2024/8/6 21:48 Why Invent the Hyperloop?

Why Invent the Hyperloop?

Natalie Burkhard
December 11, 2014
Submitted as coursework for PH240, Stanford University, Fall 2014

Elon Musk, co-founder and CEO of SpaceX and

Tesla, first introduced the idea of the Hyperloop
in May 2013 at the All Things Digital conference
as a faster alternative to high-speed railways,
describing it as a cross between the Concorde, a
rail gun, and an Air Hockey table. [1] Reportedly,
Musk became interested in high-speed, efficient
travel after researching California's high-speed
rail project and marveling at how slow and
expensive it would be (record-setting in both
regards). In the railway's defense, affordable yet
high-speed travel poses many challenges
because it requires substantial power to Fig. 1: France's TGV. (Source:
overcome air resistance and friction. In addition, Wikimedia Commons
any transit system must compete on the grounds
of not only speed and cost but also convenience, comfort, weather immunity,
environmental impact, and safety.

Currently, the hyperloop is imaginary. This report will provide an overview of equally or less
imaginary forms of transportation for mid-range travel (e.g., between cities) and then
examine how the hyperloop would perform in comparison, following the proposed solution
of Elon Musk, for the Los Angeles to San Francisco route.

High-Speed Railways
Several of the fastest trains in the world are wheeled; they run on conventional tracks,
including the first Japanese Shinkansen train, China Railways CRH380A and the TGV Reseau
in France. [2] The Shinkansen was first to enter the mainstream and did much to popularize
the concept. All the high-speed railways run on traditional steel rails, are powered by
electric current, and have proven over decades to be remarkably safe. These trains are
popular; their convenience, price, and comfort are hard to beat, even for highways. [3]
However, these trains' top speeds are practically limited by their wheels; minor
imperfections in the wheels and tracks become magnified into intense vibrations and
accelerated wear and tear. Even without operating at exorbitant speeds, maintenance costs
are substantial. Maglev was created to succeed conventional wheeled trains and overcome
these shortcomings.

California's planned high-speed conventional railway would connect Los Angeles and San
Francisco via the Central Valley with possible extensions to link San Diego or Sacramento.
[4] Running at 220 mph, it is a far cry from being the fastest train, but the journey would

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only last 3 hours. Several sources have indicated that the manner of its construction is
unnecessarily pricey, especially in contrast to similar European or Japanese projects. [4]

Magnetic Levitation
Magnetically levitated (maglev) trains were first developed in the 1960s. [5] Maglev trains
float a short distance above their guide tracks, suspended and propelled by a magnetic
field. [6] Eliminating mechanical contact means the only friction these trains encounter is
wind resistance. This enables achieving higher speeds and acceleration or deceleration
more smoothly and quietly with reduced maintenance and ongoing costs (but greatly
elevated system cost).

Maglev railway systems and trains achieve

levitation in two ways: electromagnetic
suspension (EMS) and electrodynamic
suspension (EDS). The Chinese train uses EMS;
these have C-shaped arms that wrap around a
guideway. Electronically controlled
electromagnets in the train are attracted to the
magnetically conducting (steel) track, which pulls
the bottom of the arms up toward the track while
pushing the rest of the train above it [6]; this
method has the advantage of stationary
levitation but the need for a complicated
Fig. 2: SCMaglev at a test track in feedback system to maintain appropriate
Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. (Source: levitation height. [7] The Japanese trains use EDS:
Wikimedia Commons) above 32 km/h, the train's superconducting
magnets induce a magnetic field in the U-shaped
guideway's sides, which lifts the train from the track. [5] This system is self-correcting for
levitation height but requires wheels for low speeds. Propulsion is provided by the tracks
rather than the train, making these trains light, fast, and efficient but the tracks extremely
expensive. [6] For EDS, the propulsion coils sit behind the levitation ones; these track-
mounted coils or sheets of aluminum periodically flip polarity which propels the train. [6]

Currently, despite decades of research, only two maglev systems are in operation. One is
the world's fastest train, China's Shanghai Maglev Train, which can achieve 504 km/h but
operates at 430 km/h; the other is the Linimo in Japan which was largely built for publicity
but continues to serve a small community. [2] However, despite what these trains can
achieve, the systems are often accused of being expensive, technological publicity stunts.
[8] The power required for levitation is minimal compared with that needed to overcome air
resistance. Energy losses in maglev systems are due to aerodynamics; aerodynamic drag
increases with speed, and power increases as speed cubed. The transit system imagined to
combat this problem is the vactrain, discussed in the next section.

