MH1810 Math 1 Part 1 Algebra

Complex Numbers

Tang Wee Kee

Nanyang Technological University

Imaginary number

Does the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0 have a real root? That is,

are there real numbers x at which x 2 = 1?

To deal with the above irreducible quadratic equation, a new

symbol ‘i’is introduced, where

i2 = 1.

Thus, x 2 + 1 = 0 has two distinct roots namely i and i.

Complex number

(i) A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form

x + yi, where x, y are real numbers. We have z = x + yi.

(ii) The real numbers x and y are called the real part and
imaginary part of the complex number z respectively. We
denote the real and imaginary parts of a complex number z by
Re z and Im z respectively.

(ii) We represent the set of all complex numbers by C.

Examples of complex numbers

p
3 + 5i, 3.5 i, 3 + i, π + 9i,

Re(3 + 5i ) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i ) = 5.

De…nition (Equality of complex numbers.)
Two complex numbers z = x + yi and z 0 = x 0 + y 0 i, where x, x 0 , y
and y 0 are real numbers, are said to be equal if

x = x 0 and y = y 0 .

That is, Re(z ) = Re(z 0 ) and Im(z ) = Im(z 0 ).

Example

Example
Suppose x and y are real numbers such that the two complex
number (2x 3) + 5i and (x + 7) (y + 1)i are equal. Find the
values of x and y .
I Comparing both real and imaginary parts of the complex
number respectively, we obtain

(2x 3) = x + 7, and 5 = (y + 1),

which gives x = 10 and y = 6.

Remark

I We may identify every real number x 2 R as a complex

number (why?). In view of this we may think of the set of real
number as a subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e.,
R C.
Remark

I We may identify every real number x 2 R as a complex

number (why?). In view of this we may think of the set of real
number as a subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e.,
R C.
I We say that a complex number z = x + iy is purely
imaginary if the real part of z, namely x, is zero.
Powers of i

i2 = 1, i 3 = (i 2 )(i ) = i,

i 4 = (i 2 )(i 2 ) = ( 1)( 1) = 1, i 5 = (i 4 )(i ) = i, . . .

Let k 2 Z. Then we have

i 4k = (i 4 )k = 1, i 4k +1 = i, i 4k +2 = 1, i 4k +3 = i.

Note: Values of i n depends on the remainder when n is divided by

4.
Argand Diagram

The representation of the complex number z = x + iy is said to be

in rectangular form. By identifying each complex number
z = x + yi by the point with coordinate (x, y ), we actually
represent the complex number z by a unique point on the xy -plane.
Modulus of z

The modulus jz j of the complex number z = x + yi is

p
jz j = x 2 + y 2 .

It is the distance of the point (x, y ) from (0, 0).

Argument of z

For z = x + yi, the angle where the line joining points (0, 0) and
(x, y ) made with the positive x-axis is known an argument of z,
denoted by arg (z ).
The counter-clockwise direction is considered ‘positive’direction,
whereas the clockwise is considered ‘negative’direction.
Argument of z

Therefore, arg(z ) is the angle θ such that

x = jz j cos θ & y = jz j sin θ.

Note that tan θ = yx , if x 6= 0.

If arg(z ) = θ (radians), then

arg(z ) = θ + 2kπ for every integer k.

In particular, when the angle θ is chosen such that π < θ π,

we say this is the principal argument of z. It is denoted by
Arg(z ).
Polar form of z

Using the modulus and argument we can express a complex

number z = x + iy as

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ),

where r = jz j and θ is an argument of z.

This representation is known as the polar form (also known as
trigonometric form ) of z.
We also use the notation cisθ for (cos θ + i sin θ ), and write
z = r cisθ
Exponential form of z

The exponential form of a complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )

is written as
re i θ .

I commonly used in electronics, engineering and physics;

I convenient in discussing multiplication, division of complex
numbers;
I formally discussed in advanced courses in mathematics via
series.
Example

Example
Let z = 3 3i.
(a) Find the modulus and principal argument of z, and hence …nd
its polar representation.
(b) Write down the exponential form of z.

