Cambridge International AS & A Level

PSYCHOLOGY 9990/32
Paper 3 Specialist Options: Approaches, Issues and Debates May/June 2024
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 60

Published

This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of the
examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the
details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began, which would have
considered the acceptability of alternative answers.

Mark schemes should be read in conjunction with the question paper and the Principal Examiner Report for
Teachers.

Cambridge International will not enter into discussions about these mark schemes.

Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2024 series for most
Cambridge IGCSE, Cambridge International A and AS Level and Cambridge Pre-U components, and some
Cambridge O Level components.

This document consists of 47 printed pages.

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Generic Marking Principles

These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers. They should be applied alongside the
specific content of the mark scheme or generic level descriptions for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these
marking principles.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 1:

Marks must be awarded in line with:

 the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question
 the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question
 the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 2:

Marks awarded are always whole marks (not half marks, or other fractions).

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 3:

Marks must be awarded positively:

 marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit is given for valid answers which go beyond
the scope of the syllabus and mark scheme, referring to your Team Leader as appropriate
 marks are awarded when candidates clearly demonstrate what they know and can do
 marks are not deducted for errors
 marks are not deducted for omissions
 answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these features are specifically assessed by the
question as indicated by the mark scheme. The meaning, however, should be unambiguous.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 4:

Rules must be applied consistently, e.g. in situations where candidates have not followed instructions or in the application of generic level
descriptors.

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GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 5:

Marks should be awarded using the full range of marks defined in the mark scheme for the question (however; the use of the full mark range may
be limited according to the quality of the candidate responses seen).

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 6:

Marks awarded are based solely on the requirements as defined in the mark scheme. Marks should not be awarded with grade thresholds or
grade descriptors in mind.

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Social Science-Specific Marking Principles
(for point-based marking)

1 Components using point-based marking:

 Point marking is often used to reward knowledge, understanding and application of skills. We give credit where the candidate’s answer
shows relevant knowledge, understanding and application of skills in answering the question. We do not give credit where the answer
shows confusion.

From this it follows that we:

a DO credit answers which are worded differently from the mark scheme if they clearly convey the same meaning (unless the mark
scheme requires a specific term)
b DO credit alternative answers/examples which are not written in the mark scheme if they are correct
c DO credit answers where candidates give more than one correct answer in one prompt/numbered/scaffolded space where extended
writing is required rather than list-type answers. For example, questions that require n reasons (e.g. State two reasons …).
d DO NOT credit answers simply for using a ‘key term’ unless that is all that is required. (Check for evidence it is understood and not used
wrongly.)
e DO NOT credit answers which are obviously self-contradicting or trying to cover all possibilities
f DO NOT give further credit for what is effectively repetition of a correct point already credited unless the language itself is being tested.
This applies equally to ‘mirror statements’ (i.e. polluted/not polluted).
g DO NOT require spellings to be correct, unless this is part of the test. However spellings of syllabus terms must allow for clear and
unambiguous separation from other syllabus terms with which they may be confused (e.g. Corrasion/Corrosion).

2 Presentation of mark scheme:

 Slashes (/) or the word ‘or’ separate alternative ways of making the same point.
 Semi colons (;) bullet points (•) or figures in brackets (1) separate different points.
 Content in the answer column in brackets is for examiner information/context to clarify the marking but is not required to earn the mark
(except Accounting syllabuses where they indicate negative numbers).

3 Annotation:
 For point marking, ticks can be used to indicate correct answers and crosses can be used to indicate wrong answers. There is no direct
relationship between ticks and marks. Ticks have no defined meaning for levels of response marking.
 For levels of response marking, the level awarded should be annotated on the script.
 Other annotations will be used by examiners as agreed during standardisation, and the meaning will be understood by all examiners
who marked that paper.

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Generic levels of response marking grids

Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding

The table should be used to mark the 6 mark part (a) ‘Describe’ questions (4, 8, 12 and 16).
Annotation – One Level at the end of the response.

Level Description Marks

3  Clearly addresses the requirements of the question. (Must cover both theories/concepts, if two are required.) 5–6
 Description is accurate and detailed.
 The use of psychological terminology is accurate and appropriate.
 Demonstrates excellent understanding of the material.

2  Partially addresses the requirements of the question. May cover one theory/concept only. 3–4
 Description is sometimes accurate but lacks detail.
 The use of psychological terminology is adequate.
 Demonstrates good understanding.

1  Attempts to address the question. 1–2

 Description is largely inaccurate and/or lacks detail.
 The use of psychological terminology is limited.
 Demonstrates limited understanding of the material.

0 No creditable response. 0

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Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation

The table should be used to mark the 10 mark part (b) ‘Evaluate’ questions (4, 8, 12 and 16).

Level Description Marks

5  Detailed evaluation/discussion of the key study or the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and 9–10
treatments/therapies. Contextualised throughout.
 Analysis is evident throughout.
 A good range of issues including the named issue.
 Selection of evidence is very thorough and effective. (Must cover both theories/concepts, if two are required.)

4  Detailed evaluation/discussion of the key study or the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and 7–8
treatments/therapies. Mainly contextualised.
 Analysis is often evident.
 A range of issues including the named issue.
 Selection of evidence is thorough and effective. (Must cover both theories/concepts, if two are required.)

3  Limited evaluation/discussion of the key study or the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and 5–6
treatments/therapies. Attempt to contextualise.
 Analysis is limited.
 A limited range of issues including the named issue.
 Selection of evidence is mostly effective. (May cover one theory/concept only if two are required.)

2  Superficial evaluation/discussion of the key study or the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and 3–4
treatments/therapies.
 Little analysis.
 Limited number of issues which may not include the named issue.
 Selection of evidence is sometimes effective.

1  Basic evaluation/discussion of the key study or the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and 1–2
treatments/therapies.
 Little or no analysis of issues.
 Selection of evidence is limited.

0 No creditable response. 0

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Section A: Clinical Psychology

Question Answer Marks Guidance

1 Craig has a phobia of blood and injections. He watches someone having an 4 For full marks
injection on television, feels faint and now he is too frightened to turn on his Must reference Craig needs to do the
television. AT/tensing muscles while he is
watching TV.
Suggest how applied tension could treat Craig’s phobia so that he can watch
television. Must be in context to achieve 3-4
marks (e.g. referencing watching tv,
Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of applied tension blood/injections).
linked to treating Craig’s phobias so he can watch television.
Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of applied tension Can achieve 1 mark for tensing
linked to treating Craig’s phobia. muscles and a 2nd mark for
approximate timings of tensing/relax
Example: e.g. He should tense his muscles (1)
Craig should go to therapy to learn applied tension as he is likely to feel faint or for about 10 to 15 seconds and then
actually faint when he tries to watch television. (1) During the therapy Craig can relax for about 20 to 30 seconds. (1)
learn to tense his muscles (1) when he sees a television or tries to switch the
television on. (1) Craig should practice this several times a day and he will find that Relaxation on its own = 0 marks.
he can watch television without fainting. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

2(a) Outline what is meant by ‘nurture’, including an example from the 2 Context – behavioural explanation of
behavioural explanation of fear-related disorders. fear-related disorders.

