CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Types of channels 1.3 Types of open channel flows 1.4 Open channel and
their properties 1.5 Fundamental Equations: Continuity equation, energy equation and
momentum principles

1.1 Introduction

A channel may be defined as a passage or conduit through which water flows with a free surface
exposed to atmospheric pressure. In an open channel, the flow takes place due to gravity, hence
slope of the channel plays very important role. The channel may be covered, provided it does not
run full; a partly filled pipe is taken as an open channel. Since pressure at the surface of a liquid is
uniform, the flow is caused by difference in potential energy due to the slope of the channel. The
hydraulic gradient line coincides with the free surface of water.

Figure 1.1: Comparison between pipe flow and channel flow

Figure 1.1 shows a comparison between the flow through a pipe and a channel. In the case of flow
through a pipe there is no free surface as in the case of flow through a channel. This is so because
the water flowing in a pipe is under pressure, which at any section of a pipe is indicated by the
Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Flow in Open Channels
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level of water column in a piezometric tube installed on the pipe at the section. The water levels in
the piezometric tubes installed at different sections of a pipe indicate the hydraulic grade line. On
the other hand in the case of channel flow the water surface itself is the hydraulic grade line.
However, the total energy lines in both the cases lie at a distance of (V2/2g) above the hydraulic
grade line at every section, where V is the mean velocity of flow at the section. Since the pressure
on the top surface of water in a channel is constant, no pressure difference can be built up between
any two sections along the channel as in the case of pipes. Moreover, as the water flows in a
channel, it will always be subjected to some resistance. As such in order to overcome the
resistance and to cause the flow of water in a channel, it is constructed with its bottom slopping
towards the direction of flow, so that a component of the weight of the flowing water in the
direction of flow is developed which causes the flow of water in the channel.

1.2 Types of Channels

Open channels may be classified according to different considerations as described below. On the
basis of the cross-sectional form of the channel it may be classified as natural channel or artificial
channel

(i) Natural channel: This is a channel with irregular sections of varying shape developed
naturally by water flow. Examples: streams, rivers etc.

Figure 1.2: Natural irregular shaped open channel

(ii) Artificial channel: This is a man-made channel for conveying water for various purposes.
Their cross-sections are of regular geometric shapes. The artificial channels may be further
classified according to the shape of the cross-section as, rectangular channel, trapezoidal
channel, triangular channel, parabolic channel, and circular channel.

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(iii) Prismatic channel: A channel in which the cross sectional shape, size and the bottom
slope are constant is termed as prismatic channel. All natural channels generally have
varying cross section and consequently are non- prismatic. Most of the man-made channels
can be considered as prismatic channels if the shape, geometry, surface roughness and
slope remain the same over certain length of the channel (see Figure 1.3)

Figure1.3: A prismatic trapezoidal shaped open channel

1.3 Types of Flow in Channels

The flow in open channels may be classified as follows, depending upon the change in the depth
of flow with respect to space and time, and their inertia with respect to viscosity of the fluid and
gravity:

(i) Steady flow and unsteady flow

(ii) Uniform flow and non-uniform flow
(iii) Laminar flow and turbulent flow
(iv) States of flow (sub-critical flow, critical flow and super critical flow).

1.3.1 Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow

Time as a criterion
If time is considered as a criterion for the classification of flow we can have steady and unsteady
flow as explained here.

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 Stead flow occurs when the characteristics such as depth of flow, flow velocity and flow rate
at any cross-section do not change with respect to time.

y V Q
Mathematically,  0;  0; or  0.
t t t
where y, V and Q are depth of flow, velocity and the rate of flow respectively.

 Unsteady flow is said to occur when these flow parameters vary with time.

y V Q
Mathematically;  0;  0; or  0.
t t t

1.3.2 Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow

Space as a criterion
If space is considered as a criterion for the classification of flow we can have uniform flow and
non-uniform flow as explained here.
 Uniform flow is said to occur in a channel if the depth, slope, cross-section and velocity remain
constant over a given length of the channel. The frictional resistance to flow is then equal to
the head due to the gradient of the bed of the channel. Uniform flows are possible in prismatic
channels only. A uniform flow may be either steady or unsteady (rare) depending on whether
the discharge varies with time or not.

y V
Mathematically;  0; 0
s s
 Non-uniform (or varied) flow is said to occur when the depth of flow is said to occur varies
continuously from one section to another section.

y V
Mathematically,  0;  0.
s s
Varied flow may be further classified as follows:

(i) Rapidly varied flow (R.V.F.): In this type of flow, depth of flow change abruptly over a
comparatively short length of channel. The flow depth changes considerably over a
relatively short distance dy/dx~1. An example is hydraulic jump.

