PHY 101: General Physics I (Mechanics) (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcome
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. identify and deduce the physical quantities and their units;
2. differentiate between vectors and scalars;
3. describe and evaluate motion of systems on the basis of the fundamental laws of mechanics;
4. apply Newton’s laws to describe and solve simple problems of motion;
5. evaluate work, energy, velocity, momentum, acceleration, and torque of moving or rotating objects;
6. explain and apply the principles of conservation of energy, linear and angular momentum;
7. describe the laws governing motion under gravity; and
8. explain motion under gravity and quantitatively determine behaviour of objects moving under gravity.

Course Contents
Space and time. Units and dimension. Vectors and scalars. Differentiation of vectors (displacement, velocity
and acceleration). Kinematics. Newton laws of motion (Inertial frames, impulse, force and action at a
distance, momentum conservation). Relative motion. Application of Newtonian mechanics. Equations of
motion. Conservation principles in physics (conservative forces, conservation of linear momentum, kinetic
energy and work, potential energy). System of particles. Centre of mass. Rotational motion (torque, vector
product, moment, rotation of coordinate axes and angular momentum). Coordinate systems. Polar
coordinates. Conservation of angular momentum. Circular motion. Moments of inertia (gyroscopes, and
precession). Gravitation (Newton’s Law of Gravitation, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, gravitational
potential energy, escape velocity, satellites motion and orbits).

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 GRAVITATION
Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. If the particles have masses m1 and m2 and are separated by a distance
r, the law of gravitation can be stated as follows:
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹 ∝
𝑟
or
𝐹 = (1)
where G is a fundamental physical constant called the gravitational constant. G can be expressed in N m2kg-2
and careful measurement shows that G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2kg-2. Since 1 N = 1 kg m s-2, the units of G can
also be expressed (in fundamental SI units) as m3kg-1s-2.
In vector form, the law of gravitation can be written as
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂ (2)
According to Newton’s third law of motion, the force exerted on particle 1 by particle 2, designated 𝐹⃗ is
equal in magnitude to 𝐹⃗ and in opposite direction. That is 𝐹⃗ = −𝐹⃗
Gravitational field strength (g) at a point is the gravitational force per unit mass at that point. It is a vector
and its SI unit is N kg-1.
By definition:
𝑔=
Substitute equation (1), we have:
𝑔= ÷𝑚 = (3)
where M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field.

Free-Fall Acceleration
The weight of a body is the total gravitational force exerted on the body by all other bodies in the universe.
We can neglect all other gravitational forces when the body is near the surface of the Earth and consider the
weight as just the Earth’s gravitational attraction.
If the Earth is considered as a spherically symmetric body with radius Re and mass Me, the weight W of a
small body of mass m at the Earth’s surface is:

𝑊=𝐹 = (4)

𝐺𝑀 𝑚
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑅

Since W = mg

𝑔= (5)

Equation (5) is the expression for the free-fall acceleration near the Earth’s surface. This acceleration is
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 independent of the mass m of the body and this can also be shown in equation (5).
The gravitational force obeys an inverse-square law at points outside the Earth, that is , 𝑔 ∝ 1 𝑟
, where r is the distance to the centre of the Earth.
Inside the Earth, the value of g is not inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the centre but
varies linearly with the distance from the centre (line OP) as shown in figure 1. Note that g, is the value on
the surface of the Earth.

Let us now consider an object of mass m located at a distance h above the Earth’s surface or a distance r
from the Earth’s centre, where r = Re + h.

Figure 1: Variation of g with r (R is the radius of the Earth)

The magnitude of the gravitational force acting on this object is:

𝐺𝑀 𝑚 𝐺𝑀 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = =
𝑟 (𝑅 + ℎ)
which gives:
𝑔 = ( ℎ)
(6)
Thus it follows that g decreases with increasing altitude.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Kepler’s discovered three empirical laws that accurately describe the motions of the planets. Kepler’s laws
state that:
1. Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the Sun at a focus of the ellipse.
2. The line joining the Sun and the other planets sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets around the sun is proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the Sun; that is, 𝑇 ∝ 𝑟 .

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Newton discovered that Kepler’s laws can be derived; they are consequences of Newton’s laws of motion
and the law of gravitation. Let us see how Kepler’s third law arises for instance.
Consider a planet of mass mp with a circular orbit around the Sun of mass Ms, Centripetal force is supplied
by the force of the force of gravity, that is

= (7)

Then,
𝐺𝑀
𝑣=
𝑟
where r is the average distance of the planet from the Sun.
But:

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟
𝑣= =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇

So:

= (8)

Squaring both sides and solving for T2 gives:

4𝜋 𝑟 𝐺𝑀
=
𝑇 𝑟

4𝜋
𝑇 = 𝑟
𝐺𝑀

or

𝑇 = 𝑘𝑟 (9)
Gravitational potential energy
Consider a particle of mass m displaced between two points P and Q above the Earth’s surface. The change
in the gravitational potential energy associated with the displacement is defined as the negative of the work
done by the gravitational force during displacement:
∆𝑈 = 𝑈 − 𝑈 = − ∫ 𝐹(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 (10)
The gravitational force can be expressed as (from equation (4)):
𝐺𝑀 𝑚
𝐹(𝑟) = −
𝑟
Where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive.
Hence equation (10) becomes:

1 1
𝑈 − 𝑈 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑚 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑚 −
𝑟 𝑟

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𝑈 − 𝑈 = −𝐺𝑀 𝑚 − (11)

Taking the point 𝑟 = ∞ (i.e. Ui = 0) as the reference point, we obtain the important result:

𝑈= − (12)

This expression (equation (12)) is valid provided that 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 . The result is not valid for particles inside the
Earth, where r < Re. If the mass is at an altitude h above the Earth’s surface, then:

𝑈= − ℎ
(13)

Equation (13) can be applied for any two particles. The gravitational potential energy for any pair of
particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is:

𝑈= − (14)

This expression shows that the gravitational potential energy for any pair of particles varies as 1/r, wheras
the force between the varies as 1/r2.