Award 1 mark for outline of nurture. Social learning theory is

Award 1 mark for example from behavioural explanation of fear-related disorders. creditworthy as an example e.g.
learning a phobia due to copying the
Example: phobia of a parent, vicarious
Nurture is where behaviour is caused by the environment / is learned. (1) The reinforcement, role model,
behaviourist explanation of phobias suggests that a phobia is learned through observational learning.
association of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus until it produces
a conditioned response of fear. (1) Trauma on its own is not creditworthy.
Needs to outline that trauma is then
Other appropriate responses should also be credited. associated with the object, situation,
etc. that the person becomes phobic
to.

Behavioural – phobias can be learned

= 0 marks.

Just identifying a study e.g. Little

Albert or button phobia or identifying
‘classical conditioning’ on its own = 0
marks.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

2(b) Explain one weakness of the behavioural explanation of fear-related 2 Context = behavioural explanation of
disorders from the nurture side of the nature versus nurture debate. fear-related disorders.

Award 2 marks for an explanation of the weakness in context. The weakness must be a weakness of
Award 1 mark for a basic outline of weakness. behavioural explanation being due to
nurture and not a generic weakness
Weaknesses might include: of behavioural (e.g. the Little Albert
 Ignores biological/psychodynamic explanations of fear-related disorders. study is unethical).
 Impossible to determine if fear-related disorders are due to nurture or nature
(or the extent to which the disorder is due to nurture or nature). No credit to just identifying a
 Reductionist explanation suggests the factor causing the fear-related disorder weakness on its own. (e.g. it is
is the environment (pairing of NS and UCS) when some have a fear-related reductionist).
disorder without this experience.
 Suggests that anyone exposed to a negative stimulus will develop a phobia
(deterministic) when this is not the case.

Example:
One weakness of the behavioural explanation of phobias from the nurture side of
the debate is that it is difficult to determine if the phobia is due to nurture or nature.
(1) There is evidence that phobias may develop due to genetics and evidence from
the study on Little Albert that phobias can be learned. (1) It is impossible to know
whether a phobia someone has is due to their genetics/environment or a mixture
of the two. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

3 Dr Begum is a clinician who sees a patient, Joan. Joan describes how she spends her day feeling miserable and not
knowing what to do with her time. She thinks it is her own fault because she cannot decide if she wants to go out, so she
stays in. Joan wants to sleep but this is also difficult.

3(a) Suggest how Dr Begum could use the Beck depression inventory (BDI) with 4 Cap at 2 marks outlining the features
Joan. of the BDI with no link to Joan or how
it can be used with her.
Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of using BDI with
Joan. Cap at 3 marks if no reference is
Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of using BDI with made to Joan specifically (e.g. one
Joan. of her symptoms) but the response
refers to how Dr Begum can use the
Beck Depression Inventory BDI with Joan (e.g. diagnosis).

21-item multiple choice questionnaire. It is a psychometric self report that Used to diagnose Joan with
measures the severity of depression. The patient reads various statements and depression = 1 mark
answers with how much the statement applies to them on a 0-3 / 4 point scale over
the past two weeks. The statements cover issues such as self-dislike, tiredness,
etc. The higher the score, the more depressed the person is deemed to be.

e.g.
 (0) I do not feel sad.
 (1) I feel sad.
 (2) I am sad all the time and I can't snap out of it.
 (3) I am so sad or unhappy that I can't stand it.

1–10 : These ups and downs are considered normal

11–16: Mild mood disturbance
17–20: Borderline clinical depression
21–30: Moderate depression
31–40: Severe depression
over–40: Extreme depression

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

3(a) Version 2– got rid of the statements that had the same scoring.
Version 3 – changed questions on body image, hypochondria and difficulty
working and added in questions on sleep loss and appetite.

For example:
Dr Begum could use the Beck Depression Inventory with Joan where she would
read 21 statements (1) and answers on a 0-3 scale over the past week. (1) Joan
will likely give high scores to the statements about sadness, sleep, losing interest
in other people (1). She might also score highly on feeling she is worse than other
people and feeling like a failure as she thinks it is her fault. (1) A score over 21
would indicate a diagnosis of depression as this is moderate depression. (1) OR a
score over 17 might be considered for a diagnosis of depression as this is
borderline clinical depression. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

3(b) Explain one reason why the Beck depression inventory (BDI) is valid. 2 Allow reference to either ICD-11 or
DSM V.
Award 2 marks for an explanation of why BDI is valid.
Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of why BDI is valid. Objective data can be credited
where the response explains that the
Likely answers from: clinician isn’t interpreting the
 There are 21 items, so the measure is valid as measuring a wide variety of response of the patient.
symptoms of mood (affective) disorder. Includes both cognitive and physical
symptoms (e.g. sadness, sleep). No credit to identifying that the data
 There is a choice of 4 items per statement rather than yes/no responses. is objective or quantitative on its
Gives respondent opportunity to express how they feel in more depth. own.
 Good validity as covers the symptoms for depression that are in the ICD-11
such as depressed mood and loss of interest in activities. No credit to reliability.
 Good concurrent validity with Hamilton Psychiatric Scale (another measure of
depression). The BDI has a positive correlation with the HAMD.

Example:

The Beck Depression Inventory is a valid way to measure depression as it

includes 21 items so measures a wide variety of symptoms. (1) These symptoms
include both cognitive and physical symptoms so patients with different types of
symptoms (e.g. mainly cognitive) could receive a diagnosis of depression. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

4(a) Describe electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) and cognitive-behavioural 6 Award up to 4 marks where the
therapy (CBT) for the treatment and management of schizophrenia. response has described only part of
the question even if the response
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to otherwise meets the criteria for Level
this question. 3.