Vactrains
Like the hyperloop, vacuum tube trains, or vactrains, are also imaginary and are introduced
here because the hyperloop works on related concepts and is often compared to them. The
'vactrain' concept was first described by rocket pioneer Robert Goddard in the early 1900's,

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and physicist R. M. Salter published "The Very High Speed Transit System" in 1972. [9-11]
The trains Salter describes would be magnetically levitated in evacuated tubes that would
allow theoretical speeds of thousands of km/h. A vacuum-sealed high-speed transit system
theoretically eliminates or reduces the air resistance and friction obstacles of high-speed
travel. [11] A major difference between vactrains and hyperloops is the latter has an air
cushion suspension and does not use maglev. Unfortunately, constantly pulling a hard
vacuum is power-hungry, hazardous, and difficult and expensive to maintain; besides,
maglev is also quite expensive. [12] Currently, a vactrain system has not been successfully
implemented.

Musk's Hyperloop
Musk unveiled a report on the hyperloop concept in August 2013 in a blog post titled
"Hyperloop" with a detailed feasibility study linked in the "Hyperloop Alpha" report. What
follows is an overview of the system Musk envisions; full details may be found in the
feasibility study. Musk's proposed system would be inexpensive (transport 840 people an
hour, each paying $20 a ticket), incredibly fast, environmentally friendly, ready when the
customer wished to travel, and a tenth of the cost for California's high-speed railway. [9]

The hyperloop would theoretically work equally well above, on, or below ground, and has
several distinct components: a sealed pod (vehicle), parallel steel tubes, propulsion system,
and a route. [9] The basic concept resembles both a vactrain system and a maglev one: it
entails a pair of steel tubes elevated on pylons through which pods carrying 28 passengers
each coast at nearly the speed of sound on thin air cushions in air pressure one-thousandth
that at sea level to reduce wind resistance and friction. [9] The pods would be accelerated
and decelerated via magnetic linear accelerators and given period boosts using linear
induction motors- the same as in maglev trains. Because rolling resistance is eliminated and
air resistance is reduced, the pods theoretically should require little energy to sustain high
velocity. [13] A large acceleration upon entry would be required plus periodic reboosts
every 110km or so followed by long periods of coasting. [9] Thus, despite the high speeds,
the low acceleration would make it feel like riding a plane or train.

Musk hypothesizes that the passengers would experience a maximum inertial acceleration
of only 0.5g, and the pods are restricted to subsonic speeds. [9] The pods would also have
water- cooling systems to help combat the heat generated during air compression. The
main anticipated sources of energy loss are aerodynamic and bearing drag plus choked
flow. Choked flow occurs where there is a build-up of air mass leading the pod which
results in increased drag. Because power increases as speed cubed; its losses are
substantial, so it will play a dominant role in design of the route, pod design, tube,
propulsion system, and the speed of the transit system. The route would be optimized to
avoid sharp bends in order to minimize losses and preserve the comfort of the passengers;
the hyperloop would also likely have less visual and noise pollution than the planned high-
speed railway. [9]

Is the Hyperloop the Answer?

This all sounds great, but consideration of the actual implementation and construction
raises some flags. Although experts say the idea is technically feasible, proving the
technology and implementing it will be both difficult and expensive. [14] Additionally,

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economists say that even Musk's $7.5 billion price tag (or $6 billion, for the pedestrian
version) is impossible. [15]

An economist at UC Berkeley predicted the

hyperloop project would cost closer to $100
billion. [15] Historically, large infrastructure
projects almost always exceed their budget
substantially. There is the cost of construction;
materials aside, land acquisition and appeasing
the communities the transit system passes
through are quite expensive. One of the major
Fig. 3: Presumed hyperloop capsule:
factors in the high-speed railway's enormous
Air compressor in the front, passenger
budget is the necessity to acquire 1,100 different
compartment in the middle, battery
pieces of land, which costs an estimated $7
compartment at the back, air bearing
billion alone for the land between Fresno and
skis on the bottom. (Source: Wikimedia
Bakersfield, plus the demands of local
Commons)
communities along the route which require the
railway to add additional stops, viaducts, or
tunnels that are not strictly necessary. [15] Although Musk believes the hyperloop's minimal
profile and elevated tubes along the median of the Interstate 5 may eliminate much of the
cost for his 570 km hyperloop (he estimated only $1 billion for acquiring rights of way),
there are non-negligible costs associated with implementing any form of land-based
transportation nearly as long as the state of California. Although the hyperloop will
definitely save on tunnel boring, his estimates have been described as wildly optimistic by
many. [9] There are legal hurdles associated with constructing a hyperloop over someone
else's land, and foreseeably, the hyperloop would be no less immune to political pressures
than the railway despite its smaller footprint. [9] None of this even accounts for the cost of
developing and implementing a demonstrative prototype, a nontrivial task in itself.