I First, …nd the modulus of z :

Example

Example
Let z = 3 3i.
(a) Find the modulus and principal argument of z, and hence …nd
its polar representation.
(b) Write down the exponential form of z.

I First, …nd the modulus of z :

p p
I Note that r = jz j = 32 + ( 3)2 = 3 2.
Example

I Next we …nd the argument.

Example

I Next we …nd the argument.

I The complex number 3 3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and
tan θ = 33 .
Example

I Next we …nd the argument.

I The complex number 3 3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and
tan θ = 33 .
I π 3
Let 0 α 2 such that tan α = j 3 j = 1. (Basic angle.)
Example

I Next we …nd the argument.

I The complex number 3 3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and
tan θ = 33 .
I π 3
Let 0 α 2 such that tan α = j 3 j = 1. (Basic angle.)
I Thus, α = π
4.
Example

I Next we …nd the argument.

I The complex number 3 3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and
tan θ = 33 .
I π 3
Let 0 α 2 such that tan α = j 3 j = 1. (Basic angle.)
I Thus, α = π
4.
I We have arg(3 3i ) = π
4.
Example

I Next we …nd the argument.

I The complex number 3 3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and
tan θ = 33 .
I π 3
Let 0 α 2 such that tan α = j 3 j = 1. (Basic angle.)
I Thus, α = π
4.
I We have arg(3 3i ) = π
4.
I Thus the polar form of z = 3 3i is
p π π p π
3 2 cos( ) + sin( ) = 3 2 cis( ).
4 4 4
Example

We have p π
r = jz j = 3 2, arg(3 3i ) = .
4
Thus the exponential form of 3 3i is
p π
3 2e 4 i .
Example

Example
5π
Express z = 5e 3 i in rectangular form.
I 5π
Note that arg(z ) = 3 .
Example

Example
5π
Express z = 5e 3 i in rectangular form.
I 5π
Note that arg(z ) = 3 .
I The principal argument is Arg(z ) = π
3.
Example

Example
5π
Express z = 5e 3 i in rectangular form.
I 5π
Note that arg(z ) = 3 .
I The principal argument is Arg(z ) = π
3.
I Therefore, we have
Example

Example
5π
Express z = 5e 3 i in rectangular form.
I 5π
Note that arg(z ) = 3 .
I The principal argument is Arg(z ) = π
3.
I Therefore, we have
5π π
I z = 5e 3 i = 5e 3 i
Example

Example
5π
Express z = 5e 3 i in rectangular form.
I 5π
Note that arg(z ) = 3 .
I The principal argument is Arg(z ) = π
3.
I Therefore, we have
5π π
I z = 5e 3 i= 5e 3 i
π π p
I 5 5 3
= 5(cos + isin ) = 2 + 2 i.
| {z 3} | {z3 }
p
1/2 3/2
Conjugate of a complex number

De…nition
The conjugate of a complex number z = x + yi is the complex
number z̄ = x yi.

Notation for the complex conjugate of z: z̄ or z .

Argand Diagram representing z and z̄:
Examples

z z̄ or z
3 + 5i
10
3.5
p i
3+i
p π + 9i
7i
Conjugate in Polar Form

The conjugate of the complex number

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) (in polar form) or z = re i θ (in exponential
form), is respectively

z = r (cos( θ ) + i sin( θ )) , or
iθ
z = re .
Theorem
Let z = x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
(a) (z ) = (z ) = z.
(b) z is real if and only if z = z̄.
(c) z is imaginary if and only if z = z̄.
(d) jz j = jz j and arg(z ) = arg(z ).
Addition and subtraction

Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we

de…ne

z1 z2 = (x1 x2 ) + (y1 y2 )i.