Candidates must discuss both electro-convulsive and cognitive behavioural For full marks for ECT need to refer to
therapy for schizophrenia, but they do not need to use the Sensky example in the seizure.
syllabus.
For full marks for CBT needs to refer
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) to how it will reduce symptom of SZ.
A general anaesthetic and a drug that relaxes muscles is given. Electrodes are
places on the scalp and a finely controlled electric current through those ECT No credit for side effects
electrodes for a very short time. This will cause a brief seizure in the brain. Can be
performed unilaterally or bilaterally. Targets positive symptoms/for severe cases of CBT – Does not treat causes of SZ or
SZ. past trauma.

Effects of ECT (if covered in response) Sensky – need a brief outline of CBT
Effects post synaptic response to central nervous system transmitters. treatment for full credit.

Used during acute episodes of psychosis =

ECT may/does increase the release of neurotransmitters such as serotonin,
dopamine, and norepinephrine.

ECT activates the dopamine system at various levels, including hormone release,
neurotransmission, and receptor binding.

Cognitive-behavioural therapy
Talking therapy that involves cognitive restructuring. Therapist and patient discuss
the goals of the therapy which are problem-focused (often 5–20 weeks). For
schizophrenia this could involve reducing delusions, ignoring hallucinations and/or
coping strategies. Will discuss issues (e.g. delusional thoughts) with therapist and
set homework to challenge thoughts during the week. For example, if the patient
has a delusion that they are being followed by spies the therapist could
acknowledge that is possible but question why spies would be interested in the
patient and suggest who else it might be (e.g. friends out for a walk). As therapy

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

4(a) progresses the patient learns how to challenge their thoughts and becomes aware
of improvements in symptoms.

e.g. Sensky, 2000

To compare cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) with non-specific befriending
interventions for patients with schizophrenia. A randomized controlled design.
Patients were allocated to one of two groups: a cognitive behavioural therapy
group and a non-specific befriending control group.

CBT is talk therapy. The therapist and patient work to replace negative thoughts
and behaviours with more accurate and functional ones. This could involve the
therapist challenging the patient’s delusions and suggesting alternative
explanations for their experience.
During CBT the patient learns to:
 Check the credibility of thoughts and perceptions.
 Ignore or tolerate unreal voices they may hear.
 Manage their response to other symptoms related to schizophrenia.

90 patients. 57 from clinics in Newcastle, Cleveland and Durham and 33 from

London. They had diagnoses of schizophrenia that had not responded to
medication. Aged 16–60 years.
 Both interventions were delivered by two experienced nurses who received
regular supervision.
 Patients were assessed by blind raters
– at baseline.
– after treatment (lasting up to 9 months).
– at a 9-month follow-up evaluation.
 Assessed on measures including the Comprehensive Psychiatric Rating
Scale, the Scale for Assessment of Negative Symptoms, plus a depression
rating scale.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

4(a) Patients continued to receive routine care throughout the study. The patients
received a mean of 19 individual treatment sessions over 9 months.
Results – both groups showed reduction in symptoms immediately following
treatment. 9 month follow up CBT group were still showing reduction in
positive/negative symptoms whereas befriending group had levelled off.

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

4(b) Evaluate ECT and CBT for the treatment and management of schizophrenia, 10
including a discussion about the idiographic versus nomothetic approach.

Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a

discussion of issues and debates.

Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this
question.

A range of issues could be used for evaluation here.

These include:

 Named issue – idiographic versus nomothetic approach

ECT follows a nomothetic approach as the general law is that all patients will
experience a seizure and this will lead to an improvement in symptoms. However,
it does have an idiographic element to it as it is recognised that it may not work for
all patients, time between treatments varies, side effects vary, etc. Cognitive-
behavioural therapy is somewhat nomothetic as it has a general law that the
therapy is beneficial due to a therapeutic relationship developing between patient
and therapist and the therapist helps the patient restructure their cognitions with a
focus on goals and problem-solving. However, it is also idiographic as the
goals/problems/cognitions will be unique for every patient.

 Experiments
For example, Sensky’s study was an experimental design with lots of controls (e.g.
length of treatment, blind raters, etc.). Good ecological validity. Random allocation
to conditions.

 Longitudinal studies
Strengths:
 Shows change in behaviour over time – Sensky investigated change in
symptoms over a 9-month period.
 Often in-depth as time to collect a lot of data.
 Holistic – develop a thorough understanding of the participant(s) in the study.
 No recall bias as the participant doesn’t have to remember past events.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

4(b) Weaknesses:
 Time-consuming/attrition.
 In some longitudinal research participants drop out of the study due to loss of
contact, unwillingness to continue, etc.
 Researcher can develop a close bond with the participant and can be less
objective in interpretation of data.

 Generalisations from findings

Sensky’s study was done on 90 patients. 57 from clinics in Newcastle, Cleveland
and Durham and 33 from London. They had diagnoses of schizophrenia that had
not responded to medication. Aged 16–60 years. Good generalisability of findings.
Can discuss issues with not generalisable to patients who have responded well to
medication but might still benefit from CBT.

 Ethics
with SZ some treatments can be forced on a patient such as ECT if they are
committed to a hospital. You cannot force anyone to participate in cognitive
treatments so they could be considered more ethical. Difficult to be sure that a
psychotic individual has given fully informed consent to any treatment. Potential
risk of physical harm from treatment with ECT. However, ethical issues of consent
and withdrawal could be balanced against benefit to the individual in helping
manage their symptoms.

Additional issues/debates candidates may include:

 Determinism versus free-will
 Quantitative data
 Subjective data
 Cost and time
 Appropriateness
 Effectiveness

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Section B: Consumer Psychology

Question Answer Marks Guidance

5 A pizza restaurant is redesigning its menu to encourage more purchases of 4 Do not credit general changes to the
mushroom pizza. menu such as making it smaller,
changing font, not making the price
Suggest two menu design features that could help to sell more mushroom too obvious unless the response
pizzas. explains why this would lead to an
increase in sales of the mushroom
For each suggestion: pizza (rather than a general increase
Award 2 marks for an outline of the application linked to the context of selling more in sales of all pizzas).
mushroom pizzas.
Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the application. Idea = 1 mark
Why increase sale/interest or memory
Likely content: of mushroom pizza = 1 mark
 Eye magnets – box around the mushroom pizza or different coloured font to
the other menu items to attract the customers attention. 1 mark max to eye magnet,
 Put the mushroom pizza at the top/bottom of the menu as research has shown top/bottom and change of name if not
that items at the beginning or end of their category options were up to twice as linked to mushroom pizza.
likely to be chosen.
 Change the name of the pizza on the menu from ‘Mushroom pizza’ to Anecdotal – no credit
something more descriptive that gives a sensory label (or
geographic/nostalgia). For example, ‘Moorish Munchy Mushroom Moment
Pizza’.