(ii) Gradually varied flow (G.V.F.): In this type of flow, the change in depth of flow takes
place gradually over a long length of the channel. The flow depth changes slowly with
distance dy/dx <<1.

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Figure 1.4: Types of flow

1.3.3 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Viscosity as a criterion
Viscosity effect in a fluid flow is examined by Reynolds number. Reynolds number is a
dimensionless parameter and it is a ratio between the inertia forces to the viscosity force.
Inertia Force
Re 
Vis cos ity Force
VL
Re 

Where: Re = Reynolds number, ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3), V = mean velocity of flow (m/s), μ
= dynamic viscosity (kgm/s), and L = characteristics length.
L is agreed to be the pipe diameter D in pipe flow (flow and pressure) and hydraulic radius R (a
ratio of flow area and wetted perimeter) in open channel flow.
VD VR
Pipe flow, Re  open channel flow Re 
 
Based on the value of the Reynolds number, the flow in an open channel may be classified as
laminar, transitional or turbulent as,

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VR
Re 

The flow is laminar when Re < 500; turbulent when Re > 2000, and transitional when 500< Re <
2000.

1.3.4 State of Flow

Gravity as criterion
Gravity effect in a fluid flow is examined by Froude number. Froude number is a dimensionless
parameter and it is a ratio between the inertia forces and gravity forces.
Inertia Force V
Re  
Vis cos ity Force gL
Where: V = mean velocity of flow (m/s), g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), and L is
characteristics length (m).

In open channel flow the characteristics length is agreed to be equal to the hydraulic depth Dh
which is the ratio of flow area to the width of top surface.

V
Fr 
gDh
A
Dh is given as, Dh  , A= flow area m2, and T= length of top water surface (m)
T

Figure 1.5: Channel crosssection

Froude number is an important parameter for analysing the state of flow in open channels and
depending on it, the channel flow may be characterised as follows:

(i) When Fr <1: The flow is described as sub-critical (or streaming or tranquil).

(ii) When Fr = 1: The flow is described as critical

(iii) When Fr > 1: The flow is said to be supercritical (or rapid or shooting or torrential).

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1.4 Open Channel and Their Properties

Definitions of the Open Channel Parameters:

 Depth of flow (y) is the vertical distance from the water surface to the lowest point at the bed of
a channel section.

 Top width (T) is the width of the channel at the free surface of the liquid exposed to atmospheric
pressure

 Wetted area (A) is the cross-sectional area of the flow section of the channel.

Figure 1.6: Definition sketch of open channel

 Wetted perimeter (P) is the length of the line (or curve) of intersection of the wetted surface of a
channel with a cross-section normal to the direction of flow.

 Hydraulic radius (R): This is a ratio of the cross-sectional area of flow (A) to the wetted
perimeter (P), i.e. R = A/P.

 Hydraulic depth (Dh) is the ratio of wetted area (A) to the top width (T), i.e. Dh = A/T.

 Channel slope (So) is the slope of the channel bed.

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Figure 1.7: Geometric elements for different channel cross sections

 Hydraulic grade line (H.G.L.) is the line indicating the pressure at various sections along the
channel, and coincides with the liquid surface in open channels. If a piezometer is inserted in an
open channel, the liquid surface will rise to the level of the liquid surface. The liquid surface slope
Sw is the slope of the liquid surface or hydraulic grade line (Fig 1.8).

E.G.L., slope Sf
V2
hf
2g
Free water surface
H.G.L., Slope Sw
y

Bed line of channel bottom

=So

Figure 1.8: Slopes, HGL and EGL

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 Energy grade line (E.G.L.) is the line indicating the total energy of the liquid at various
sections along the channel with respect to a selected datum. The energy gradient line is above the
V2
hydraulic gradient line. The vertical distance between the two lines is  , where  is the
2g

velocity distribution factor which takes into account the non-uniform distribution of velocity
across the section. The values of α vary from 1.1 to 1.2 for turbulent flow in open channels.
However, for simplicity, it is taken as unity (α = 1).