Example
(a) (3 + 5i ) + (3.5 i ) = 6.5 + 4i
p p
(b) ( 3 + i ) (π + 9i ) = ( 3 π ) + ( 8)i
Algebraic Properties

I z +0 = z = 0+z
Algebraic Properties

I z +0 = z = 0+z
I For every z = x + iy , the complex number z= x + ( y )i
satis…es z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
Algebraic Properties

I z +0 = z = 0+z
I For every z = x + iy , the complex number z= x + ( y )i
satis…es z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
I z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
Algebraic Properties

I z +0 = z = 0+z
I For every z = x + iy , the complex number z= x + ( y )i
satis…es z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
I z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
I (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 )
Algebraic Properties

I z +0 = z = 0+z
I For every z = x + iy , the complex number z= x + ( y )i
satis…es z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
I z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
I (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 )
I z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
To multiply two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i,
we can perform the multiplication treating i as a symbol. But we
replace i 2 by ( 1) when we simplify it :

z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i )(x2 + y2 i )
= x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + (y1 i )x2 + (y1 i )(y2 i )
= (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Example
(3 + 5i ) (2 i ) = 3(2) + (5i )(2) + (3)( i ) + (5i )( i )
= 6 + 10i 3i (5i 2 ) = 11 + 7i.
Algebraic Properties

Theorem
(i) z 1 = z = 1 z.
(ii) z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
(iii) (z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ).
(iv) z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
(v) z z = jz j2 . In particular, if z 6= 0, then z z > 0.
(vi) z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Product in Polar Form

Given two complex numbers expressed in polar form:

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

Their product is
I z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
Product in Polar Form

Given two complex numbers expressed in polar form:

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

Their product is
I z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
I =
r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + (cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )i ]
Product in Polar Form

Given two complex numbers expressed in polar form:

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

Their product is
I z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
I =
r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + (cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )i ]
I = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) .
Product in Polar Form

Given two complex numbers expressed in polar form:

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

Their product is
I z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
I =
r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + (cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )i ]
I = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) .
I Then jz1 z2 j =
Product in Polar Form

Given two complex numbers expressed in polar form:

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

Their product is
I z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
I =
r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + (cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )i ]
I = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) .
I Then jz1 z2 j =
I and arg (z1 z2 ) =
Important Result

Theorem
(a) Modulus of product is the product of moduli:

jz1 z2 j = r1 r2 = jz1 j jz2 j

(b) Argument of the product is the sum of arguments:

arg(z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

This implies the complex number z1 z2 lies on the line obtained by

rotating the line segment representing z1 by the angle arg(z2 ).
Represent the product on an Argand diagram:
Represent the product on an Argand diagram

In particular, for a complex number z, the complex number z e i θ

is represented on the Argand diagram by by rotating z through θ.
Division of complex numbers

1 p
Recall that to express p in the form a + b 5, we use the
p 3 + 2p 5
conjugate 3 2 5 of 3 + 2 5 to perform the following
p p
1 3 2 5 3 2 5 3 2p
p p = p = + 5.
3+2 5 3 2 5 32 (2 5)2 11 11
Division of complex numbers

To divide a complex number z1 = x1 + y1 i by a non-zero complex

number z2 = x2 + y2 i (i.e., z2 6= 0), we use the conjugate
z2 = x2 y2 i as follows:
z1 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2
= = =
z2 z2 z2 z2 z2 jz2 j2

Note that z2 z2 = x22 + y22 is a positive real number.