Example:
The restaurant should create an ‘eye magnet’ on their menu featuring the
mushroom pizza. (1) They should put a picture of the mushroom pizza in a box as
this will attract the customers attention to it and make them more likely to order it.
(1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

6(a) Outline what is meant by ‘individual and situational explanations’. 2 Situational means behaviour due to
the situation = 0 marks.
Award 1 mark for each outline of the terms/concepts.
Individual – behaviour due to specific
Example: features/personal choices of the
An individual explanation is the view that behaviour is caused by an innate trait / person.
due to personality. (1)
Situational explanation is the view that behaviour is caused by the environment the
person is in. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

6(b) Explain one reason why ‘overload’ in relation to personal space supports the 2 What is overload = 1 mark
situational side of the debate about individual and situational explanations. Why it is situational = 1 mark

Award 2 marks for an explanation of why overload supports situational side. Overload is where personal space is
Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of why overload supports situational side. invaded due to too much information
coming in/leads to
Example: stress/anxiety/desire to leave.
Overload occurs when personal space is invaded, and it causes stress. (1) The No credit for PS is invaded on its own.
behaviour (stress) is caused by factors in the environment/situation such as the
smell, touch and body heat of other people who invade our personal space. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

7 Customers at a supermarket frequently purchase one tin of tomatoes at a time. The manager of the supermarket wants to
encourage customers to buy multiple tins of tomatoes.

7(a) Suggest one way the manager could use her understanding of ‘point of 2 Context = encouraging purchase of
purchase decisions’ to encourage customers to purchase multiple tins of multiple tins of tomatoes.
tomatoes.
Point of purchase promotion – ‘Buy 5
Award 2 marks for an outline of the suggestion with relation to the context. and save £1’
Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the suggestion. Just state offering discount = 0 marks

Likely suggestions: 1 mark identifying way e.g. purchase

 Point of purchase promotion/multiple-unit promotion – e.g. ‘Tomatoes on sale quantity limit or outlining it.
– buy 5 cans for £2.00 1 mark link to tomatoes as an
 Purchase quantity limit - ‘Tomatoes - limit 5 per customer’ example.
 Explicit product quantity anchor in advertising ‘Tins of tomatoes – buy 5 for
your cupboard’ Do not credit explaining why this will
 Suggestive selling – customer has something suggested to them to encourage lead to purchasing multiple tins –
sales e.g. suggest a meal for dinner tonight that requires multiple tins of answers b(i).
tomatoes.

Example:
The manager could encourage their customers to buy multiple tins of tomatoes by
putting signs up near the tins of tomatoes advertising multiple-unit promotion. (1)
The signs would say ‘Tomatoes on sale – buy 5 cans for £2.00’

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

7(b)(i) For the suggestion you gave in part (a): 2 Credit responses that outline the
results of Wansink’s study as
Explain how this could change the customers’ thinking so that they evidence to show that the suggestion
purchase multiple tins of tomatoes. will work.

Award 2 marks for an explanation of why this suggestion would change customers’ Needs to be linked to suggestion from
thinking so they purchase multiple tins/cans of tomatoes. part (a) for 2 marks.
Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of why this suggestion would change
customers’ thinking so they purchase multiple tins/cans of tomatoes. Need to include what customer is
thinking and
Likely explanations: why would this lead to purchase of
 Multiple-unit promotion – customers believe that the only way to get the multiple tins for 2 marks.
discount is by purchasing multiple units or the promotion makes the customers
see a larger than normal purchase as attractive.
 Purchase quantity limit – This gives the impression that the tins of tomatoes
are scarce and that is why the store has set a limit. The customer may believe
that it could be difficult to purchase tomatoes in the future so purchases more
tins than they need.
 Product quantity anchor – This is suggestive selling and suggests to the
customer that they should consider purchasing more for their cupboard in
order to stock up. It is giving the customer a specific number of tins to
purchase which will anchor this cognition in the mind of the customer and
encourage some to purchase this number of tins.

Example
Multiple-unit promotion would encourage customers to purchase more tins of
tomatoes as it is suggesting to the customer that a larger than normal purchase is
attractive. (1) The customer believes they are getting a discount by purchasing 5
tins rather than 1 so many of the customers will want this discount and purchase
more tins. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

7(b)(ii) For the suggestion you gave in part (a): 2 Individual differences/may not work for
everyone is creditworthy.
Explain one problem with this suggestion.

Award 2 marks for an explanation of the problem with suggestion from 7(a).
Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the problem with suggestion from 7(a).

Likely problems:
 Customers may feel manipulated/tricked by the supermarket and shop
elsewhere.
 In order to afford the multiple tins, the customer may not purchase other items
so the overall sales at the supermarket will not increase.
 Customers can use self-generated (internal) anchors such as having a fixed
budget/shopping list for the shopping and no promotion/suggestive selling will
convince the customer to purchase more tins of tomatoes.
 The customer will look at the individual price of a tins of tomatoes and realise
they are not saving any money so they do not purchase multiple tins.

Example:
One problem with multiple unit promotions is it is not possible to know if the
customer was confused by the promotion and thought they had to purchase 5 tins
in order to get the discount. (1) If this isn’t true and the discount is available when
purchasing 1 tin, the customer may realise this when they are next shopping. They
may feel manipulated by the supermarket and start shopping elsewhere. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

8(a) Describe the study by North et al. (2003) on musical style and restaurant 6 For full marks has to include:
customers’ spending.  Sample or detail of the restaurant
 3 Conditions
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to  Result about customer spending
this question. with reference to type of music.

The response must describe the key study.

Details may include:

Aim: To investigate the effect different types of music might have on restaurant
customer spending.

Sample: Opportunity sampling – 393 people, approximately equal numbers of

male and female. 142 were exposed to the pop music condition, 120 to the
classical and 131 to no music.

Method – Field experiment in upmarket/expensive British restaurant with

independent measures design.

Procedure – Classical, pop and no music were played over 3 weeks/18 evenings
(closed on Sundays). Each conditioned counter-balanced by the day of the week.
Each type of music played on six different days over the 3 weeks. Mean spend per
table was calculated and compared as well as the total time spent in the
restaurant. Time spent in restaurant was taken into account/controlled for when
calculating the results for the three conditions as the longer the customer is in the
restaurant, it is likely their spend will increase.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

8(a) Results: total spend: classical music £32.51; pop music £29.46; no music £29.73.
Therefore, playing background classical music leads to increased spending on
food and drink.
Additionally: (i) There was very little difference in the amount spent on main course
or dessert. (ii) The no music condition resulted in greatest spending on wine alone
(not what was expected) but if ‘bar’ (all drinks) and ‘wine’ are put together, then
spending is the greatest for classical music. (iii) The greatest difference was
spending on coffee: classical £1.06, pop £0.80 and no music £0.53. (iv) Also,
significant difference in spending on starters: classical £4.92, pop £4.04 and no
music £3.93.