 Hydraulic slope (Sf) is the slope of the total energy line, and is given by,

hf
Sf 
L
Where L is the length of channel in which the drop of total energy line is hf.

For uniform flow,

Sf = So = Sw
where Sw is the water surface slope So is the bed slope.

It will be assumed that the slope of the channel is very small, and may be taken either as the
tangent or sine of the angle  (i.e. So =Sin = Tan)

 Depth of flow (y) is the vertical distance from the water surface to the lowest point at the bed of
a channel section.

y
d


Figure 1.9: Definition sketch

 Depth of flow section (d) is the depth of liquid at the section, measured normal to the direction
of flow.

Referring to Fig 1.9,

d  y cos 

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Where  is the angle of bed slope. For a channel with a small slope, cos will be approximately
unity so that,

Since the slope of channel is very small Cos =1, unless otherwise stated, the depth of flow and
the depth of flow section will be assumed equal i.e. y = d.

 Section factor for uniform flow (AR2/3): This is the factor defining the shape of section and
is used for the computation of uniform flow. It is the product of the wetted area (A) and the
hydraulic radius raised to two-third power i.e. R2/3.

 Stage: This is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above datum. If the lowest
point of the channel section is taken as the datum, the stage is the same as the flow depth (y).

1.5 Fundamental Equations of Open Channel Flow

1.5.1 General
The continuity, momentum, and energy equations relate various flow variables, such as the flow
depth, discharge, flow velocity, at different sections of a channel and we solve these equations to
determine the flow conditions. The channel cross section, surface roughness (Manning n), channel
bottom slope, and the rate of discharge are usually known and we compute the flow depth and
flow velocity at different channel sections in a specified channel length. The rate of change of
flow depth in gradually varied flows is usually small. Therefore, the assumption of hydrostatic
pressure distribution is valid. In addition, we may introduce the velocity-head coefficient, α, to
account for nonuniform velocity distribution and then use the mean flow velocity to compute the
velocity head at a channel section.
The three conservation laws i.e. conservation of mass, conservation of momentum, and
conservation of energy– describe steady, free-surface flows. In this section, equations describing
these laws are derived and their application for the analysis of these flows is demonstrated.
For simplicity, only one-dimensional flows are considered in this section. In
these flows, the flow velocity is only in the direction of flow and the components
of flow velocity in the transverse and vertical directions are zero.

1.5.2 Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)

Conservation of mass states that matter (mass) can neither be created nor destroyed during
physical changes and chemical reaction.

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Civil and agricultural engineers deal primarily with the flow of incompressible liquids in open
channels, i.e., the mass density of the liquid is constant. Therefore, the law of conservation of
mass between different channel cross sections implies that the volumetric flow rates at these
sections are equal.

Let us consider the flow of an incompressible liquid in a channel, as shown in Fig. 1.10, with no
inflow or outflow across the channel boundaries. Let the flow be steady. Let us denote the
instantaneous flow velocity at a point by v, the flow depth by y, the mass density by ρ, the flow
area by A, top water surface width by B, and use subscripts 1 and 2 to designate quantities for
sections 1 and 2 respectively. Then, we may write

Rate of mass inflow through area dA1 at section 1 = ρ1v1dA1 (1.1)

Rate of mass outflow through area dA2 at section 2 = ρ2v2dA2 (1.2)

Figure 1.10: Notation for continuity equation.

According to the law of conservation of mass, the rate of mass inflow at section 1 must equal the
rate of mass outflow at section 2, since the volume of liquid stored in the channel between sections
1 and 2 remains unchanged, i.e.,

  v dA    v dA
1 1 1 2 2 2 (1.3)

Since the liquid is assumed incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2. Therefore,

 v1dA1   v2 dA2 (1.4)

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If the flow velocity is assumed uniform at each section, then Eq. 1.4 may be written as

v1  dA1  v2  dA2 (1.5)

v1 A1  v 2 A2 (1.6)

Note that Eq. 1.6 is valid for nonuniform velocity distribution provided V1 and V2 are the mean
flow velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively. In terms of volumetric flow rate, Q, this equation
becomes

Q1 = Q2 (1.7)

In hydraulic engineering, this equation is usually referred to as the continuity equation.

