Manufacturing Processes 1

[Workshop Practice 1]
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Class Notes for EMG 1103 Manufacturing Processes 1 and EME 1102 Workshop
Practice 1 for BSc ME & BEd (ME), BSc EEE & BEd (EEE), BSc TIE
Dedan Kimathi University of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering
2021

Lecturer: Eng. PM Kimari

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1 Safety at the
Workplace
Employers have responsibilities for the health and safety of their employees and all
persons lawfully present at workplaces.

1.1 The Health and Safety at Work Act

The Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 is the primary piece of legislation covering
work-related health and safety measures in Kenya. It sets out employer’s responsibilities
for employees’ health and safety at work and all persons lawfully present at their
workplaces. A safety consultant, registered by Directorate of Occupational Safety & Health
Services (DOSHS), is mandated to assesses compliance with the provisions of the law.

1.2 Directorate of Occupational Safety & Health Services

(DOSHS)

1.2.1 Mandate

The mandate of the Directorate is to ensure compliance with the provisions of the
Occupational safety and health Act 2007 and promote safety and health of workers.

1.2.2 Mission statement

To promote a safe and health workplace by implementing effective systems for the
prevention of Occupational diseases, ill health accidents and damage to property in order
to reduce the cost of production and improve productivity in all sectors of our economic
activities.

1.2.3 DOSHS Core functions include:

1. Inspecting workplaces to ensure compliance with safety and health law

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 2. Examination and testing of steam boilers, air & steam receivers, gas cylinders, lifts,
cranes chains and other lifting equipment

3. Measurements of workplace pollutants for purposes of their control

4. Investigation of occupational accidents and diseases with a view to preventing

recurrence

5. Medical examinations of workers

6. Training on Occupational safety and health, first aid and fire safety

7. Approving architectural plans of building intended for use as workplaces

8. Disseminating information on occupational safety and health to customers

1.2.4 Workplace Registration

To ensure compliance with OSHA 2007, workplaces owners are required by law to
register their workplaces with DOSHS upon payment of a prescribed fee that is renewable
annually. The application processes involve filling in of a self-assessment form by the
workplace owner that gives the general occupational safety and health standards of the
workplace. If in compliance, a certificate of registration under OSHA will then be
processed issued to the workplace occupier.

1.3 Workers Injury Benefit Act (WIBA)

The Workers Injury Benefit Act (WIBA), 2007 is an Act of Parliament that provides for
compensation to employees for work related injuries and occupational diseases
contracted in the course of their employment. It repealed the workmen's compensation
Act cap 236. The Act came into operation as from 2nd June 2008. 6. The Act is administered
by the Director of Occupational Health and Safety Services in the Ministry of Labour and
Social Protection. The act applies to all employees, including employees employed by the
government, but not members of the armed forces. An employee who is involved in an
accident or disease resulting in serious disablement or death related to his employment is
entitled to compensation. If an employee dies as a result of an injury caused by an accident,
compensation should be paid to the dependents of the employee.

Every employer should report an occupational accident to the Director of Occupational

Health and Safety Services within seven days after having received notice of an accident
or having learnt that an employee has been injured in an accident. In case of fatal
accidents, the accident should be reported within twenty-four hours after occurrence by
fastest means possible and formally through prescribed form (DOSH 1) within seven day.

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 1.4 Risk assessment
The employer has a 'duty of care' to look after, as far as possible, to the health, safety, and
welfare of employees while at work. The duty of care also applies to all persons lawfully
present at workplaces. Risk assessment of workplaces helps to spot possible health and
safety hazards that requires mitigation measures to be put in place.

Employers/workplace owners/occupiers have to appoint a 'competent

person/consultant' with health and safety responsibilities. There are individual
consultants/consultancy firms registered and mandated by DOSHS who are
professionally versed in matters health and safety who carry out risk assessment.

1.4.1 Steps in Risk Assessment

Identify Who Evaluate the Record the Review and

the might be risks & findings & update
hazards harmed? mitigation disseminate

Step 1: Identify the hazards

o Walk around your venue and look at what could reasonably be expected to cause
harm.
o Check manufacturers’ instructions or data sheets for chemicals and equipment as
they can be extremely helpful in spelling out the hazards and putting them in their
true perspective.
o Think about long-term hazards to health (e.g., high levels of noise or exposure to
harmful substances) as well as safety hazards.

