Philosophy 29/01/2025

Topics
Applied ethics

Applied ethics deals with the practical application of moral principles in various professions and
fields of study.

Focuses on ethical dilemmas and decision-making in real-world situations.

Explores the moral implications and responsibilities in areas such as medicine, business, and
technology.
Involves analyzing and evaluating different approaches to ethical issues.
Incorporates case studies and ethical frameworks to develop practical solutions to complex
moral problems.

Aristotelic Definition of Philosophy

Aristotle defines the pursuit of knowledge through rational inquiry, seeking to understand the
fundamental principles of existence, reality, and knowledge.

Emphasizes reason and rational inquiry as the core means of seeking understanding.
Focuses on exploring fundamental aspects of existence and reality.
Suggests a systematic approach to analyzing and understanding knowledge.
Rooted in the belief that thorough investigation leads to wisdom.

Characteristics of a moral agent

A moral agent possesses the ability to make moral decisions and understand the consequences
of their actions.

Autonomy allows moral agents to act freely and responsibly.

Rationality enables moral agents to reason and make moral judgments.
Conscience guides moral agents toward ethical decisions.
Empathy helps moral agents consider the well-being of others in their moral choices.

Definitions of philosophy

Philosophy involves the systematic study of fundamental concepts and beliefs, including
existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

Examines fundamental questions about reality, morality, and the nature of humanity.
 Investigates the nature of knowledge and how we come to understand the world.
Explores ethical theories and principles guiding human behavior and decision-making.
Addresses the nature of reality and the significance of existence.

Descriptive morality

Descriptive morality focuses on describing moral beliefs and practices within a society without
making judgments or prescriptions.

Ethical attitudes and behavior are observed and analyzed objectively in different cultures and
societies.
It explores how moral values vary among different groups based on cultural, historical, and
social factors.
Descriptive morality does not evaluate whether certain actions are right or wrong but instead
aims to understand why people hold specific moral views.
It provides insights into the diversity and complexity of moral principles and how they shape
individual and collective behaviors.

Dimensions of ethics

Dimensions of ethics explore the principles and issues concerning right and wrong conduct,
encompassing normative, meta-ethical, applied, and descriptive dimensions.

It involves evaluating actions as morally permissible or impermissible, examining the

foundation of ethical principles, and addressing real-world ethical dilemmas.
The normative dimension focuses on developing ethical theories and determining what
actions are morally right or wrong.
Meta-ethical dimension explores the nature of ethical properties and evaluates how we come
to know what is right or wrong.
Applied ethics deals with specific moral issues in areas like bioethics, environmental ethics,
and business ethics.

Egoism vs altruism

Egoism emphasizes self-interest and personal gain, while altruism prioritizes the well-being of
others and selfless actions.

Egoism promotes individual advancement and achievements over collective welfare.

Altruism is rooted in empathy and the desire to alleviate the suffering or enhance the
happiness of others.
The ethical debate between egoism and altruism often revolves around the balance between
self-care and caring for others.
Altruistic actions may bring personal satisfaction and fulfillment, challenging the assumption
that egoism is always selfish.
Emotion vs reason

Emotion and reason represent contrasting modes of human cognition, with emotion driven by
feelings and intuition, while reason relies on logic and evidence.

Emotion can lead to biased decision-making, often swayed by personal experiences or

desires.
Reason tends to prioritize objectivity and critical thinking, focusing on evidence-based
conclusions.
Balancing emotion and reason can lead to well-informed decisions and a deeper
understanding of complex issues.
Some argue that successful decision-making involves integrating both emotion and reason
effectively.

Etymological definition of philosophy

The etymological definition of philosophy stems from the Greek words 'philo', meaning love, and
'sophia', signifying wisdom.

Origins date back to ancient Greek thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Involves the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and understanding of existence.
Explores questions about reality, ethics, existence, and human nature.
Influences various fields like science, politics, ethics, and religion.

Jaspers' Definition of Philosophy

Jaspers defines the search for clarity and comprehension through individual, profound
contemplation.