Conclusion: the playing of background music influences customer spending in a

restaurant with classical music resulting in the greatest amount spent per person.

Example:

 Opportunity sample (393)

 3 conditions (pop, classical, no music)
 3 weeks at upmarket British restaurant
 Measured amount spent and time in restaurant
 Classical music had higher spend than pop music/no music
 Greatest spend in classical for all drinks
 Greatest spend in classical for coffee

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

8(b) Evaluate this study by North et al., including a discussion about ecological 10
validity.

Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a

discussion of issues and debates.

Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this
question.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation.

These include:

 Named issue – ecological validity

The North et al. study has good ecological validity as it is conducted in the natural
environment as a field experiment in a restaurant so the purchasing behaviour by
the customers would be natural and it is typical to have music being played when
you are eating dinner. In addition, classical/pop music/no music are played in
restaurants, so this is an everyday life experience. However, this does mean it has
less control of extraneous variables (e.g. whether the restaurant is busy on one
day and relatively quiet on another). If the restaurant is very busy, service may be
slower and therefore diners might not order dessert. Also they did not appear to
get consent or debrief the participants. However, this is not a harmful study as the
participants are just being monitored on how much they have spent, and
confidentiality is maintained.

 Individual and situational explanations

The findings would suggest the specific situation the person is in (classical music
resulting in more spending than pop music or no music) rather than something that
is ‘individual’. However, each individual diner will choose the food based on their
preferences, budget for the meal, whether it is a special occasion, etc. Therefore,
the study does show the situational factor (music) that is influencing the
participant, but it is not suggesting that individual factors are irrelevant.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

8(b)  Reductionism versus holism

The study/conclusions reached can be considered to be holistic as North et al.
outlines three explanations for the behaviour of the diners (synergy, classical
music preferred, classical music promoting upmarket atmosphere – this third
conclusion is considered to be the most likely based on previous research). It
could also be considered somewhat reductionist as very little qualitative data
which could have shed some light on the conclusions reached by North et al. (e.g.
if classical music was preferred).

 Determinism versus free-will

The findings of the study suggest that increased spending behaviour determined
by the music playing in the background in the environment (environmental
determinism). The findings of this study suggest that it is. However, clearly the
diners have free-will as they choose their food based on preferences, budget, etc.
It is likely that music influenced consumer spending but was not at the exclusion of
free-will (i.e. soft, not hard determinism).

 Generalisations from findings

A large number of participants with a mix of genders means the results can be
generalised. However, as it was an expensive restaurant it is likely the diners have
a high disposable income. It was one restaurant in one city in the UK which limits
generalisability of the findings.

 Validity
Good validity as the participants were unaware they were in a study, so their
spending was natural. The data collected was mainly quantitative (amount spent)
which is objective and improves validity. However, very little qualitative data was
collected which lowers validity due to the lack of depth in the results to find out
other reasons for the participants spending.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

8(b) Additional issues candidates may include:

 Reliability
 Ethics
 Quantitative and qualitative data
 Controls
 Objective data

Note – only credit these evaluation points if not discussed elsewhere in the
response.

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Section C: Health Psychology

Question Answer Marks Guidance

9 Dr Munsi is concerned that some of her elderly patients with heart disease 4 Needs to refer to improve
do not take their medication every day. Dr Munsi uses the Health Belief adherence/reduce non-adherence to
Model to design a leaflet to reduce non-adherence in her elderly patients. taking medication every day.

Suggest what Dr Munsi could include in her leaflet to reduce non-adherence If no context max 2 marks.
in the elderly patients, using the Health Belief Model.
Context = elderly patients and/or heart
Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of Health Belief disease and/or taking medication
Model linked to helping Dr Munsi reduce non-adherence. every day.
Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of Health Belief
Model linked to helping Dr Munsi reduce non-adherence. 1 or more suggestions for the leaflet is
allowed.
Likely suggestions for leaflet:
 Outline heart disease including short and long term symptoms and outcomes Do not allow ideas that are linked to
(increases knowledge of the disease). leading to high fear arousal.
 Opening hours of clinic and pharmacy with transport links so that it is easy for Ideas linked to low fear arousal are
the elderly patient to attend the clinic/collect their medication (reduces barriers okay only when clearly linked to HBM.
to access).
 Typical medications for heart disease and what the medication does to
improve the heart (improves perception of benefits of the medication).
 Explain the possible side effects and likelihood of experiencing these side
effects (knowledge of perceived cost/negative of medication).
 Space for Dr Munsi to write the individual patient's medication and how to take
it (personalised information – could increase patient satisfaction with Dr
Munsi/the clinic).
 Provide leaflet in large font size so easy for elderly patients to read (specific to
the demographic)

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

9 Example:
Dr Munsi should design her leaflet about heart disease to include information on
the short term and long term symptoms of the disease. (1) The health belief model
suggests that knowledge about the disease increases the likelihood that patients
will adhere to taking their medication as they understand the consequences of
heart disease without medication. (1) She could also include the side effects of the
medication and the likelihood of experiencing each side effect. (1) This would give
her patients the correct knowledge of the negatives of the medication. (1) As the
positive reduction in symptoms and protecting the heart in the long term is known
due to the leaflet, the positives outweigh the costs and patients should decide to
take the medication. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

10(a) Outline what is meant by ‘application to everyday life’, including a measure 2 Context = measure of non-adherence
of non-adherence as an example. Also accept the extent to which
something can be applied in the real
Award 2 marks for an outline of the term/concept in the context. world for definition.
Award 1 mark each for a basic outline of the term/concept.
Measures:
Example:  clinical interviews and semi-
The extent to which something has a practical application/whether it is useful. (1) structured interviews
For example, blood and urine samples have good practical applications as they  pill counting and medication
will indicate to the practitioner if the patient is following their medical regime or if dispensers e.g. TrackCap
the medical regime is working. (1)  blood and urine sample

Other appropriate responses should also be credited. Identifying what the measure is e.g.
Trackcap = 0 marks

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

10(b) Explain one problem with measuring non-adherence in everyday life. 2 Context = measure of non-adherence.