Step 2: Decide who might be harmed and how

o For each hazard take note of who might be harmed and how. This activity helps in
identifying the best way of managing the risk.

Step 3: Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions

o Having spotted the hazards, they require mitigation measures. The law requires an
employer/owner/occupier of a workplace to do everything ‘reasonably
practicable’ to protect people from harm. When mitigating risks:
o try a less risky option (e.g., switch to using a less hazardous chemical)
o prevent access to the hazard (e.g., by guarding)
o organise work to reduce exposure to the hazard (e.g., put barriers between
pedestrians and traffic)
o issue personal protective equipment (e.g., clothing, footwear, goggles etc);
and provide welfare facilities (e.g., first aid and washing facilities for
removal of contamination).

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Step 4: Record findings and implement them
o Write down the results of the risk assessment and share them with
interested parties/stakeholders.

Step 5: Review the risk assessment and update if necessary

o There might be changes or new developments in the workplace that will
necessitate a review of the risk assessment already carried out and identify
changes/improvements that need to be carried out. It is good practice to
carry out reviews on an ongoing basis.

1.5 The employer's duty of care in practice

All Employers/workplace owners/occupiers, regardless of the size of their business, must:

o Make the workplace safe

o Prevent risks to health
o Ensure that plant and machinery is safe to use, and that safe working practices are
set up and followed
o Make sure that all materials are handled, stored, and used safely
o Provide adequate first aid facilities
o Tell you about any potential hazards from the work you do, chemicals and other
substances used by the firm, and give you information, instructions, training, and
supervision as needed
o Set up emergency plans
o Make sure that ventilation, temperature, lighting, and toilet, washing and rest
facilities all meet health, safety, and welfare requirements
o Check that the right work equipment is provided and is safely used and regularly
maintained
o Prevent or control exposure to substances that may damage your health
o Take precautions against the risks caused by flammable or explosive hazards,
electrical equipment, noise, and radiation
o Avoid potentially dangerous work involving manual handling and if it cannot be
avoided, take precautions to reduce the risk of injury
o Provide health supervision as needed
o Provide protective clothing or equipment free of charge if risks cannot be removed
or adequately controlled by any other means
o Ensure that the right warning signs are provided and looked after
o Report accidents, injuries, diseases, and dangerous occurrences to DOSHS.

1.6 Making the workplace safe and healthy

So that the work premises provide a safe and healthy environment, the
employers/workplace owners/occupiers should:

o Make sure that workplaces are properly ventilated, with clean and fresh air

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 o Keep temperatures at a comfortable level
o Light premises so that employees can work and move about safely
o Keep the workplace and equipment clean
o Ensure that workrooms are big enough to allow easy movement with at least 11
cubic metres per person
o Provide workstations to suit the employees and the work
o Keep the workplace and equipment in good working order
o Make floors, walkways, stairs, roadways etc safe to use
o Protect people from falling from height or into dangerous substances
o Store things so that they are unlikely to fall and cause injuries
o Fit openable windows, doors and gates with safety devices if needed
o Provide suitable washing facilities and clean drinking water
o If necessary, provide somewhere for employees to get changed and to store their
own clothes
o Set aside areas for rest breaks and to eat meals, including suitable facilities for
pregnant women and nursing mothers
o Let employees take appropriate rest breaks and their correct holiday entitlement
o Make sure that employees who work alone, or off-site, can do so safely and
healthily.

1.7 Employees Health and Safety Responsibilities

Employees too have responsibilities for their own wellbeing and that of their colleagues.

Employee’s rights

o As far as possible, to have any risks to one’s health and safety properly controlled
o To be provided, free of charge, with any personal protective and safety equipment
o If one have reasonable concerns about his/her safety, to stop work and leave the
work area, without being disciplined
o To tell the employer about any health and safety concerns that he/she have
o To get in touch with DOSHS if the Employers/workplace owners/occupiers will not
listen to the concerns, without being disciplined

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 o To have rest breaks during the working day, to have time off from
work during the working week, and to have annual paid
holiday

