CHAPTER 1: CONTENT AND PEDAGODY

Lesson 1: Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Its Application across

the Curriculum

Education Theory

The mastery of content and comprehensive pedagogical content

knowledge (PCK) of the subject area is one of the competencies expected in a
teacher education graduate (CHED 2017). Shulman introduced PCK in 1986 and
defined three categories of teacher’s knowledge that are essential in teaching
and learning. These are the following:

1. Content Knowledge
 The knowledge of the subject matter or academic course to be taught
or expected to be learned by students, which requires understanding of
facts, concepts, or principles.
2. Pedagogical Knowledge
 The knowledge of teaching, which includes methods and strategies of
formulating the subject matter to make it more comprehensible to the
learners.
3. Curricular Knowledge
 The knowledge of the curriculum, which is represented by full range of
programs designed for a teaching a particular subjects/course at a
given level.

PCK is the blending of content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge that

is unique among teachers. It is the type of knowledge to make the lesson more
relevant and comprehensible to learners.

While it is important for the teachers to have mastery of content and

pedagogical skills, it is also essential to have curricular knowledge to deliver the
content effectively. Choppin (2009) explore how teachers develop and connect
content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and curricular knowledge in
practice.

As a teacher, you should familiarize yourself with DEPEd’s K to 12

Basic Education Curriculum.

Lesson 2: Research-based Instruction and Principles of Teaching and

Learning

Education Theory

The K to 12 curriculum shall be learner-centered, relevant, responsive and

research-based. As stated in RA 10533 otherwise known as Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2012, it shall promote the use of pedagogical approaches that
are constructivist, inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative, and integrative. These
principles and approaches, which are typically derived from empirical
researches, theoretical claims, practical experiences, and ideological or
philosophical beliefs shall serve as rules or guiding principles that will direct
teachers in the attainment of a particular outcome.

Research-based instruction and the principles of teaching and learning are

to be taken as a strategy that promotes the use of empirical evidences, scientific
findings, theoretical claims, quantitative data, or practical experiences to inform
the content of lessons and instructional strategies. The data on students’ poor
academic performance, for example, can be analysed to identify the problem
and determine appropriate strategies to prevent similar cases in the future. The
application of research-based instruction and the principles of teaching and
learning does not only transmit the knowledge based on existing theories and
principles but also transforms these into new knowledge.

Carnegie Mellon University (2016) articulates the following research-based

principles and strategies that can make things effective and efficient:

1. Acquiring relevant knowledge about the student and using that knowledge
to inform our course design and classroom teaching;
2. Aligning the three major components of instruction: learning objectives,
assessments, and instructional activities;
3. Articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and
policies;
4. Prioritizing knowledge and skills we choose to focus on;
5. Recognizing and overcoming roles to support our learning goals; and
6. Progressively refining our courses based on reflection and feedback.

In 2016, the Department of Education (DepEd) adopted the Basic

Education Research Agenda (BERA) by virtue of DepEd Order No. 39, series of
2016 to provide guidance to DepEd and its stakeholders in the conduct of
education research. It serves as a guide for education researchers who seek to

1. Build gains from existing research;

2. Generate new knowledge on less explored, but priority fields of basic
education;
3. Systematically focus DepEd’s attention on relevant education issues;
and
4. Maximize available resources for research inside and outside the
Department.

Lesson 3: Positive Use of Information and Communications Technology

Education Theory
 One of the 21st century skills that students need to succeed in the
information age is literacy skill that comprises information literacy, media
literacy, and technology literacy (P21 Framework for 21 st Century Learning
2016). Thus, teachers should not only be equipped with pedagogical knowledge,
but also with technological knowledge to adapt to the demand of the 21 st century
teaching and learning.

Mishra and Koehler (2006) define technological knowledge (TK) as

knowledge of different technologies from traditional materials such as books,
chalk, and blackboard to more advanced technologies like digital technologies
that involve skills required to operate hardware and software and the ability to
adapt to new technologies regardless of type. Mishra and Koehler (2006)
explained that the pedagogical uses of technology require the development of a
complex situated form of knowledge called technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPACK). The TPACK framework describes the teacher’s knowledge of
technology integration, which adds technological knowledge to Shulman’s
concept of PCK. It is an overlap of content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge,
and technological knowledge as shown in Figure 1.

Relatively, due to rapid development of technologies, there is a need to

have a clear vision of the role of teachers in harnessing the power of ICT in the
classroom and beyond (UNESCO 2011). Thus, the UNESCO ICT Competency
Framework for Teachers (ICT-CFT) was created to help countries develop a
comprehensive national ICT competency policy and standard. UNESCO Bangkok
in partnership with the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) addressed this
vision by integrating the ICT competency standards for teachers in the education
graduates’ ability to apply ICT to promote quality, relevant, and sustainable
educational practices.

