shown
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • It is a type of SMT (Surface Mount
technique ) components
• Has a small size for compact
assembling as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

• A resistive material is deposit evenly onto a high-grade ceramic rod
• The resistive material may by carbon (carbon film) or nickel chromium (metal
film)
• Resistance value is obtained by
removing part of the resistive
material in a helical pattern around
the rod using spiraling technique
• Very close tolerance can be achieved
• Available in a form of resistor network
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Constructed with resistive wire wound a round insulating rod and then sealed
• Used for high power resistors
• Can’t be used at high frequency because it made from wire so it has a significant
inductance
• Some typical forms are shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Resistors with value tolerance of 5% and 10 % are coded with four bands of colors
to indicates the resistance value
• The color code and their value are shown
• The firs band near the rod(away from
gold or silver) is the first digit of the resistance
• The second band is the second digits of the resistors
• The third digit is the number of zero or multiplier
• The fourth digit is the tolerance 5% for gold and 10% for silver
• Notes: for resistance value less than 10 ohms: the third band is gold or silver as
multiplier (0.1 for gold and 0.01 for silver)
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Resistors with value tolerance of 2% and 1 % are coded with five bands of
colors to indicates the resistance value
• The first three bands are the first
three digits of the resistors
• The fourth digit is number of zeros
• The fifth digit is the tolerance shown in table

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Indicates the percent of failures per 1000 hours of use as shown
• A new band after the tolerance band
• Fifth band in four band resistor
• Sixth band in the five band resistor
• Resistor should be operated
substantially below their rating value to enhance their reliability

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Typographical marking to indicate resistor value instead of color code
• It has two forms
1. Numbering label
o Consists only of numbers
o Uses three digits to represent the value: the first two digits are the resistor
first two digits and the third digits is the number of zero

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 2. Alphanumeric labeling
o Consists of two or three digits and a letter : the digits represent the resistor digits
and the letters give the number of zeros or multiplier and its location gives the
location of the decimal points as shown
o The letters are R (multiply be 1) K (multiply by 1000) and M (multiply by 1000000)

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

• Resistors with value that can be changed manually or automatically
• Manually resistors are
1. Potentiometer
 A three terminal resistor where terminal 1 and 2 represents
the fixed terminals while terminal 3 (Wiper ) gives the variable
terminal
 The value of the resistance changes by changes the location
of wiper
 It can be used as voltage divider or voltage control device

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 2. Rheostat
 A two terminals devices made from potentiometer as shown
 It can be used as a current control devices
• Potentiometer and rheostat can be classified as
1. Linear where the resistance value change linearly with the
wiper position
2. Tapered where the resistance value change nonlinearly with
the wiper position
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 Linear

Non Linear

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Thermistor : a resistor value change with the temperature
• Photoconductive cell : a resistor value change with the light

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • An arrangement of physicals components that use voltage, current and
resistance to perform some useful functions.
• Consists of as shown:
1. Voltage source
2. Loads
3. Path for current between source and load
• Schematic diagram is

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Open circuit, when the path of the current in the circuit is broken
• Can be used for controlling the opening or closing the current as shown

• There are two types of switches

1. Mechanical Switch
2. Semiconductor Switch

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Single-Pole-Single -Through Switch (SPST)
• Single-Pole-Double-Through Switch (SPDT)
• Double-Pole-Single-Through Switch (DPST)
• Double-Pole-Double-Through Switch (DPST)
• Normally-Open push button switch
• Normally-Closed push button switch
• Rotary Switch

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Transistor can be used as an equivalent for SPST switches
• There are two types of transistor switches
1. Bipolar transistor: when there is a current through specific terminal it acts
as closed switch and vice versa
2. Field-Effect transistor (Voltage)

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Are used to deliberately create an open circuit when the current exceeds a
specific number of amperes due to malfunction or abnormal conditions in a
circuits
• Exp. 20 A fuse will open the circuits when the current exceeds 20 A
• The basic difference between fuse and circuit breaker is; when the fuse is
blown it must be replaced ; but when circuit breaker is open it can be reset
and reused repeatedly