Award 2 marks for an explanation of the problem in context. Measures:

Award 1 mark for a basic outline of problem.  clinical interviews and semi-
structured interviews
Problems might include:  pill counting and medication
 Patient not being honest (clinical interviews and semi-structured interviews). dispensers e.g. TrackCap
 Patient may not remember if they have fully adhered to the medical advice.  blood and urine sample
 Blood/urine tests are not available to test all types of medical conditions and
therefore rely on self-report or tracking pill usage.
 Patient may have removed medication from bottle/Track cap bottle but then
not taken it.

Example:
One problem with measuring non-adherence in everyday life is that it is not
possible to do an objective test for all medical conditions so the practitioner must
rely on self-report. (1) A patient may feel embarrassed that they haven’t fully
followed the treatment and therefore lie to their practitioner that they have adhered
(therefore measure is less valid). (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

11 Zainab has two daughters who are 8 and 17 years old. Zainab wants to help her daughters to continue to experience good
mental health. She reads a book about positive psychology about the pleasant life, the good life and the meaningful life.

11(a)(i) Suggest one way Zainab could encourage her 8-year-old daughter to have a 2 Credit any suggestion that involve
‘pleasant life’. daily pleasures.

For suggested way: Do not credit suggestions that imply

Award 2 marks for a suggestion of the way to encourage ‘pleasant life’. the following:
Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the way to encourage ‘pleasant life’.
Good life – Having gratitude, knowing
Pleasant life – Enjoying daily pleasures in life; doing things you enjoy. For strengths and weaknesses, feeling
example, eating good food, doing activities you enjoy (reading, walks, sport, you have experienced more positive
watching films, games, etc.). Positive emotions. than negative things in your life.
Feeling your life has been well lived.
For example: Positive connections to other people
(e.g. good relationships with others),
Zainab could encourage her 8-year-old daughter to lead a ‘pleasant life’ by doing satisfying work and enjoyable
things which bring about pleasure every day. (1) For example, she could suggest activities outside of work.
that her daughter does a pleasurable activity every day when she gets home from
school such as playing a game she enjoys. (1) Meaningful life – Having a purpose in
your life that is greater than oneself.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited. Being involved in service to others
(e.g. charitable work/donations,
altruistic behaviour).

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

11(a)(ii) Suggest one way Zainab could encourage her 17-year-old daughter to have a 2 Credit any suggestion that help to
‘meaningful life’. create a meaningful life.

For suggested way: Do not credit suggestions that imply

Award 2 marks for a suggestion of the way to encourage ‘meaningful life’. the following:
Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the way to encourage ‘meaningful life’.
Good life – see above.
Meaningful life – Having a purpose in your life that is greater than oneself. Being
involved in service to others (e.g. charitable work/donations, altruistic behaviour). Pleasant life - Enjoying daily
Positive institutions such as strong family and democracy (within the family). pleasures in life; doing things you
Developing positive connections with others. enjoy. For example, eating good food,
doing activities you enjoy (reading,
For example: walks, sport, watching films, games,
Zainab could encourage her 17-year-old daughter to lead a ‘meaningful life’ by etc.).
doing things which involve service to others/gives her life purpose. (1) For
example, Zainab could help her daughter to find a charity where she could
volunteer some of her time each week. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

11(b) Explain one reason why using positive psychology might not lead to an 2 Zainab’s daughters not doing positive
improvement in mental health for Zainab’s daughters. psychology at all (e.g. because they
don’t want to) = 0 marks
Award 2 marks for an explanation of why positive psychology might not lead to
improvement. Can credit that trying to do positive
Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of why positive psychology might not lead to psychology but they don’t believe in it,
improvement. doesn’t suit their personality, not
taking it seriously, etc.
Reasons may include:
 Her daughters could have a mental health problem which needs medical
support (such as taking anti-depressants).
 Everyone has ‘bad days’/periods in our lives which are very stressful where no
amount of doing things you enjoy helps.
 Trying to engage in activities you enjoy/service to others could result in feeling
stressed that you should be doing something.
 Spending time on activities you enjoy/charitable work means her daughters
will have less time to spend on things such as schoolwork, seeing friends, a
part-time job. Having less time for these activities may cause stress and
worry.
 Mental health is already very good.
 Mental health is difficult to measure so hard to know if the activities that both
daughters are involved with have improved their mood.

Example:
Zainab’s daughters might be experiencing stress in their lives due to having a lot of
schoolwork/exams approaching. (1) Doing the meaningful/pleasant life activities
could take time away from doing schoolwork and therefore Zainab’s daughters
would experience a decrease in mental health due to the stress this creates. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

12(a) Describe a study investigating reasons for delay in seeking treatment and a 6 Award up to 4 marks where the
study on Munchausen syndrome. response has described only part of
the question even if the response
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to otherwise meets the criteria for
this question. Level 3.

Candidates must describe a study for both reasons for delay in seeking treatment
and Munchausen, but they do not need to use the Safer et al. or Aleem and Ajarim
studies.

Likely responses:
Any studies that investigate reasons for delay in seeking treatment and
Munchausen are creditworthy.

Delay in seeking treatment (Safer, 1979)

Study done in waiting room of 4 clinics of large city hospital. 93 patients (38m, 55f)
average age 44. Patients with severe illness were excluded. Most patients had
‘mild’ complaints, 45-minute interview and questionnaire interviewed (questions
asked about types of delay= DV and predictors of delay = IV). Measured total
delay (made up of appraisal, illness and utilisation). Results found there are three
stages/types of delay: appraisal, illness and utilisation. A variety of factors predict
the length of the delay for each of the three stages. For example, for appraisal –
awareness and evaluation of symptoms – well defined and specific shortened
appraisal delay/attempting home remedies. For illness delay – whether the illness
is perceived as mild or severe, beliefs about benefits/discomfort of treatment. For
utilisation delay – effort to make and attend appointment, costs of treatment,
complications in life setting that might prevent seeking treatment (e.g. availability
of childcare). Concluded that a wide variety of factors affect total delay in seeking
treatment. Strong sensory signals (e.g. high levels of pain) led to shorter delays.
The more patients researched their illness, the longer the delay.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

12(a) Munchausen syndrome (Aleem and Ajarim, 1995)

Munchausen's syndrome is a psychological disorder where someone pretends to
be ill or deliberately produces symptoms of illness in themselves. Aleem and
Ajarim report a case study of a 22 year old woman with Munchausen who reported
with swelling on her body. She had been seen on numerous occasions in the
hospital since she was 17 and given various treatments. Suspicions were raised
by the hospital when it was felt that the ailments she had did not appear to have a
physical cause. Upon admittance to the psychiatric ward the nursing staff
eventually found a needle with faecal material in it. Believed the patient had
injected this into her breast tissue. The patient left the hospital when confronted
after becoming very angry and did not return again.