Next, route is inconvenient: it would have two stations, one in Sylmar, Los Angeles and one
in Hayward, San Francisco. The anticipated capacity would be 840 passengers/hour, for
which there is significant demand. However, termination of the hyperloop route on the
fringes of the cities is inflexible and inconvenient; it requires passengers to use a different
transportation mode to get to and from the hyperloop stations, significantly lengthening
the total travel time and possibly the cost as well. Although trains require this as well,
adding stops is more easily implemented.

Third, maintaining even a partial vacuum is nontrivial and expensive. If a leak were to occur,
the entire tube would shut down. In addition, the extremely thin air cushion is worrisome.
The tolerances provide little factor of safety: best case, the passengers experience
uncomfortable bumps; worst case, the outcome is devastating. [13]

Fourth, the comfort of the passengers matters: people love riding the bullet trains for the
scenery, the relaxing smoothness, the efficiency, and the atmosphere. The hyperloop would
have a different hype- the concept is outrageous. However, the comfort one could expect is
questionable. The compressor fans and air bearings are likely to be extremely noisy, and
there will be no scenery at all apart from what's shown on computer screens. In addition,
should a passenger have to evacuate their bowels, receive medical attention, or get up from
their seat, etc., there is little recourse for action. Although emergencies are unlikely to occur
and require resolution within a half-hour ride, they are not impossible. Emergency

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evacuations would be nearly impossible. Musk mentioned escape hatches, but these would
likely create undue leakage. Perhaps the larger version of the hyperloop (intended to carry
cars as well as pedestrians) may accommodate these needs, but the proposed hyperloop
did not. A possible remedy for the noisiness of the fans is to implement multiple-pod
"trains" so they could draft off one another, but the other issues require more
consideration.

In summary, Musk raises some valid points concerning the proposed high- speed railway
project, but the hyperloop may not be the answer now or ever. This author would prefer to
see Musk turn his attention to maglev and make it a system as cost-effective as high-speed
railways can be but as environmentally friendly, comfortable, and awesome as his electric
cars.

© Natalie Burkhard. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work
in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All
other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.

References
[1] E. Baig, "Elon Musk Talks About High Speed 'Hyperloop'," USA Today, 31 May 13.

[2] D. Gross, "Hyperloop vs. World's Fastest Trains," CNN Tech, 7 Apr 14.

[3] "U.S. High-Speed Rail 'Myths' Debunked," CNN, 13 Apr 11.

[4] A. Nagourney, "High-Speed Train in California Is Caught in a Political Storm," New York
Times, 6 Jan 14.

[5] E. Pfanner, "Japan Pitches Its High-Speed Train With an Offer to Finance," New York
Times, 18 Nov 13.

[6] J. Powell and G. Danby, "MAGLEV: The New Mode of Transport for the 21st Century,"
21st Century Science and Technology Magazine, Summer 2013.

[7] "Ideas Coming Down the Track," The Economist, 1 Jun 13.

[8] B. Einhorn, "Don't Hold Your Breath Waiting for Japanese Maglev Trains to Arrive in the
U.S.," Bloomberg Businessweek, 19 Nov 13.

[9] "The Future of Transport: No Loopy Idea," The Economist, 17 Aug 13.

[10] D. Lavrinc, "Elon Musk Thinks He Can Get You From NY to LA in 45 Minutes," Wired
Magazine, 15 Jul 13.

[11] R. M. Salter, "The Very High Speed Transit System," Rand Corporation, P-4874, August
1972.

[12] A. Vance, "Hyperloop Physics 101 with Elon Musk," Bloomberg Businessweek, 12 Aug
13.

[13] N. Statt, "One Year Later, Hyperloop Remains a Fantasy," CNET News, 13 Aug 14.

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[14] S. Hargreaves, "Hyperloop: San Francisco to L.A. in 30 Minutes," CNN Money, 13 Aug
13.

[15] N. Bilton, "Questioning the Feasibility of Hyperloop," New York Times, 19 Aug 13.

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