Example
3 +5i
Express 2 i in the form a + bi.
The conjugate of the denominator 2 i is 2 + i. We have

3 + 5i (3 + 5i ) (2 + i ) (6 5) + (10 + 3)i 1 13
= = = + i.
2 i (2 i ) (2 + i ) 5 5 5
Division in polar form

In polar form, we have z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and

z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ), such that

z1 jz1 j
=
z2 jz2 j
z1
arg( ) = arg(z1 ) arg(z2 )
z2
Thus, we have
z1 r1
= (cos(θ1 θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 θ2 )) .
z2 r2
Division in polar (exponential) form

Using the exponential form, for z1 = r1 e i θ1 and z2 = r2 e i θ2 we have

z1 z2 = (r1 r2 )e i (θ1 +θ2 ) , and

z1 r1 i ( θ 1 θ2 )
= e where z2 6= 0.
z2 r2
Both coincide with the law of exponents we are familiar with in
real numbers.
Example
1
Let z = cos θ + i sin θ. Find jz j and show that z = z̄.
p
2
Note that jz j = cos2 θ + sin θ = 1. Thus, we have z z̄ = 1 and

1 1 z̄ z̄
= = = z̄ = cos θ i sin θ.
z z z̄ z z̄
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every polynomial equation of the form

an x n + an 1x
n 1
+ + a1 x + a0 = 0,

in which the coe¢ cients a0 , a1 , . . . , an 1 , an are any complex

numbers, whose degree n is greater than or equal to one, and
whose leading coe¢ cient an is not zero, has exactly n roots in the
complex number system, provided each multiple root of
multiplicity m is counted as m roots.
Proof (Omitted): Textbook on theory of complex analysis.
Solving Quadratic Equations

Consider a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c

are real numbers.
Recall that its discriminant D, is de…ned as D = b 2 4ac.
(i) If D > 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two
distinct real roots given by
p
b b 2 4ac
x= .
2a
(ii) If D = 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has
repeated real roots given by
b
x= .
2a
Solving Quadratic Equations

(iii) If D < 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two

distinct complex roots given by
p
b i (b2 4ac )
x= .
2a
Note that the two complex roots are conjugate of each other.
When D < 0, the quadratic equation or expression is said to
be irreducible.
Example

Example
Solve the quadratic equation 2x 2 3x + 5 = 0
For the given quadratic equation 2x 2 3x + 5 = 0, its
discriminant D is D = ( 3)2 4(2)(5) = 31 < 0.
Thus, 2x 2 3x + 5 = 0 is irreducible.
p p
3 + 31i 3 31i
The two distinct roots are and which form a
4 4
conjugate pair.
Question: From the from the above example, we see that the
roots of the equation appear in conjugate pairs. Is this true in
general?
Polynomial with Real Coe¢ cients

Theorem
Suppose p (x ) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial
in x with real coe¢ cients ak ’s. If z is a solution to p (x ) = 0, then
the conjugate z̄ is also a solution of p (x ) = 0.
For example: suppose we are given that z0 = 1 + i is a complex
root of x 3 x 2 + 2 = 0, then z̄0 = 1 i is also a complex root of
x 3 x 2 + 2 = 0. Therefore, (x z0 )(x z̄0 ) is a quadratic factor
of x 3 x 2 + 2. Moreover,
(x z0 )(x z̄0 ) = x 2 (z0 + z̄0 )x + z z̄0 is a real coe¢ cient
quadratic factor.
As a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and the
above result, we have the following useful result.
Theorem
Every odd degree polynomial p (x ) with real coe¢ cients has at
least one real root.
For example: 9x 5 + 7x 2 6x + π = 0 has at least one real root.
De Moivre’s Theorem
Example
Let z = (cos θ + i sin θ ). Find expressions for z 2 and z 3 in the
same form.
De Moivre’s Theorem

Theorem (De Moivre’s Theorem)

For every integer n,

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.

The Euler representation DeMoivre’s Theorem is

n
ei θ = e i (nθ ) .
Examples
(a) (cos θ + i sin θ )9
(b) (cos θ + i sin θ ) 4
Example. Simplify each of the following complex numbers
2
(a) cos π4 + i sin π4
(b) cos π3 + i sin π3 9
Example
Example
Express each of the following complex numbers in the form
(cos θ + i sin θ )n
(a) cos 7θ + i sin 7θ.
(b) cos 5θ i sin 5θ.
PROOF of De Moivre’s Theorem

We prove the theorem by considering two cases:

First Case: n is a non-negative integer, i.e., n 0.