Emphasizes the importance of personal reflection in understanding existence.

Involves grappling with fundamental questions to deepen insight.
Encourages critical examination to reach deeper truths.
Highlights the role of introspection in grappling with complex concepts.

Male morality vs female morality

In discussions on male and female morality, some argue male ethics prioritize rules and justice,
while female ethics emphasize care and relationships.

Male morality often focuses on abstract principles and laws, while female morality values
compassion and empathy.
Male moral reasoning is often linked to individual rights, whereas female moral reasoning
often considers communal well-being.
Some critics argue male-focused morality is more hierarchical and competitive, while female-
 focused morality is more egalitarian and cooperative.
Exploring various perspectives on gender and morality can provide a deeper understanding of
ethical thought and behavior.

Metaethics

Metaethics deals with the study of the nature, meaning, and origin of ethical principles and
judgments.

It examines the understanding and analysis of moral concepts and language.

Metaethics investigates questions about the objectivity or subjectivity of moral values.
It explores the nature of moral truth, moral knowledge, and moral motivation.
Metaethics analyzes the relationship between language and moral judgments.

Metaphysical issues in meta-ethics

Metaphysical issues in meta-ethics involve exploring the nature of moral facts, properties, and
truths, and how these concepts interact with the underlying metaphysical structure of the world.

Focus on questions about the existence of moral facts and whether they are objective or
subjective.
Investigate how moral properties relate to the ontology of the world and the nature of reality.
Examine the relationship between moral truths and the metaphysical framework within which
ethical theories operate.
Consider how metaphysical issues impact our understanding of moral responsibility and
agency.

Moral Agent

A moral agent is an individual who possesses the ability to make moral judgments and act upon
them responsibly.

Moral agents have the capacity for rationality and free will.
They are considered accountable for their actions.
Moral agents recognize and respect the moral principles that guide their decisions.
They are capable of discerning right from wrong.

Moral dilemma

A moral dilemma refers to a situation where an individual is faced with two or more conflicting
moral choices.

The individual must choose between options that all have morally undesirable outcomes.
There is no clear right or wrong answer in a moral dilemma.
 Moral dilemmas often involve ethical principles or personal values.
They can cause inner conflict and feelings of guilt or frustration.

Morality and its types

Morality refers to principles of right and wrong behavior, encompassing ethical beliefs and values
that guide human actions.

Types of morality can include descriptive, normative, comparative, and meta-ethical

approaches.
Moral realism posits that objective moral truths exist, while moral relativism argues that
morality is subjective.
Ethical egoism promotes self-interest, while utilitarianism prioritizes actions that maximize
overall happiness.
Deontological ethics focuses on the inherent morality of actions rather than their
consequences.

Normative ethics

Normative ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with how people ought to behave, focusing on
determining moral standards.

Normative ethics seeks to answer questions about what actions are right or wrong and what
principles should guide our moral decision-making.
It is concerned with studying ethical theories and frameworks, such as consequentialism,
deontology, and virtue ethics.
Different normative ethical theories propose different criteria for determining morality, such
as seeking the greatest good for the greatest number or following moral rules.
Normative ethics is not concerned with describing how people actually behave morally, but
rather how they should behave.

Normative morality

Normative morality refers to principles that prescribe how people ought to act, providing
standards for evaluating right and wrong behavior.

It includes ethical theories such as deontology, consequentialism, and virtue ethics.

Addresses questions about how individuals should behave within a society.
Often involves discussions on moral dilemmas, moral obligations, and moral virtues.
Examines the concepts of moral principles, values, and duties.

Objectivism vs relativism

Objectivism asserts universal moral truths exist, while relativism argues morality is subjective
and varies based on perspectives or cultures.
 Objectivism emphasizes objective moral standards grounded in reason and reality.
Relativism maintains cultural and individual differences shape moral values.
Objectivism often associated with absolutism, while relativism embraces tolerance and
diversity of moral beliefs.
The debate between objectivism and relativism extends beyond ethics to areas like truth and
knowledge.