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The fuse has two categories: cartridge type and plug type
• Fuse operation based on the melting temperature of the wire or other metal
element. As current increases the fuse element is heated up and when the
rated current is exceeds the element reaches its melting temperature and
open
• Circuits breaker detect excess current either by heating effect of the current
or by magnetic field it create

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The most common form of conductive material used in electrical
applications
• The wire diameters arranged using American Wire Gage (AWG) Size; as the
number increase the wire diameter decreases
• The size of the wire is also specified in term of the wire cross section area as
shown
• The unit of cross sectional area is
circular mil (CM):
1 CM is the area of the wire with diameter of 0.001 inches (1 mil) 𝐴 = 𝑑 2
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • The resistance of the wire will depend on
1. Types of materials
2. Length of the wire
resistivity (CM.Ω/feet)
3. Cross section area
Length (feet)
𝜌𝑙
• The resistance formula is 𝑅 = 𝐴
Cross section area (CM)
Resistance (Ω)

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The reference point in the electric circuits
• There are two types of ground
1. Earth ground
2. Reference ground (0 volt) (COM or COMM
• The symbol for ground are shown
• For power supply, the earth ground not used and the reference is the other
terminal of the supply
• The simple electric circuit is shown
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Measuring Voltage, current, and resistance are very important for electric
engineering
• Voltmeter, Ammeter, Ohmmeter are used to measure Voltage, Current, and
Resistance respectively
• In general, the three instruments are combined into single instrument called
Multimeter

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The symbols used to represent meters are shown
• The digital meter used when
specific value is needed
• Analog and Bar graph
are used to indicate change in the circuit increase or decrease
• Generic symbol is used to indicate placement of the meter in a circuit when
no value or values changes need to be shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The steps to measure current are
• First, make shore that the range of the meter is
greater than the current value
• Make shore that the current in into the +ve terminal and out into the
negative terminal
• The meter must
be connected in
series

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • To measure the voltage connect the meter directly across the components
(parallel connection) as shown
• The negative terminal of the meter must be connect to the negative terminal
of the supply

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • First Turn off the power supply and then disconnect on end or both end of
the resistance from the circuit
• Connect the Ohmmeter directly across the resistance as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • An electronic instruments that can be used for measuring of Voltage, Current and
resistance
• Provides more function, better accuracy, greater ease of reading and greater
reliability than do many other meters
• Analog meters can Trak short term variation and trends in a measured quantity that
many DMMs are too slow to respond to it
• The basics functions found in DMMs are
1. Ohms
2. DC Voltage and Current
3. AC Voltage and Current
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 • Some DMMs provide special function such as transistor or diode test, power
measurements, and decibels measurement for audio amplifier
• Some DMMs required manual selection of range but many meter provide
automatic range selection and called auto ranging

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • DMMs has two form of display
1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) read out
o LCD is more commonly used because it need a low current so the battery has a large life
time
o Are difficult to read in low light
o Slow respond to quick change
2. Light Emitting Display (LED) read out
o Need a large current so the battery has small life time
o Can be read at low light
o Fast respond to quick change
• Both LCD and LED used seven segment display

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The resolution of DMMs is the smallest increment of quantity that the
meter can measure
• The smaller the increment the better resolution
• The resolution is determine by the number of the digits in the display
• Most of DMMs are 3 ½ display: 3 digits to display number from 0 t 9 and
one digits can show only 0 or 1 ( last digit from left) as shown
• Some DMMs has 4 ½ and 8 ½ resolution

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • It is the degree to which a measured value represents the true or accepted
value of quantity
• It is range from 0.01 % to 0.5%

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The analogue multimeter is shown
• The reading value if the multiplying of
the pointer and the scale value

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • Safety is the major concern when working with electricity
• Current through your body, not voltage, is the cause of electric shock
• The severity of the resulting electric shock depends on the amount of
voltage and the current path through the body
• The current path through your body determine which tissue and organs will
be affected

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 • The amount of current depends on the amount of voltage and human body
resistance
• The human body resistance depend on body mass, skin moisture and point
of contact
• The table below show the amount of current and its human body effect
• The human body resistance varies between 10 𝑘Ω and 50 𝑘Ω
• The amount of voltage determine the amount of current and the human
body effect

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020
 Electrical Safety

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020

 Electrical Safety

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2020