Civil Engineering Department

A.Y 2024-2025
2nd Semester

PCD – Principles of Reinforced/Prestressed Concrete

Group III - 3C

Prepared by:

Carig, Angel Heart I.

Ebido, Julia Althea B.
Fernandez, Lance Miguel E.
Guarin, Althea P.
Moral, Ely Jamyca R.
Panuga, Cedric P.
Patano, Michael D.
Ventorozo, Avelene Gae A.

Instructor:
Ronel E. Romero, RCE, MSCE

January, 2025

Page 1 of 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.11 Properties of Concrete

1.12 Aggregate

1.13 High-Strength Concretes

1.14 Fiber-Reinforced Concretes

1.15 Concrete Durability

REPORTERS
Main Anchor 1: Avelene Gae A. Ventorozo

Main Anchor 2: Cedric P. Panuga

Topic 1.11 Reporter: Cedric P. Panuga

Julia Althea B. Ebido

Topic 1.12 Reporter: Angel Heart I. Carig

Topic 1.13 Reporter: Lance Miguel E. Fernandez

Topic 1.14 Reporter: Michael D. Patano

Topic 1.15 Reporter: Ely Jamyca R. Moral

Althea P. Guarin

Page 2 of 6
1.11 Properties of Concrete
1. Compressive Strength: the maximum stress taken by a material or structural element before
undergoing crushing failure. It is the most important mechanical property of structural concrete as it
is always supposed to take compressive load under the normal loading conditions. Most of the other
mechanical properties of GPC are also directly associated with its compressive strength. Any slight
change in the compressive strength can significantly alter some of its other mechanical properties.
Compressive strength of GPC is generally governed by many factors e.g., type of
parent geopolymer material, type of alkaline liquid, concentration of alkaline liquid, water to binder
ratio, curing conditions etc. However, it is found to be always higher or somewhat similar to
OPCC [96]

2. Static Modulus of Elasticity: the slope of the stress-strain curve under uniaxial tension or
compression loading. When we test a concrete specimen in tension or compression, the following
stress-strain relation is observed.

3. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity: the measure of how concrete deforms elastically under dynamic
loading conditions, such as vibrations or impact. It helps in understanding the stiffness of concrete
structures and how they respond to stress and strain variations.

4. Poissons Ratio: the Poisson ratio of concrete is a very important parameter in stress and strain
calculations. It represents the relationship between stress and strain.

The Poisson ratio cannot be obtained from the direct relationship between stress and strain. There is
a principle to calculating the Poisson’s ratio. This was invented by the French Mathematician
Simeon Poisson.
The Passions ratio can be calculated from the following equation as proposed by Simeon Poisson:

ν = Longitudinal Strain / Lateral Strain

When a member is strained longitudinally, strain in the transverse direction will be developed. The
ratio between the longitudinal and transverse is calculated as Poisson’s ratio.
When we calculate the Longitudinal stress, a part of it will be transferred as transverse stress. This
relationship is built through the Poisson ratio. If the longitudinal stress of a section remains the
same, there is no requirement of having a poison ratio.
5. Shrinkage: Concrete shrinkage is the decrease in length or volume of a concrete caused by changes
in moisture content or chemical reactions. All concrete undergoes shrinkage, and there are four
categories of shrinkage seen in concrete: Drying Shrinkage, Chemical Shrinkage, Plastic Shrinkage,
and Autogenous Shrinkage.

Drying shrinkage is the significant shrinkage mechanism in most concrete. Moisture lost during
drying shrinkage is evaporated into the environment as the concrete dries out, and if not properly
managed, it can lead to wide joint openings, cracking from internal stresses, and slab curling.

6. Creep: Concrete creep is the gradual deformation of concrete over time when it's under a constant
load. It's different from the immediate elastic deformation that happens when a load is first applied.

Page 3 of 6
 Concrete creep can be caused by a number of factors, including:

• Concrete materials: The type of concrete used, such as fiber-reinforced, high-performance,

or high-strength concrete
• Environmental conditions: The temperature and humidity of the environment where the
concrete is used
• Concrete preparation: Changes to the process used to prepare the concrete.
Concrete creep can lead to a number of problems, including: Cracks, Loss of structural integrity,
Structural failure, Stress redistribution, and Prestress loss.
7. Tensile Strength: the tensile strength of concrete is its capacity to resist cracking or breaking under
tension. Although concrete is rarely loaded under pure pressure in a structure, determining the
tensile strength is necessary to understand the extent of the possible damage. Breaking and
cracking arise when tensile forces surpass the tensile strength.

Compared to the ultra-high performance concrete, traditional concrete has relatively high
compressive strength compared to tensile strength, which is significantly lower. This indicates that
any concrete structure that may undergo tensile stress must first be reinforced with high tensile
strength materials like steel. The knowledge about the tensile strength of concrete is increasingly
getting vast due to its significance in managing potential cracking.

However, testing the tensile strength of concrete is somewhat tricky – in fact, there is no field test
for direct judgment. But, indirect methods like splitting are quite helpful.

8. Shear Strength: the shear strength of concrete is an ability to resist forces that cause sliding of one
part relative to the other at an internal plane. The shear strength depends on the grade of concrete,
percentage of fibres and percentage of tension steel in beams. One of the objectives of the present
experimental work is to determine the variation of shear strength of M30 and M60 grade concretes
with no fibre and with various volume percentages of steel fibres using push-off specimens. The
present studies indicate that an increase in volume percentage of steel fibres causes an increase in
the shear strength for both the grades of concrete. The workability is observed to reduce as the
percentage of fibres increases. The compressive strength of concrete is observed to initially increase
with an increase in the percentage of steel fibres and then reduce beyond about one percent of steel
fibres.