Overview of ethics

Ethics is the study of moral principles that govern behavior, exploring concepts like right and
wrong, good and bad, justice, and virtue.

Ethical theories include utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, and ethics of care.
Ethical dilemmas often involve conflicting values or decisions with no clear right answer.
Metaethics examines the nature of ethical statements and the foundations of moral values.
Applied ethics deals with practical issues like bioethics, environmental ethics, and business
ethics.

Psychological issues in meta-ethics

Psychological issues in meta-ethics explore how human psychology influences ethical beliefs
and moral reasoning, challenging the objectivity of ethical truths.

They delve into how emotions, biases, and cognitive processes shape moral judgments.
Moral intuitions and social influences are studied to understand their impact on ethical
frameworks.
Critics argue that psychology undermines the idea of objective moral truths.
Understanding psychological factors can shed light on the diversity of moral opinions and the
nature of ethical disagreement.

The good and the right

Determining what actions are morally good and morally right involves assessing their
consequences and adherence to ethical principles.

Ethical theories like utilitarianism focus on maximizing overall happiness to determine the
right action.
Virtue ethics emphasizes the character of the individual and how virtues can guide ethical
behavior.
Deontological ethics centers on following moral rules and duties without consideration of
outcomes.
Ethical dilemmas often arise when what is considered good conflicts with what is considered
right.
Key Terms
Acts on deliberation

Acts on deliberation refer to decisions made after careful consideration, weighing options, and
reasoning to reach a conclusion.

Deliberation involves assessing consequences of different actions before making choices.

Consideration of values, beliefs, and preferences plays a significant role in deliberative acts.
Critical thinking and logical reasoning are essential components of acts on deliberation.
Deliberative acts can lead to more informed and thoughtful decision-making processes.

Altruism

Altruism is the belief and practice of selflessly caring for and helping others, without expecting
anything in return.

Altruism focuses on promoting the well-being of others before oneself.

It can be seen as a moral or ethical principle that guides behavior.
Altruistic actions can include acts of kindness, charity, and empathy.
Critics argue that true altruism is impossible, as individuals always receive some form of
personal satisfaction or benefit from helping others.

Aristotelic

Aristotelic refers to philosophical principles derived from the teachings of Aristotle, emphasizing
logic, practical reasoning, and the pursuit of virtue.

Aristotelic thought focuses on ethics, metaphysics, logic, epistemology, and natural

philosophy.
Prominent themes include the classification of knowledge, the hierarchy of substances, and
the importance of teleology.
Aristotelic ethics emphasizes the concept of eudaimonia, or human flourishing, through
virtuous actions and ethical decision-making.
Aristotelic logic laid the groundwork for formal logic, syllogistic reasoning, and the study of
deductive inference.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves the objective analysis and evaluation of ideas, arguments, and evidence
to reach logical and informed conclusions.

Critical thinking requires questioning assumptions and biases.

 It involves examining evidence and reasoning to evaluate arguments.
Cognitive skills like analysis, interpretation, and inference are crucial for effective critical
thinking.
Critical thinking involves considering multiple perspectives and being open to new ideas.

Egoism

Egoism is a self-centered ethical theory that prioritizes self-interest and personal gain above all
else, often associated with the pursuit of individual happiness.

Egoism highlights the importance of self-preservation and egoistic actions directed towards
one's own benefit.
Egoism can be further categorized into psychological egoism (descriptive) and ethical
egoism (prescriptive).
Ethical egoism argues that individuals should always act in their own self-interest, promoting
personal happiness as the ultimate goal.

Emotion-driven ethics

Emotion-driven ethics emphasizes the importance of feelings and emotions in guiding moral
decisions, prioritizing empathy and compassion over reason.

Examines how emotions influence ethical judgments and decision-making.

Focuses on the role of empathy and emotional intelligence in moral reasoning.
Critics argue it may lead to subjective and unpredictable ethical conclusions.
Challenges the traditional view that ethics should be solely rational and detached from
emotions.

