Unit III

SAMPLING: DEFINITION

Sampling is the process of obtaining information regarding the entire research population or
aggregate or totality by examining only a part of it. It is a picture in miniature to represent the
larger whole, to enable the researcher to make a judgment or inference about the whole with
the presumption that the sample data will provide valid and reliable conclusions.

Census and Sample method

Under the census or complete enumeration survey method, data are collected for each and
every unit (person, household, field, shop, factory, etc.) as the case may be of the population
which is the complete set of items which are of interest in any particular situation. For
example, if the average wage of workers working in sugar industry in India is to be
calculated, then wage figures would be obtained from each and every worker working in the
sugar industry and by dividing the total wages which all these workers receive by the number
of workers working in sugar industry, we would get the figure of average wage.
However, despite the advantages the census method is not very popularly used in practice.
The effort, money and time required for carrying out complete enumeration will generally be
very large and in many cases cost may be so prohibitive that the very idea of collecting
information may have to be dropped. This is more true of underdeveloped countries where
resources constitute a big constraint. Also if the population is infinite or the evaluation
process destroys the population unit, the method cannot be adopted.

Sampling is simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample
drawn from it. Thus, in the sampling technique instead of every unit of the universe is
studied and the conclusions are drawn on that basis for the entire universe. A sample is a
subset of population units.

(B) Advantages and Limitations of Sampling:

Merits
1. It saves time, because fewer items are collected and processed. When the results are
urgently required, this method is very helpful.

2. It reduces cost only a few and selected items are studied in sampling. So there is reduction
in cost of money and reduction in terms of man-hours. It is advantageous to underdeveloped
countries.
3. More reliable results can be obtained because (a) there are fewer chances of sampling
statistical errors. If there is sampling error, it is possible to estimate and control the results.
(b) Highly expert and trained persons can be employed for scientific processing and
analysing of relatively limited data, and they can use their high technical knowledge and get
more accurate and reliable results.

4. Sampling provides more detailed information: As it saves time, money and energy, we can
collect more detailed information in a sample survey.
5. Sampling method is sometimes the only method possible. If the population under study is
infinite, sampling method is the only method to be used. For example, to test the breaking
strength of bricks manufactured in a factory, under census method, all the bricks would be
broken in the process of testing. There would be no bricks left for use. Thus, census method
is impracticable. Also if the population under investigation is infinite, sampling is the only
possible solution.

6. Administrative convenience: The organisation and administration of sample survey are

easy.

7. More scientific: the method has full justification for the expenditure involved.

8. The degree of accuracy obtainable in this method is higher than that in the census method.

Shortcomings

1. Illusory conclusion: If a sample enquiry is not carefully planned and executed, the
conclusions may be inaccurate and misleading.
2. Sample not representative: To make a representative sample is taken from the universe; the
result is applicable to the whole population. If the sample is not representative of the
universe, the result may be false and misleading.
3. Lack of experts: As there is lack of experts to plan and conduct a sample survey, its
execution and analysis, the results of the sample survey are not satisfactory and trustworthy.
4. Sometimes the sampling plan may be complicated and requires more money, labour, time
than a census method.
5. There is organisational problem in sample investigation.
6. Personal bias: There may be personal biases and prejudices with regard to the choice of
technique and drawing of sampling units.
7. Choice of sample sizes: If the size of the sample is not appropriate then it may lead to
untrue characteristics of the population.
8. Conditions of complete coverage: If the information is required for each and every item of
the universe, then a complete enumeration survey is better.

Types of Sampling

From the practical point of view the sample designs are basically of two types:
(1)Probability Sampling.
(2)Non-probability sampling

Probability Sampling:
It provides a scientific technique of drawing samples from population in accordance with
certain laws or chance in which each unit in the universe has some definite pre-assigned
probability of being selected in the sample. That is why it is called random sampling.