1.5.3 Conservation of Energy (Energy Equation)

Conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can change
from one from to another form of energy.

To determine the total energy of a liquid flowing in an open channel relative to a reference datum,
as shown in Fig. 1.11, consider a section 1 and section 2. The elevation, pressure (hydrostatic
pressure relative to the free surface), and velocity at section 1 and section 2 are given as (Eq. 1.8):

1V12  2V22
E1  Z1  y1  E2  Z 2  y 2  (1.8)
2g 2g

Figure 1.11: Definition sketch for energy equation

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where Z1 and Z2, are the elevation head, and y1 and y2 are the pressure head (depth of flow) and
V1 and V2 are the velocity heads, and α1 and α1 are the velocity correction factors (Coriollis
coefficient) at section 1 and section 2 respectively.

As water flows from section 1 to section 2, energy is lost due to mainly friction between the fluid
particles and the boundary of the channel which is given as hf as indicated in Figure 1.11.

1.5.4 Conservation of Momentum (Momentum Principles)

The law of conservation of momentum states that in an isolated system the total momentum of two
or more bodies acting upon each other remains constant unless an external force is applied.
Therefore, momentum can neither be created nor destroyed. This is another way of describing
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, i.e. the resultant force is a product of mass of the body and its
acceleration in the direction of the force.

To derive an equation describing conservation of momentum, let us consider the steady flow of an
incompressible liquid in a channel, as shown in Figure 1.12. The channel is prismatic and there is
no lateral inflow or outflow. Referring to this figure and using subscripts 1 and 2 to designate
quantities for section 1 and 2.

Figure 1.12: Definition sketch for development of momentum equation

Q
Time rate of mass inflow at section 1 
g

in which γ = specific weight of liquid. If V1 is the mean flow velocity at section 1, then

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1QV1
Time rate of momentum inflow at section 1   1QV1 (1.9)
g
in which β1 = momentum coefficient (correction factor) introduced to account for the nonuniform
velocity distribution. Similarly, we can write for section 2 that

 2QV2
Time rate of momentum outflow    2QV2 (1.10)
g

Hence, it follows from Eqs. 1.9 and Eq. 1.10 that for the liquid volume between sections 1 and 2

Time rate of increase of momentum = Time rate of momentum outflow - Time rate of
momentum inflow

Time rate of increase of momentum  Q (  2V2  1V1 ) (1.11)

The following forces are acting on the volume of liquid between sections 1 and 2.

Pressure force at section 1, P1   Z 1 A1 (1.12)

Pressure force at section 2, P2   Z 2 A2 (1.13)

in which Z = depth of the centroid of flow area A.

Component of the weight of liquid between sections 1 and 2 = W sin θ (1.14)

in which: W = weight of the volume of liquid between sections 1 and 2; and
θ= slope of the channel bottom.

Note that this weight component is acting in the downstream direction. Let us neglect the shear
stress at the free surface between air and liquid and let us designate the external force due to
shearing force between the liquid and the channel sides by Fe. Then the resultant force, Fr, acting
on the volume of liquid in the downstream direction is
 
Fr  g Z1 A1  g Z 2 A2  W sin   Fe (1.15)

According to the Newton’s second law of motion, the time rate of change of momentum of the
liquid volume is equal to the resultant of the external forces acting on the liquid volume. Hence,
noting that γ = ρg, we obtain from Eqs. 1.11 and 1.15.

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 
 2Q2V2   1Q1V1  gA1 Z1  gA2 Z 2  W sin   Fe (1.16)

Note that Fe is the external shearing force acting on the volume of liquid and does not depend
upon the energy losses occurring inside the liquid segment. Equation 1.16 is a general application
of the momentum principle. Let us discuss how this is simplified for a special case. For a prismatic
channel with horizontal bottom, the component of the weight of liquid in the downstream
direction is zero. If we assume that the channel bottom and sides are smooth, then the shearing
force is zero. If the flow velocity is uniform at sections 1 and 2, then β1 = β2 = 1. With these
simplifications, Eq. 1.16 for a smooth, horizontal channel becomes
 
Q2V2  Q1V1  A1 Z1  A2 Z 2 (1.17)

From the continuity equation, Q1 = Q2 = Q (say). Then, Eq. 1.17 may be written as:

Q2 
Q2 
 Z 1 A1   Z 2 A2 (1.18)
gA1 gA2

Note that each side of this equation is similar except for the subscripts designating quantities for
sections 1 and 2 respectively. Let us define

Q2 
Fs  Z A (1.19)
gA

in which Fs is referred to as the specific force or momentum function. Since each term on the

right-hand side of Eq. 1.19 represents force/unit weight, we will herein refer to Fs as the specific
force. The concept of specific force is very helpful in the application of the momentum equation;
we will see its application in later sections.