If three or more particles are brought close to one another, the total gravitational potential energy is the sum
all over the particles. Consider for example three particles of masses m1, m2 and m3 in a system. The total
gravitational potential energy is:

𝑈 = 𝑈 +𝑈 +𝑈

𝑈 = −𝐺 + + (15)

Escape velocity

Suppose an object of mass m is projected from Earth’s surface at point P with an initial speed vesc so that it
just escapes from the gravitational influence of the Earth. Let vesc be the escape speed which is the minimum
speed the object must have at the Earth’s surface in order to escape from the influence of the Earth’s
gravitational attraction. From definition:
Work done W = m x potential difference between infinity and point P
𝑊 =𝑚𝑥 (16)
We have kinetic energy of object as:
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑥 (17)

∴𝑣 = (18)
From equation (5), 𝑔𝑅 = 𝐺𝑀 , substitute into equation (18) we have:
∴ 𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑅 (19)
If g = 9.8 ms-2 and Re = 6.4 x 106 m then:
𝑣 = 2 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 6.4 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑠 = 11.2 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑠

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With an initial velocity of about 11 x 103 ms-1, an object or rocket can completely escape from the
gravitational attraction of the Earth.

Satellites motion and orbits

Consider a satellite of mass m moving with speed v in an orbit around the Earth of mass Me. The centripetal
force required to keep the satellite in orbit is supplied by the gravitational attraction between the satellite and
the Earth, therefore:
𝐹= = (20)
Then:

𝑣= (21)
Where r = Re + h
The total mechanical energy of the two-body system is the sum of the kinetic energy of the satellite and the
potential energy of the system:
𝐸 =𝐾+𝑈 = 𝑚𝑣 − (22)
Substituting equation (17) for (22)

𝐸= − = − (23)

This result (equation (23)) shows that the total mechanical energy is negative. Note that the Kinetic energy is
positive and equal to one-half the absolute value of the potential energy.

Tutorial Questions

1. A satellite of mass m circles the Earth a distance R from the centre of the Earth. If the radius of the Earth
is 6.4 x 106 m, calculate the height above the Earth’s surface of the parking orbit and the velocity of the
satellite in orbit. Take g = 9.8 ms-2. (a) 19600 km, 2.4 kms-1 (b) 6400 km, 14.12 kms-1 (c) 36000 km, 3.1
kms-1 (d) 956.78 km,14.1 2 kms-1
Ans.: C

2. Which of the following equations are expressions of Kepler’s third law? (i) 𝑇 = (ii) =

(iii) 𝑚𝜔 𝑟 = (iv) 𝑚𝑔 = .
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv)
Ans.: A

3. The law of universal gravitation can be expressed as:

(a) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (b) 𝐹 = (c) 𝐹 = (d) 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎
Ans.: C

4. The mass of the moon is about 1/81 that of the Earth and its radius is one-fourth of that of the Earth. What
is the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Ans.: B

5. Two objects of masses m1 and m2 are placed side by side at distance r apart. What is the magnitude of the
force of attraction on each other?
(a) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (b) 𝑚 = 𝑘𝑚 𝑎 (c) 𝐹 = (d) 𝐹 =
Ans.: D

6. A proposed communication satellite would revolve round the Earth in a circular orbit in the equatorial
plane at a height of 35880 km above the Earth’s surface. Find the period of revolution of the satellite. Me =
5.98 x 1024 kg, Re = 6370 km, G = 6.6 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2.
(a) 23 hrs (b) 22 hrs (c) 24 hrs (d) 25 hrs
Ans.: C

7. The mass of the moon is about 1/81 that of the Earth and the distance of the Earth to that of the moon is
about 4.0 x 105 km. At what point between the moon and the Earth will the resultant gravitational force on a
spacecraft become zero?
(a) 3.6 x 105 km from the centre of the Earth (b) 3.6 x 105 km from the centre of the moon
(c) 4.0 x 105 km from the centre of the Earth (d) 4.0 x 105 km from the centre of the moon
Ans.: A

8. Which of the following represents Kepler’s law?

(a) Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit with the Earth at one focus of the ellipse.
(b) The line joining the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
(c) The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean
distances from the Sun, that is T2 α r3.
(d) The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are inversely proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the Sun, that is T2 α 1/r3.
Ans.: C

Exercises

1. A satellite orbits the moon at a height of 20,000 m. Find its speed and the time it takes for one orbit. (Take
the mass on the moon as 7.34 x 1022 kg and radius of the moon as 1.738 x 106 m)

2. Calculate a value for the mass of the Earth, given that the acceleration of free fall at the Earth’s surface is
9.81 ms-2, and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km.

3. A satellite orbits the Earth in a circle of radius 6570 km. Find the speed of the satellite and the time taken
to complete one revolution. Assume the Earth’s mass is 6.0 x 1024 kg.

4. Calculate the speed and period of a 1000 kg satellite orbiting at 7000 km above the Earth’s surface. How
much work is done to place the satellite in orbit? Assume the Earth’s mass is 6.0 x 1024 kg and the radius of
the Earth is 6400 km.

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