To provide public school teachers with appropriate technologies to

enhance the teaching and learning process and meet the challenges of the 21 st
century, the DepEd implemented the DepEd Computerization program (DCP) in
2010 by virtue of DepEd Order No. 78. The objectives of the DCP are as follows:

a. provide computer laboratory packages to secondary schools;

b. provide e-classrooms to elementary teachers;
c. provide laptop units to mobile teachers;
d. integrate ICT in the school system;
e. raise the ICT literacy of learners, pupils, students, teachers, and school
heads; and
f. reduce computer backlog in public schools.

Lesson 4: Strategies for Promoting Literacy and Numeracy

Education Theory

One of the target goals specified under Global Goals 4.6 is to ensure that
all youth and a sustainable proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve
literacy and numeracy by 2030. To achieve this goal, teachers as serve as
forefront of teaching literacy and numeracy should be equipped with knowledge
on strategies that promote literacy and numeracy skills.

Literacy and numeracy skills are foundational skills that learners need to
develop to succeed in life. These basic skills refer to the student’s ability to
understand the effective use of language and communication skills (reading,
writing, listening, and speaking) and mathematical concepts (number sense,
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, decimals, and fraction) that are
useful in everyday life. According to Wyatt-Smith et al. (2011), literacy and
numeracy education is core in quality learning across all phases of schooling and
all curriculum areas. This means that the teacher’s role in instigating literacy and
numeracy is significant to improve student’s academic performance. Knowing
how literacy and numeracy are taught under the K-12 curriculum and
understanding the learner’s competence are essential in identifying appropriate
strategies to promote literacy and numeracy among the students.

The following are some of the strategies that can be used to promote
literacy in teaching and learning:

1. Brainstorming and discussion;

2. Cooperative learning;
3. Inquiry-based learning;
4. Problem-based learning;
5. Using visuals, semantics, and graphic organizers;
6. Promoting journal and writing;
7. Organizing games, role playing, drama, and charades;
8. Using music, rhythm, and dance;
9. Conducting experiments and practical experience;
 10.Storytelling; and
11.Using audio and video materials.

Meanwhile, below are the strategies for building numeracy in different learning
areas:

a. using concepts of time, numbers, dates, and sequencing events in

teaching History, Social Studies, Values Education, and ICT;
b. measuring distance, volume, weight, and height and using percentage and
calculation in teaching Science and Mathematics;
c. collecting, comparing, and interpreting data in teaching Science,
Mathematics, Social Studies, and TLE;
d. using graphs and diagrams in teaching Mother Tongue, English, Filipino,
Values Education, Mathematics, and TLE;
e. using game scores, dance steps, and rhythm in teaching MAPEH; and
using play money in teaching financial literacy in TLE, Mathematics, and
Social Studies.

In 2015, the DepEd issued guidelines on the Early Language, Literacy, and
Numeracy program: Professional Development Component (DepEd Order No. 12)
in line with then President Benigno S. Aquino III’s ten-point agenda that “every
child should be a reader by Grade 1.” Its primary goal is to develop the Filipino
children’s literacy and numeracy skills and attitudes toward lifelong learning.

Lesson 5: Strategies for Developing Critical and Creative Thinking as

well as Higher-Order Thinking Skills

Education Theory

Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) is a concept of learning based on

cognitive processes that are beyond the basic thinking skills are organized into
six major classes and presented in hierarchical order (see Table 1). The
hierarchical presentation suggests that learner should master lower level
thinking skills such as knowledge, comprehension, and application before they
can demonstrate HOTS such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Anderson
and Krathwohl revised Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objective in 2001. This
led them to provide six categories of the cognitive process dimension and
related cognitive process (see Table1) and offer active verbs foe each level to
help teachers in writing lesson objectives.