1.12 Aggregates
Aggregates are raw materials that are produced from natural sources and extracted from pits and quarries,
including gravel, crushed stone, and sand. When used with a binding medium, like water, cement, and
asphalt, they are used to form compound materials, such as asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete.
The aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume. Since they are less
expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them as possible.
Types of Aggregates:

• Fine Aggregates (usually sand) - Any aggregate that passes a No. 4 sieve (which has wires spaced
1/4 in. on centers in each direction). They are used in concrete to fill voids between larger
aggregates, contributing to the mix's workability and smoothness.
• Coarse Aggregates (usually gravel or crushed stone) -They provide bulk to the concrete mix and
help improve its strength, stability, and durability. Coarse aggregates are important for ensuring
proper concrete structure and reducing the amount of cement required in the mix.

Page 4 of 6
 Types of Lightweight Concrete:

• Structural Lightweight Concrete

- Concretes that have 28-day strengths equal to or greater than 2500 psi and air-dry weights equal
to or less than 115 lb/ft3, the aggregates used for these concretes are made from expanded shales
of volcanic origin, fired clays, or slag.
• All-lightweight Concrete
- When lightweight aggregates are used for both fine and coarse aggregate.
• Sand-lightweight Concrete
- If sand is used for fine aggregate and if the coarse aggregate is replaced with lightweight
aggregate.
Concretes made with lightweight aggregates may not be as durable or tough as those made with normal-
weight aggregates.
Larger aggregate sizes can be used if the engineer determines that the concrete's workability and
consolidation methods prevent honeycombing or voids. Aggregates must be strong, durable, and clean, as
dust or other particles can weaken the bond with cement paste. The strength and properties of the aggregate
significantly influence the concrete's strength and durability
Aggregates are integral to construction materials, providing essential properties such as strength, durability,
workability, and cost efficiency, all of which contribute to the overall success of construction projects.

1.13 High-Strength Concretes

High-Strength Concrete
➢ Characterized by its exceptionally high compressive strength, typically exceeding 6000 psi
➢ The defining feature, allowing for reduced structural dimensions and increased load-bearing
capacity.
➢ Enhanced resistance to abrasion, freeze-thaw cycles, and chemical attack.
➢ Higher stiffness leads to improved structural performance and reduced deflections.
➢ Lower water absorption and reduced susceptibility to damage from frost and de-icing salts.

Applications:

• They are particularly useful in the precast industry where their strength enables us to produce
smaller and lighter members, with consequent savings in storage, handling, shipping, and erection
costs
• Slender columns, long-span structures, and high-performance foundations.
• Long-span bridges, piers, tunnels and other critical components. -High-strength concretes are also of
advantage in constructing shear walls.

Material Composition:

• Strength increases can be made by using lower water–cement ratios, adding admixtures, and
selecting good clean and solid aggregates.
• Often includes supplementary cementitious materials like silica fume, fly ash, and ground
granulated blast furnace slag to enhance strength and durability.
• Strong, durable aggregates with low absorption rates are crucial.
• Chemical additives like superplasticizers (high-range water reducers), are added to concretes to
increase their workability. They are are used to improve workability and flowability despite low
water content.
Page 5 of 6
 • Consolidation, a process that increases the strength of concrete, when precast concrete products are
consolidated, excess water and air are squeezed out, thus producing concretes with optimum air
contents

1.14 Fiber-Reinforced Concretes

Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
➢ involves adding small fibers made of materials such as steel, glass, or synthetic polymers to the
concrete mix.
➢ is usually Portland cement concrete with either metallic or polymer fibers. The fibers are useful in
providing greater resistance to plastic shrinkage cracking and service-related cracking.
➢ Fibers are not intended as primary reinforcing. It is added during concrete production.

Types of Fiber Reinforcement:

• Steel Fiber: Enhances the concrete’s tensile strength and impact resistance.
• Glass Fiber: Offers corrosion resistance and can be used for decorative purposes.

1.15 Concrete Durability

Concrete durability is a critical consideration in construction, particularly when concrete is exposed to
challenging environmental conditions such as freeze-thaw cycles, deicing chemicals, or sulfates. These
conditions can significantly influence the required compressive strength, water-cement ratio, and air
entrainment, even beyond what is necessary to support the calculated structural loads.
Factors regarding concrete durability:

• Freeze-Thaw Resistance:
- Concrete exposed to freeze-thaw conditions must have a low water-cement ratio and appropriate
compressive strength.
- Entrained air is typically required to enhance resistance to freeze-thaw cycles by providing space
for water to expand as it freezes.
• Exposure to Deicing Chemicals:
- The use of deicers can degrade concrete, so limits are placed on the composition of concrete.
- Fly ash and other pozzolans are restricted to ensure the durability of the concrete in these
conditions.
• Sulfate Exposure:
- Sulfates in the environment can cause chemical deterioration of concrete, necessitating a lower
water-cement ratio to mitigate this risk.

The 2008 Code (Chapter 4) emphasizes these durability requirements by imposing specific limits on:
➢ Water-cement ratio
➢ Compressive strength (fᶜ)
➢ Air entrainment
Civil Engineers must assess both structural load-carrying requirements and durability considerations to
determine the stricter criteria. For example, a concrete mix may need to be adjusted to prioritize durability if
it is exposed to severe environmental stressors, even if the structural requirements are less demanding.
Proper attention to these factors ensures the long-term performance and reliability of concrete structures
under harsh environmental conditions.

Page 6 of 6