Second Case: n is a negative integer, i.e., n < 0.

PROOF of De Moivre’s Theorem

Case 1: n is non-negative integer

We shall prove

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ,

for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . by Mathematical Induction.

PROOF: Case 1 n is an non-negative integer

1. Verify the result holds for n = 0

(cos θ + i sin θ )0 = 1, cos 0θ + i sin 0θ = cos 0 = 1.

2. Assume the result holds for some non-negative integer k

(cos θ + i sin θ )k = cos kθ + i sin kθ.

3. We shall prove the result holds for k + 1 i.e.,

(cos θ + i sin θ )k +1 = cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ.

PROOF: Case 1 n is an non-negative integer

Indeed:

(cos θ + i sin θ )k +1 = (cos θ + i sin θ )k (cos θ + i sin θ )

= (cos kθ + i sin kθ ) (cos θ + i sin θ )

= (cos kθ cos θ sin kθ sin θ ) + i (sin kθ cos θ + cos kθ sin θ )
= cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ.

Therefore by Mathematical induction,

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ for all non-negative integer
n.
PROOF: Case 2 n is a negative integer
Case n is a negative integer, i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..

Let n = m where m is a positive integer. Note that

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = (cos θ + i sin θ ) m

1 1
= m =
(cos θ + i sin θ ) cos mθ + i sin mθ
1 cos mθ i sin mθ
=
cos mθ + i sin mθ cos mθ i sin mθ
cos mθ i sin mθ
= = cos mθ i sin mθ
cos2 (mθ ) + sin2 (mθ )

= cos( mθ )+i sin ( mθ ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ.

Finding nth roots

We begin with an example to have a geometrical idea of …nding

roots of a complex number before we state the formula for all
distinct nth roots of z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ).
Example
Find all distinct cube roots of cos π3 + i sin π3 .
Distinct nth roots

Theorem (Distinct nth roots)

Consider a complex number z in polar form

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), where r > 0 and π<θ π.

Then the distinct nth roots of the complex number

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) are

p
n θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
zk = r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1.
n n
Distinct nth roots - exponential form

In exponential form, we have all n distinct nth roots of the

complex number z = re i θ are
p θ +2k π
zk = n
r ei n , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1.

The n integers can be chosen to be any n consecutive integers.

Example
p
Find all distinct 5th roots of 3 + i.
p
I First, we express 3 + i in polar form.
Example
p
Find all distinct 5th roots of 3 + i.
p
I First, we express 3 + i in polar form.
p
I Note that r =
p p 3 + 1 = 2, and
3 + i = 2( 23 + i 12 ) = 2e i 6 .
π
Example
p
Find all distinct 5th roots of 3 + i.
p
I First, we express 3 + i in polar form.
p
I Note that r =
p p 3 + 1 = 2, and
3 + i = 2( 23 + i 12 ) = 2e i 6 .
π

I Then apply the formula, we have

π/6 +2k π (1 +12k )π
21/5 e 5 i = 21/5 e 30 i , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;
Example
p
Find all distinct 5th roots of 3 + i.
p
I First, we express 3 + i in polar form.
p
I Note that r =
p p 3 + 1 = 2, and
3 + i = 2( 23 + i 12 ) = 2e i 6 .
π

I Then apply the formula, we have

π/6 +2k π (1 +12k )π
21/5 e 5 i = 21/5 e 30 i , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;
p π 13π
I All distinct 5th of 3 + i are z0 = 21/5 e 30 i , z1 = 21/5 e 30 i ,
Example
p
Find all distinct 5th roots of 3 + i.
p
I First, we express 3 + i in polar form.
p
I Note that r =
p p 3 + 1 = 2, and
3 + i = 2( 23 + i 12 ) = 2e i 6 .
π