Table1. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain

Bloom’s
Taxonomy Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy

Create – put elements together to form to form a

Evaluation coherent functional whole; reorganize elements into a
 new pattern or structure
(Keywords: hypothesizing, designing, constructing)

HIGHER Evaluate – make judgement based on criteria and

ORDER Synthesis standard
(Keywords: checking, critiquing)

Analyze – break material into its constituent parts and

determine how the parts relate to one another and to an
Analysis overall structure or purpose
(Keywords: differentiating, organizing, attributing)

Apply – carry out or use procedure in a given situation

Application (Keywords: executing, implementing)

Understand – construct meaning from instructional

messages, including oral, written, and graphic
LOWER Comprehensio communication
ORDER n (Keywords: interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
summarizing, inferring, comparing, explaining)

Remember – retrieve relevant knowledge from long-term

Knowledge memory
(Keywords: recognizing, recalling)

Relatively, critical and creative thinking are considered to be HOTS as they

require a more complex level of thinking. Critical thinking is the ability to make
logical, rational, and reasonable judgement using HOTS such as analysing,
synthesizing, and evaluating before making conclusions. Creative thinking, on
the other hand, is the ability to become resourceful, open-minded, innovative,
and adaptive in addressing problems; it involves HOTS such as analysing,
designing, composing, and constructing to generate ideas or create something
new.

The following are some of the strategies to enhance HOTS of students as

suggested by Collins (2014):

a. teach the language and concept of higher-order thinking;

b. encourage questioning and discussion to tap into particular HOTS;
c. teach subject concepts to connect students;
d. provide scaffolding by giving student support at the beginning of the
lesson such as visuals, graphic organizers, and problem-solving tasks;
and
e. encourage higher-order thinking to foster deep conceptual
understanding.
Lesson 6: Mother Tongue, Filipino, and English in Teaching and
Learning

Educational theory

Mother Tongue Based-Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) under K to 12

basic education program was institutionalized in 2009 through DO No. 74, series
of 2009. MTB-MLE aims to improve the student’s learning as well their awareness
by understanding the language. Section 4 of the Republic Act No. 10533,
otherwise known as The Enhanced Basic education Act of 2013, provides that the
basic education should delivered in languages understood by the learners as it
plays a strategic role in shaping the formative years of learners.

Mother Tongue is used as a medium of instruction in teaching

Mathematics, Araling Panlipunan, Music Arts, Physical education and Health
(MAPEH), and Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao in Grades 1 and 2. It is also taught as
a separate learning area in Grades 1 and 2 as provided in DepEd Order No. 31,
series of 2023. Aside from Mother Tongue, Filipino and English are also
introduced in Grade 1 as separate subjects with focus on fluency and as MOIs
from Grade 4 onwards.

Relatively, 12 major languages or Lingua Franca are specified in DO No.

16, series of 2012 as learning areas and MOIs. These are Tagalog,
Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Iloko, Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Tausug,
Maguindanaoan, Maranao, and Chabacano.

In addition, seven other languages were identified as MOIs in various

regions per DO No. 28, s. 2013. These are Ybanaq (Region II- Tuguegarao City,
Cagayan, Isabela), Ivatan (Region II- Batanes Group of Islands), Sambal (Region
III- Zambales), Aklanon (Region VI- Aklan, Capiz), Kinaray-a (Region VI- Capiz,
Aklan), Yakan (ARMM (Basilan)), and Surigaonon (CARAGA- Surigao City and
provinces).

Mother Tongue, Filipino, and English as MOIs are also offered as learning
areas under K-12 curriculum with focus on oral language, phonological
awareness, book and print knowledge, alphabet knowledge, phonics and word
recognition, fluency, spelling, writing and composition, grammar awareness and
structure, vocabulary development, reading comprehension, listening
comprehension, attitudes toward language, literacy and literature, and study
strategies.

Lesson 7: Classroom Communication Strategies

Education Theory

Communication skill is one of the 21 st century competencies that every

student needs. It is essential in exchanging information between people.
Communication makes teaching and learning easier.

Communication may occur between individuals, groups, organizations,

and social classes regardless of their complexities, distance, space, and time
(Rosengren 2000). In a classroom setting where the teachers uasually plays the
role as conveyor of message or information, his/her ability to communicate with
the learners is very essential in order to engage them in class discussion.

According to Rocci and Saussure (2016), verbal communication is arguably

the most pervasive form of communication especially in the huge gamut of
communication phenomena where spoken and written language combines with
other modalities such as gestures and pictures. There are two known forms of
verbal communication:

1. Oral Communication – a communication through spoken words done face

to face in video chat, or on a telephone call.
2. Written Communication – a communication through the use of written or
printed documents, emails, fax messages, SMS/text messages, or online
messaging/ chat.

Non-verbal communication, on the other hand, is the process of

communication that does not use any oral or written words. Communication in
this form takes place with the use of signals, behaviors, expressions, or
movements. Hall and Knapp (2013) identify the modalities of non-verbal
communications in the following forms:

1. Facial behavior
2. Vocal behavior
3. Gesture and body movement
4. Eye behavior
5. Face and body physiognomy (non-verbal cues for trait impression)
6. Proxemics and haptic interaction (the closeness continuum)