1.5.5 Velocity Distribution

The flow velocity in a channel section varies from one point to another. This is due to shear stress
at the bottom and at the sides of the channel and due to the presence of free surface. Figure 1.12
shows typical velocity distributions in different channel cross sections. The flow velocity may
have components in all three Cartesian coordinate directions. However, the components of
velocity in the vertical and transverse directions are usually small and may be neglected.
Therefore, only the flow velocity in the direction of flow needs to be considered. This velocity

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component varies with depth from the free surface. A typical variation of velocity with depth is
shown in Fig. 1.13.

Figure 1.13 Velocity distribution in different channel sections

(After Chow [1959])

Figure 1.14 Typical velocity variation with depth

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1.5.6 Energy Coefficient
As discussed in the previous paragraph, the flow velocity in a channel section usually varies from
one point to another. Therefore, the mean velocity head in a channel section, (V2/2g)m, is not the
same as the velocity head, Vm2/(2g), computed by using the mean flow velocity, Vm, in which the
subscript m refers to the mean values. This difference may be taken into consideration by
introducing an energy coefficient, α, which is also referred to as the velocity head, or Coriolis
coefficient. An expression for this coefficient is given as follows.

  (VA)
3
V dA 3


 dA
3 3
Vm
V A
m

or it can be given as

Since

The energy coefficient, α, can be simplified as:

1.5.7 Momentum Coefficient

Similar to the energy coefficient, a coefficient for the momentum transfer through a channel
section may be introduced to account for nonuniform velocity distribution. This coefficient, also
called Boussinesq coefficient, is denoted by β. An expression for this may be obtained as follows
The mass of liquid passing through area ΔA per unit time = ρVΔA.

Therefore, the momentum passing through area ΔA per unit time = (ρV ΔA)V = ρV 2ΔA.

By integrating this expression over the total area, we get

Momentum transfer through area A per unit time =   V 2 dA

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By introducing the momentum coefficient, β, we may write the momentum transfer through area A
in terms of the mean flow velocity, Vm, for the channel section, i.e.,

Momentum transfer through area A per unit time =  m2  dA

Then it follows

 
A)
2
V dA (V 2

Vm2  dA Vm2 A

Theoretical values for α and β can be derived from the power law and the logarithmic law for
velocity distribution in wide channels. Chen (1992) derived the theoretical values of α and β using
the power law distribution. The values of α and β for typical channel sections (Temple 1986;
Watts et al. 1967; Chow 1959) are listed in Table 1-2. For turbulent flow in a straight channel
having a rectangular, trapezoidal, or circular cross section, α is usually less than 1.15 (Henderson,
1966). Therefore, it may not be included in the computations since its value is not precisely known
and it is nearly equal to unity.

Table 1-2. Values of α and β for typical sections

Channel section α β

Regular channels 1.10 – 1.20 1.03 – 1.07

Natural channels 1.15 – 1.50 1.05 – 1.17

River valleys, over flooded 1.50 – 2.00 1.17 – 1.33

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Exercises
1. Determine the flow area, A, wetted perimeter P, hydraulic radius R, top-water surface width,
B, and hydraulic depth, Dh, for the following channel cross sections:

(i) Rectangular channel with depth of flow of 1.5 m and bottom width of 5.2 m.

(ii) Trapezoidal depth of flow 2.4 m, bottom width = 3.0 m, and side slopes = (1V:1.5H)

(iii)Triangular with depth of flow 1.2 m and side slopes = 1V : 1H)

(iv) Partially-full circular (diameter = D m)

2. At a bridge crossing, the mean flow velocities (in m/s) were measured at
the midpoints of various subareas, as shown in Fig. P1.1. Compute the values
of α and β for the cross section.

Fig. P1.1. Velocities at bridge crossing

3. Determine the average cross-sectional velocity V and the discharge Q for the compound
channel shown in Figure P.1.2.

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