I Then apply the formula, we have

π/6 +2k π (1 +12k )π
21/5 e 5 i = 21/5 e 30 i , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;
p π 13π
I All distinct 5th of 3 + i are z0 = 21/5 e 30 i , z1 = 21/5 e 30 i ,
25π 37π 23π
I z2 = 21/5 e 30 i , z3 = 21/5 e 30 i = 21/5 e 30 i ,
49π 11π
z4 = 21/5 e 30 i = 21/5 e 30 i .
Distinct nth roots

Corollary
The n distinct nth roots of cos θ + i sin θ are
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
wk = cis ( ) = cos( ) + i sin( ),
n n n
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
In exponential form, we have
θ +2k π
wk = e i ( n )
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Roots of Unity

Note that 1 = 1 + 0i = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ,

where k is an integer. We call n-th roots of 1 the n-th roots of
unity.
Corollary (nth roots of unity)
The n distinct nth roots of unity are
2kπ 2kπ
zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1.
n n
By De Moivre’s Theorem, we have
2π 2π
zk = (z1 )k , where z1 = cos + i sin .
n n
Roots of Unity

On the Argand diagram, all n-th roots of 1 are represented by

points on the unit circle and they are equally spaced by 2π
n :
Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities I

Express cos nθ, sin nθ and tan nθ in terms of powers of cos θ, sin θ
and tan θ.
Tools:

cos nθ = Re(cos nθ + i sin nθ ) = Re (cos θ + i sin θ )n ,

sin nθ = Im(cos nθ + i sin nθ ) = Im (cos θ + i sin θ )n ,

Apply binomial expansion to (cos θ + i sin θ )n
Notation used: c cos θ, s sin θ, t tan θ.
Example

Example
Express sin 3θ in terms of powers of sin θ.
The …rst step is to note that

sin 3θ = Im(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ )

Now, we apply de Moivre’s theorem

sin 3θ = Im(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ )

= Im (cos θ + i sin θ )3 (why?)
= Im (c + is )3
= Im c 3 + 3c 2 is + 3ci 2 s 2 + i 3 s 3
= Im c 3 3cs 2 + i (3c 2 s s 3 )
= 3c 2 s s 3
Example

Using c 2 + s 2 = 1, we have

sin 3θ = 3c 2 s s3
= 3(1 s 2 )s s3
= 3s 4s 3
= 3 sin θ 4 sin3 θ.
Example

From the above, we have also obtained an expression for cos 3θ:

cos 3θ = c 3 3cs 2 = c 3 3c (1 c 2 ) = 4c 3 3c
Using the expression for both sin 3θ and cos 3θ, we obtain a similar
expression for tan 3θ:

sin 3θ 3c 2 s s 3
tan 3θ = = 3
cos 3θ c 3cs 2
3c 2 s s 3 1/c 3 3t t 3
= . =
c 3 3cs 2 1/c 3 1 3t 2
Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II

Express cosn θ or sinn θ in terms of cosines and sines of multiples of

θ, i.e. cos kθ, sin kθ.
Main Tool: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ , we have z1 = cos θ i sin θ.
Thus we have cos θ = 12 z + z1 and sin θ = 2i1 z z1 .
Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II

1
Next, we apply binomial expansion and group z k and zk
together.
By De Moivre’s Theorem, we have
1
z k = cos kθ + i sin kθ and = cos kθ i sin kθ
zk
which gives
1 1
zk + = 2 cos kθ and z k = 2i sin kθ.
zk zk
Thus, we obtain an expression involving sines and cosines of
multiple of θ.
Example
Example
1
Prove that cos3 θ = 4 (cos 3θ + 3 cos θ )
Proof.
Let z = cos θ + i sin θ. We have
3
1 1
cos3 θ = (cos θ )3 = (z + )
2 z

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= z 3 + 3z 2 + 3z ( )2 + ( )3 = (z 3 + ) + 3(z + )
8 z z z 8 z3 z

1 1
= [2 cos 3θ + 3(2 cos θ )] = (cos 3θ + 3 cos θ ) .
8 4