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

12(b) Evaluate a study investigating reasons for delay in seeking treatment and a 10 Credit evaluation of studies used in
study on Munchausen syndrome, including a discussion about the case 12(a).
study method.

Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a

discussion of issues and debates.

Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this
question.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation.

Likely evaluation points:

 Named issue – case study method
Strengths – Detailed results often qualitative data; insight into someone with a
unique experience – gives deep understanding of disorder, may lead to further
research into a topic.
Weaknesses – generalisations from findings, researcher bias, evaluation of
qualitative data.

 Reductionism versus holism

Both Safer et al. and Aleem and Ajarim are fairly holistic. The reasons for total
delay in seeking treatment given at various levels of explanation including both
physical sensations to cognitive appraisals. Aleem and Ajarim is an in-depth
analysis of a case of Munchausen with a focus on potential childhood trauma
leading to the disorder. Most of the focus of the study is on the symptoms and
diagnosis of the disorder.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

12(b)  Idiographic and nomothetic

Safer et al can be seen from both approaches. The appraisal delay model is
nomothetic as it can applied to anyone who delays seeking treatment. The specific
factors influencing each stage of the delay is somewhat nomothetic as severity of
symptoms will affect appraisal delay. This is also idiographic as the experience of
appraisal delay and the specific factors affecting each individual who experiences
delay will be unique to the person and will also change with each experience of ill
health. Aleem and Ajarim is also both nomothetic (general laws – symptoms of
Munchausen) and idiographic as it is a case study and looks at the unique
presentation of Munchausen in this patient.

 Interviews
Safer et al. conducted interviews. Aleem and Ajarim – patient had psychiatric
consultation so can be considered an interview.
Strengths – allows for an unstructured element to ask follow-up questions, can
build a relationship with the participant/patient which can lead to more valid data,
often collect qualitative data.
Weaknesses – demand characteristics/social desirability; participant/patient may
feel uncomfortable in a face-to-face setting so might not tell the truth or reveal
everything to the person doing the interview – less valid, interviewer bias.

 Generalisations from findings

Evaluation of the samples used in the studies – for example, Safer study 93
patients (38 males and 55 females), average age 44 from 4 clinics in large inner-
city hospital. Most had ‘mild’ complaints. Aleen and Ajarim study – 22-year-old
single female.

Additional issues candidates may include:

 Application to everyday life
 Evaluation of quantitative and/or qualitative data
 Reliability
 Validity

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Section D: Organisational Psychology

Question Answer Marks Guidance

13 Arjun is being bullied at work by his manager, Tia. When Arjun is interviewed 4 No context = max 2 marks.
about the bullying, he says it started when Tia was promoted to manager. Tia
can become stressed at work and this increases the bullying. Arjun worries 1 or more suggestion.
about the bullying all the time and thinks that Tia is encouraging his team to
talk to others about him.

Suggest why Tia is bullying Arjun, using your knowledge of the causes of
bullying at work.

Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the causes of
bullying linked to suggesting why Tia is bullying Arjun.
Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the causes of
bullying linked to suggesting why Tia is bullying Arjun.

Suggested reasons for bullying:

Individual/personality
The bully
 Competition/status for jobs
 Feelings of envy/uncertainty over own ability
 The victim
 Personality provokes aggression in others
 Any of sensitive, suspicious, angry, lower self-esteem and anxious in social
situations.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

13 The workplace/situation
 Poor design
 Poor leadership behaviour
 Socially exposed victim
 Low moral standards
 Low morale

Example:
Bullying is caused by personality and situational factors. (1) One situational factor
is that Tia has become Arjun’s manager, and this might have caused predatory
bullying where Tia has power over Arjun. (1) In addition, Tia is displacing her
stress onto Arjun in the form of bullying rather than dealing with her work stress.
(1) Arjun appears to have a personality that may make him more prone to bullying,
such as being suspicious, when he says he thinks his team is talking about him.
(1) Or Arjun is anxious in social settings so notices subtle changes in others’
behaviours which he has interpreted as talking about him behind his back. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

14(a) Outline Hertzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction. 2 No credit for stating it has two factors
affecting satisfaction on its own.
Award 2 marks for an outline of the term/concept.
Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the term/concept.

Example:
Satisfaction at work arises from two factors – hygiene and motivators. (1)
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction work independently of each other. (1) Motivators
produce job satisfaction and hygiene factors prevent job dissatisfaction (1)
Motivators include rewarding work, responsibility. (1) Hygiene factors include job
security, salary, working conditions. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

14(b) Explain why Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction can be applied 2
to different cultures.

Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of concept in context.

Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of concept in context.

Likely explanations:
 Motivators and hygiene factors will be specific to the individual organisation
and country/countries that it operates within.
 A multinational company can adjust the motivators and hygiene factors it
offers depending on the location of their offices/factory/etc.
 Different cultures will value different motivators and hygiene factors but the
effect on job satisfaction is the same across cultures.

Example:
One reason is that different cultures will value different motivator and hygiene
factors.(1) For example, allowing employees time off for religious festivals could be
an important hygiene in some countries and therefore offered to employees in this
country. Therefore the two factor theory of job satisfaction can be tailored to
different cultures. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

15(a) Sally manages the production line of a toy factory. A recent survey of her 4 Allow flexible working hours/shiftwork.
employees has shown that they are not satisfied with their jobs.
For full marks needs to have some
Suggest two job design techniques that Sally could use with her employees reference to how suggestion would
to improve their job satisfaction. lead to job satisfaction (e.g. the work
would be more interesting, less
Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the two job boring, more varied, – implies
design techniques that Sally could use with her employees to improve their job increased satisfaction).
satisfaction.
Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of how job design Needs some contextualisation for 4
technique(s) that Sally could use with her employees to improve their job marks (e.g. toy factory, shop floor,
satisfaction. production line).

Likely answers: Identification of two job design

 Rotation – tasks within the employee’s current role are regularly changed. techniques (or more) = 1 mark max.
 Enrichment – greater variety of tasks given.
 Enlargement – horizontal (more tasks to do at same level) / vertical (higher
level tasks and/or addition of responsibility for decision making / move across
different levels of organisation).