Ethics

Ethics is the study of moral principles and values regarding what is right and wrong, good and
bad.

Ethics explores questions about how individuals should behave and make ethical decisions.
Ethics involves evaluating the consequences, intentions, and virtues of actions.
Ethics can be divided into different branches, such as normative ethics, metaethics, and
applied ethics.
Ethics aims to provide guidance on ethical dilemmas and help individuals develop their own
moral compass.

etymology

Etymology refers to the study of the history and origins of words, tracing their development and
changes in meaning over time.
 Etymology helps understand how language shapes concepts and ideas.
It provides insights into cultural influences on language evolution.
Knowledge of etymology can aid in interpreting complex philosophical texts.
Understanding etymology can enhance communication skills.

Eudaimonia

Eudaimonia refers to a state of flourishing and fulfillment in life, where one achieves their highest
potential and experiences overall well-being.

Eudaimonia is a central concept in Aristotelian ethics and is often translated as 'happiness' or

'the good life'.
It emphasizes the importance of moral virtues and living a life of virtue.
Eudaimonia is not solely dependent on external factors like wealth or pleasure, but rather on
internal factors like personal character and moral development.
It is achieved through the cultivation of virtues such as courage, wisdom, and justice.

False dilemmas

False dilemmas present situations where only two options are given, overlooking potential
alternatives and leading to an oversimplified view of complex issues.

False dilemmas are also known as false dichotomies or black-and-white thinking.

Commonly used in rhetoric to manipulate opinions or debates.
Critical thinking skills are necessary to identify and avoid false dilemmas.
Recognizing false dilemmas can lead to a more nuanced understanding of multifaceted
issues.

Human Reason

Human reason is the faculty of the mind that allows for logical thinking, understanding complex
ideas, problem-solving, and critical thinking.

Descartes emphasized human reason as the foundation of knowledge.

Kant explored the limitations and capabilities of human reason in understanding the world.
Aristotle believed reason distinguished humans from animals.
Human reason plays a central role in decision-making and ethical considerations.

Impartial view

An impartial view refers to maintaining neutrality and objectivity when evaluating information,
arguments, or situations from a balanced perspective.
 Impartiality involves setting aside personal bias and emotions.
It requires considering all relevant perspectives and evidence.
An impartial view promotes fair judgment and decision-making.
Achieving an impartial view can enhance critical thinking skills.

Jaspers

Jaspers was a prominent 20th-century thinker known for his works on existentialism, the
concept of transcendence, and the philosophy of communication.

He emphasized the importance of communication in understanding the inner self.

Jaspers believed in the significance of individual responsibility and freedom.
His concepts of limit situations and existential guilt explore human experiences of inner
conflict and ethical dilemmas.
Jaspers' philosophy influenced other existentialist thinkers such as Heidegger and Sartre.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development outlines a six-stage model based on moral reasoning,
emphasizing the role of reasoning in the development of moral judgment.

Kohlberg proposed that individuals progress through these stages sequentially, with higher
stages reflecting more advanced moral reasoning.
His theory suggests that moral development is driven by individuals' ability to think abstractly
and consider ethical principles.
Kohlberg's stages are divided into three levels: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional, each representing different levels of moral maturity.
Critics argue that Kohlberg's theory may not adequately address cultural variations and the
influence of emotions on moral decision-making.

Legal

Legal refers to the system of rules, created and enforced by a governing authority, that regulate
behavior within society.

It is developed to maintain order and ensure justice.

Includes laws, statutes, regulations, and judicial decisions.
Involves the interpretation and application of rules.
Deals with issues of rights, obligations, and responsibilities.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics examines fundamental questions about the nature of reality, existence, and the
relationship between mind and matter.
 It seeks to understand the ultimate nature of existence and the fundamental principles that
shape the universe.
Metaphysics explores topics such as the nature of time, causality, free will, and the existence
of God.
It delves into concepts like substance, identity, persistence, and the nature of consciousness.
Metaphysics often challenges conventional beliefs and pushes the boundaries of human
understanding.