1. Random Sampling (Probability sampling)

A random sample is one where each item in the universe has an equal chance of known
opportunity of being selected. According to Harper, “A random sample is a sample
selected in such a way that every item in the population has an equal chance of being
included.”
A. Simple random sampling:
It is a technique in which sample is so drawn that each and every unit in the population has an
equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. Several methods have been
adopted for random selection of the sample. They are:

(i) Lottery Method: This is the most popular and simplest method. In this method, all the
items of the universe are numbered on separate slips of paper of same size, shape and colour.
They are folded and mixed up in a drum or container. A blindfold selection is made. The
required number of slips are selected for the desired sample size. The selection of items thus
depends on chance. For example, if we want to select 5 students, out of 50 students, then we
must write the names of all the 50 students on slips of the same size and mix them; then we
all the 50 students on slips of the same size and mix them; then we make a blindfold selection
of 5 students. This method is also called unrestricted random sampling, because units are
selected from the unrestricted random sampling, because units are selected from the
population without any restriction. This method is mostly used in lottery draws. If the
universe is infinite, this method is inapplicable. There is a lot of possibility of personal
prejudice if the size and shape of the slips are not identical.

(ii) Table of Random Numbers: As the lottery method cannot be used, when the population
is infinite, the alternative method is that of using the table of random numbers.
There are several standard tables of random numbers. But the credit for this technique goes to
Prof. L.H.C. Tippett (1927). The random number table (taken from the British Census
Report) consists of 10,400 four-figured numbers giving in all 10,400 x 4 = 41,600. There are
various other random numbers. They are Fisher and Yates (1938) comprising of 15,000 digits
arranged in twos, Kendall and B.B. Smith (1939) consisting of 1,00,000 digits grouped in
25,000 sets of 4 digited random numbers, Rand Corporation (1955) consisting of 2,00,000
random numbers of 5 digits each, etc.

Merits
1. Scientific method: there is less chance for personal bias.
2. More representative: when the size of the sample increases, it is representative of the
population, as the Law of Inertia of large Numbers and the Law of Statistical Regularity
beings to operate.
3. Sampling error can be measured.
4. Theory of probability is inapplicable, if a sample is random.
5. this method is economical as it saves time, money and labour
Demerits
1. This requires a complete list of the population but such up-to-date lists are not available in
many enquiries.
2. If the size of the sample is small, then it will not be a representative of the population.
3. When the distribution between items is very large, this method cannot be used.

B. Restricted Random Sampling:

(i) Stratified sampling: When the population is heterogeneous or of different segments of

strata with respect to the variable or characteristic under study, then it is stratified. First the
population is divided into a number of sub-groups or strata. Each stratum is homogeneous. A
sample is drawn from each stratum at random.
There are two types of stratified random sampling. They are proportional and non-
proportional. In the proportional sampling, equal and proportionate representation is given to
sub-groups or strata. If the number of items is large in the population, the same will have a
higher size and vice versa.
In disproportionate or non-proportionate sample, equal representation is given to all the sub-
strata regardless of their existence in the population.
Merits
1. It is more representative.
2. It ensures greater accuracy.
3. It is easy to administer as the universe is sub-divided.
4. Greater geographical concentration reduces the time and expenses.
5. When the original population is badly skewed, this method is an appropriate one.
6. For non-homogeneous population, it may yield more reliable results.
Demerits
1. To divide the population into homogeneous strata, it requires more money, time and
statistical experience which is a difficult one.
2. If proper stratification is not done, the sample will have an effect of bias. If different strata
of population overlap, such a sample will not be a representative one.

(ii) Systematic sampling: It is also known as quasi-random sampling. A systematic sample is

selected at random sampling. When a complete list of the population is available, this method
is used. We arrange the items in numerical, alphabetical, geographical or any other order. If
we want to select a sample of 10 students from 100 students, under this method Kth item is
picked up from the sample frame and K is the sample interval.
K = Sampling interval
N = Size of universe
n = Sample size
in the above example k =10. 10 is the sampling interval. Every 10th student will be taken as
sample, i.e., 10th 20th, 30th, and so on.

Merits
This is simple and convenient. the time and work is reduced much. If we take care, the result
will be a satisfactory one. It can also be used in infinite population.
Demerits
It may not represent the whole population. There is the element of personal bias of
investigators.