Example
Sally could first use job rotation where the tasks within the employee’s current role
on the toy factory production line are regularly changed. (1) This might improve job
satisfaction as the employees get more variety and feel less bored on the
production line. (1) Sally could also use job enlargement where she asks her
employees to take on more responsibility such as setting the work rota for the
production line. (1) This could improve satisfaction because the employees will feel
that they have control over their working hours. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

15(b) For one of the job design techniques you suggested in part (a): 2 Context is not required.

Explain one weakness of this job design technique.

Award 2 marks for an explanation of the weakness.

Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the weakness.

Weaknesses may include:

 Employees may require training in order to take on new responsibilities/roles
which is time-consuming/costly.
 New jobs/tasks may lead to health and safety issues especially on a
production line where accidents can happen.
 May still not lead to increased job satisfaction. Many production line jobs are
not interesting and require the employee to do very repetitive tasks while
maintaining a high level of focus.
 Productivity may reduce in the short term as employees adjust to new
jobs/tasks which costs the organisation money.

Example:
If Sally has her team take on new responsibilities and they are put in charge of
doing the shift rota each week this may be done unfairly. (1) The employee in
charge of this might give themselves and those in the team that are their
friends/closest co-workers the ‘best’ shifts which could lead to resentment in the
rest of the team and a lowering in job satisfaction. (1)

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

16(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about: 6 Award up to 4 marks where the
 token economy used to reduce accidents at work, and response has described only part of
 monitoring accidents and risk events. the question even if the response
otherwise meets the criteria for Level
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to 3.
this question.

Candidates must discuss both token economies and monitoring accidents and risk
events, but do not need to use the examples of Fox et al. and Swat study from the
syllabus.

Reducing accidents at work:

Token economies are used to reduce accidents in the workplace. Tokens are no
value stamps/chips that can be collected as a reward whenever an employee or
groups of employees do not have any accidents/follow safety procedures. The
tokens are a positive reinforcement for the safety behaviour. Workers can save up
their tokens to purchase things at a shop/online store. Can be items of low value
(snacks) or high value (BBQ).

Fox et al., 1987

Study carried out in two open-pit mines. Token economy introduced where the
workers were awarded stamps for working without lost-time injuries (and in a
group without lost-time injury), no equipment-damaging accidents and behaviour
that prevented an accident/injury. Stamps could be exchanged for 1000s of items
at various stores. Found there was a large reduction in the number of days lost
because of injuries, the number of lost time injuries and the costs of accidents and
injuries. The reduction in costs far outweighed the cost of the token economies. No
deaths or permanent injuries were reported at one of the mines (Navajo Mine)
used in the study. These reductions lasted for a number of years. Anecdotal
evidence suggests the workers and their families really appreciated the rewards
obtained from the token economies system (after an early period of scepticism).
Therefore, it was felt morale had improved at both mines used in the study.

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16(a) Monitoring accidents and risk events

Important to monitor accidents and classify the type of accident and its cause in
order to put into place procedures (or correct procedures that are leading to
accidents) that will lead to fewer accidents. Monitoring accidents that lead to minor
injuries can help to prevent more serious accidents in the future. Often serious
accidents are preceded by a number of more minor accidents. Many accidents are
caused by poor housekeeping so recording these types of accidents is very
important so that changes to operational procedures can be implemented to
reduce these types of accidents in the future. Accidents should be recorded in
terms of the circumstances in which they occurred (e.g. what type of accident was
it ‘slip and fall’ and what was the cause/circumstance of this accident e.g. manual
accident).

Swat (1997)

3 year study which aimed to create a useful way of recording and reducing
accidents at work. 4 industrial plants in Lodz, Poland were used as sample with
2964 employees. All of the plants were old. 83 accidents were analysed in terms of
frequency, severity and direct and indirect causes. Data collected via collective
accident reports provided by safety supervisors, the researcher’s investigation of
individual accident protocols, and interviews with the safety supervisors and line
managers. 45.8% of accidents were due to violation of housekeeping. Large
differences in types of accidents in the 4 plants. For example, fall and slip was low
in the furniture plant but high in the meat processing plant. Additional study in 1994
at a meat processing plant found that 95% of accidents were not reported.
Conclusions – accidents should be recorded according to circumstances in which
they occur and the type of accident needs to be recorded. Minor injuries,
especially those requiring first aid should be recorded. Housekeeping controls
should be incorporated into safety monitoring system as these types of accidents
are the most common. 4 causes of accidents – insufficient organisation, poor
workplace organisation, technical factors and worker inadvertence (individual error
of the worker). Accidents due to poor housekeeping are easy to resolve as due to
safety management faults which can be fixed. In factories with highest accident
rates, poor operating factors were higher. Again, this is something which can be
resolved/fixed.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

16(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about: 10

 token economy used to reduce accidents at work, and
 monitoring accidents and risk events,
including a discussion about objective and subjective data.

Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a

discussion of issues and debates.

Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this
question.
Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation.

These include:

 Named issue – objective and subjective data

Data collected in both Fox et al. and Swat studies were somewhat objective as it is
the records the plants/mines have on the accidents in the workplace. The
organisations will have procedures in place for recording accidents and this will be
done in a systematic way. However, the data is also subjective as it requires the
employee to record the accident (and it has been noted in Swat study that many
accidents are not recorded) as well as record it accurately from the employee's
memory of the accident which is open to inaccuracy and social desirability.

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Question Answer Marks Guidance

16(b)  Individual and situational explanations

These both offer situational explanations as it is the token economy which is
reducing the accidents at work. The positive reinforcement in the environment is
what is causing the reduction in accidents. There will be an individual element as
the type of products that the tokens can be exchanged for will be valued by some
employees more than others. Also certain types of jobs may lead to more
accidents and some employees are more accident prone than others. Swat
identified many situational factors that lead to increased accidents (e.g. poor
procedures for housekeeping, not recording minor accidents and correcting what
led to these accidents to prevent more serious accidents in the future).

 Idiographic versus nomothetic

Both provide general laws of behaviour (accidents). Token economies lead to
reduction in accidents and recording of type and situation that led to accident can
lead to changes in procedures in the workplace and therefore prevent accidents in
future.

Longitudinal studies
Evaluation of this method used by both Fox et al. and Swat.

 Generalisations from findings

Evaluation of samples used – two open pit mines in Fox et al. and four plants (five
including follow up study) in Poland. Large sample sizes but issues with
generalising to other types of organisations and other cultures.

Additional issues/debates candidates may include:

 Ethics
 Validity
 Reliability
 Applications to everyday life
 Determinism versus free will

Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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