Morality

Morality refers to the principles and values that guide human behavior and determine what is
considered right or wrong in society.

Morality is a subjective concept that varies across cultures and individuals.

Morality can be influenced by religion, societal norms, and personal beliefs.
The study of morality involves ethical theories, such as consequentialism and deontology.
Morality often involves considerations of fairness, justice, and the well-being of others.

Moral Philosophy

Moral Philosophy is the study of ethical principles and theories that guide human behavior and
decision-making.

Moral Philosophy explores questions about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and how
individuals should live their lives.
It examines different ethical frameworks such as consequentialism, deontology, and virtue
ethics.
Key figures who have contributed to Moral Philosophy include Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and
John Stuart Mill.
Important topics within Moral Philosophy include moral relativism, moral responsibility, and
the nature of moral judgments.

Objectivism

Objectivism is a philosophical system developed by Ayn Rand that emphasizes the importance
of reason, individualism, and objective reality.

Objectivism asserts that reality exists independent of our thoughts or feelings.

According to objectivism, reason is the primary means of acquiring knowledge and
understanding the world.
The philosophy of objectivism advocates for individualism, asserting that individuals have the
right to pursue their own self-interest.
Objectivism rejects the notion of societal altruism and emphasizes the importance of rational
self-interest.
Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason,
and more.

It explores various branches including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and

aesthetics.
Philosophy examines different theories and arguments from ancient to contemporary times.
It challenges and encourages critical thinking, logical reasoning, and the ability to analyze
complex concepts.
It helps develop the skills of rational argumentation, introspection, and self-reflection.

Rational ability

Rational ability refers to the capacity to think logically, critically, and analytically in order to make
sound judgments and decisions.

Rational ability involves the use of reason and evidence to reach conclusions.
It requires the ability to recognize and evaluate arguments based on validity and soundness.
Developing rational ability can help improve problem-solving skills and decision-making
processes.
Critical thinking and logical reasoning are key components of enhancing one's rational ability.

Real Dilemmas

Real dilemmas refer to situations where individuals face difficult moral or ethical decisions with
no clear, straightforward solution.

It often involves conflicting values or principles, leading to inner conflict and moral ambiguity.
These dilemmas challenge individuals to confront their beliefs and values, forcing them to
make tough decisions.
Real dilemmas are not easily resolved and can evoke strong emotional responses due to the
complexity of the situation.
Ethical frameworks and moral reasoning are often utilized to navigate real dilemmas and
arrive at a decision.

Reason-driven ethics

Reason-driven ethics involves making moral decisions based on rational thinking and logical
principles.

Approaches ethical dilemmas by analyzing arguments instead of relying on emotions or

personal beliefs.
Emphasizes the importance of critical thinking and reasoning in determining right and wrong.
 Aim is to establish ethical principles that are universal and applicable to all individuals and
situations.
Encourages individuals to consider consequences and principles when making moral
choices.

Relativism

Relativism is the belief that knowledge, truth, and morality are subjective and vary from person to
person or culture to culture.

Relativism challenges the idea of objective truth by suggesting that truth is determined by
individual perspectives.
Relativism can be divided into moral relativism, which holds that ethical principles are
subjective, and cultural relativism, which argues that cultural beliefs and practices are equally
valid.
Critics of relativism argue that it leads to moral chaos and undermines the possibility of
making objective judgments.
Relativism recognizes the importance of diverse perspectives and encourages tolerance and
acceptance of different ideas and beliefs.

Willingness to revise beliefs

Willingness to revise beliefs refers to the ability to critically assess and adapt one's beliefs based
on new evidence and reasoning.

Challenges confirmation bias and encourages open-mindedness and intellectual humility.

Facilitates growth and allows for intellectual progress.
Supports a deeper understanding of complex issues and encourages self-reflection.
Helps individuals engage in constructive dialogue and fosters respect for differing
viewpoints.