(iii) Cluster sampling or multistage sampling: It is also called as sampling stages. It refers to
a sampling procedure, which is carried out in several stages. The whole population is divided
into sampling units, and these units are again divided into sub-units. This process will
continue when we reach a lease number.
For example, we want to take 5000 students from Madhya Pradesh. We want to take 5000
students from Madhya Pradesh. We must take universities at the first stage, then the number
of colleges at the second stage, selection of students from the colleges at the third stage etc.
Merits
1. It introduces flexibility in the sampling method.
2. It is helpful in large -scale survey where the preparation of list is difficult, time-consuming
or expensive.
3. It is valuable in underdeveloped countries, where no detailed and accurate framework is
available.
Demerits
It is less accurate than other methods.

2. Non-random sampling method (Non Probability Sampling)

(a). Purposive or Judgment sampling: The investigator has the power to select or
reject any item in an investigation. The choice of sample items depends on the judgments of
the investigator. He has the vital role to pay in collecting the information. For example, if a
sample of 5 students are to be selected from a B.Com. Class of 50 students for analyzing the
habit of picture-seeing, the investigator would select 5 students who, according to his opinion
are the representative of the class.
Merits
1. It is a simple method.
2. It is used to obtain a more representative sample.
3. It is very helpful to make public policies, decisions, etc. The executives and public officials
use this method for their urgent problem.

Demerits
1. Due to individual bias the sample may not be a representative one.
2. It is difficult to get correct sampling errors.
3. The estimates are into accurate.
4. Its results cannot be compared with other sampling studies.

(b) Quota sampling: This sampling is similar to stratified sampling. It is used in the U.S.A.
for investigating public opinion and consumer research. to collect data, the universe is
divided into quota according to some characteristics. Each enumerator is then told to
interview a certain number of persons who are his quota. The selection of sample items
depends on personal judgment. It is a stratified-cum-purposive sampling and thus has the
advantages of both the methods. There is saving of time and money. If there are trained
investigators, the sampling will give quite reliable results.
Personal prejudice and individual bias are there. It is not based on random sampling, and so
sampling error cannot be estimated.

(c) Convenience or Chunk Sampling: Chunk is a convenient slice of a population which is

commonly referred to as a sample. It is obtained by selecting convenient population units.
1. It is suitable when the universe is not clearly defined.
2. Sample unit is not clear.
3. Complete source list is not available.
A Sample obtained from automobile registration, telephone directories, etc., is a convenience
sample. The results of this sampling cannot be representative. They are unsatisfactory. They
are biased. But they are used for pilot studies.

(d)Snow-ball Sampling: In sociology and statistics research, snow-ball sampling (or chain
sampling, chain-referral sampling, referral sampling) is a non-probability sampling technique
where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances. Thus
the sample group appears to grow like a rolling snowball. As the sample builds up, enough
data is gathered to be useful for research. This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers to access; example populations would be drug
users or sex workers. As sample members are not selected from a sampling frame, snowball
samples are subject to numerous biases. For example, people who have many friends are
more likely to be recruited into the sample.
What is snowball sampling? Snowball sampling uses a small pool of initial informants to
nominate, through their social networks, other participants who meet the eligibility criteria
and could potentially contribute to a specific study. The term "snowball sampling" reflects an
analogy to a snowball increasing in size as it rolls downhill

Advantages
1. Locate hidden populations: It is possible for the surveyors to include people in the survey
that they would not have known.
2. Locating people of a specific population: There is no lists or other obvious sources for
locating members of the population of specific interest.
Disadvantages
1. Community Bias: The first participants will have strong impact on the sample. Snowball
sampling is inexact, and can produce varied and inaccurate results. The method is heavily
reliant on the skill of the individual conducting the actual sampling, and that individual’s
ability to vertically network and find an appropriate sample. To be successful requires
previous contacts within the target areas, and the ability to keep the information flow going
throughout the target group.
2. Not Random: Snowball sampling contradicts many of the assumptions supporting
conventional notions of random selection and representativeness. However, Social systems
are beyond researcher’s ability to recruit randomly. Snowball sampling is inevitable in social
systems.
3. Vague Overall Sampling Size: There is no way to know the total size of the overall
population.
4. Wrong Anchoring: Another disadvantage of snowball sampling is the lack of definite
knowledge as to whether or not the sample is an accurate reading of the target population. By
targeting only a few select people, it is not always indicative of the actual trends within the
result group. Identifying the appropriate person to conduct the sampling, as well as locating
the correct targets is a time consuming process which renders the benefits only slightly
outweighing the costs.