1.8 Employee’s responsibilities

o To take reasonable care of his/her own health and
safety
o If possible, avoid wearing jewellery or loose clothing
if operating machinery
o If she/he have long hair or wear a headscarf,
make sure it is tucked out of the way (it could get
caught in machinery)
o To take reasonable care not to put other people
- fellow employees and members of the public - at
risk by what he/she do or do not do in the course
of his/her work
o To co-operate with his/her employer, making
sure he/she get proper training and understand
and follow the company's health and safety
policies
o Not to interfere with or misuse anything that
has been provided for his/her health, safety, or
welfare
o To report any injuries, strains or illnesses
suffered as a result of doing his/her job (employer
may need to change the way he/she work)
o To tell his/her employer if something happens
that might affect his/her ability to work (e.g.,
becoming pregnant or suffering an injury) - the
employer has a legal responsibility for his/her health
and safety, they may need to suspend the employer
while they find a solution to the problem, but you will
normally be paid if this happens
o If he/she drive or operate machinery, to tell the
employer if he/she is taking medication that makes
him/her drowsy - they should temporarily move him/her
to another job if they have one.

1.9 Personal Protective

Equipment
The Employers/workplace owners/occupiers must
provide personal protective equipment (PPE) to employees
free of charge. This must be used correctly, and follows the
training and instruction given.

In some jobs, failure to use PPE properly can be grounds for disciplinary
action or even dismissal. However, one can refuse to wear PPE if it puts your safety at risk
(e.g., PPE of the wrong size could put one at risk because of its poor fit).

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If one religious belief requires the wearing of special dressing e.g., a Sikh who works on
construction sites and wear a turban one can legally refuse to wear head protection. This
does not apply if one work at sites other than construction sites where, for example the use
of safety helmets would still be required.

1.10 Safe Manual Work

There are many hazards that one might come across while doing manual work.

1.10.1 Musculoskeletal Disorders

Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) are the most common kind of work-related illness in
workplaces, and include problems like lower back pain, joint injuries, and repetitive
strain injuries. Most MSDs can be avoided if one knows what causes them and how to
protect oneself.

What are the causes of MSDs?

o Repetitive and heavy lifting

o Bending and twisting, or repeating something too often
o Working in an awkward or uncomfortable position
o Using too much force
o Working too long without breaks
o Working in extreme conditions, for example too hot or cold
o Using defective, worn, or the wrong tools for the job

How can MSDs be prevented?

One need to be professionally trained in how to:

o Use tools and equipment safely

o Handle heavy or awkward loads

One should also make sure that he/she:

o Take regular breaks

o Vary your work to reduce repetitive tasks

If in case one is suffering from an MSD, make sure to:

o Report symptoms to employers/workplace owners/occupiers as soon as they

develop
o Get the right treatment
o Get enough time to recover properly

1.10.2 Other common problems

There are other potential problems at work, including:

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 o Slips and trips

Slips and trips cause more than 30 per cent of all major injuries reported each year.

o Falls from height

Falls from height are a hazard in all industrial sectors.

o Vibration

Vibration can cause long-term health effects if it is not dealt with properly.

o Noise

Noise at work can cause permanent damage to hearing.

TOPIC 1: Tutorials

1. Major causes of accidents in workplaces

a) Violation of safety rules
b) Not using of safety devices
c) Improper use of gadgets and machine controls
d) Lack of training in safe working habits
e) Ignorance on the part of the staff on how to safely operate tools, machines and
equipments
f) Risky working conditions
g) Monotony/Repetitive work and work-related stresses
h) Presence of explosives and inflammable material within the working space

2. General provisions of Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) for the health,
safety and welfare of persons employed, and all persons lawfully present at
workplaces under Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007.
❖ Employer care
a) It is obligatory for an occupier to provide and maintain plant and systems and
procedures of work that are safe and without risk to workers' health.
b) It is the responsibility of employer to provide free protective equipment
including clothing and appliances, and where necessary, suitable gloves,
footwear, goggles, and head coverings to the workers involved in hazardous
work.
c) Employer must ensure safety and absence of risks to health in connection with
the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances.
d) Workplace and work environment that is safe, without health risks and
adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for the worker's welfare at
work should be maintained.

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 e) Workers should be well informed of any risks and imminent danger related to
new technologies and they should participate in the application and review of
safety and health measures.
f)
g) Occupier must also ensure proper cleanliness, ventilation, lighting, drainage of
floor, sanitary convenience, avoid overcrowding and control air pollution,
noise, and vibration at the workplace.
h) Preventive and protective measures should be taken after proper risk
assessment (at least once a year) to ensure that all chemicals, machinery,
equipment, tools and process are safe and without risk to health and comply
with the requirements of safety and health provisions in the Act.
i) An occupier who fails to comply with a duty imposed on him commits an
offence and he/she is liable to a fine not exceeding 500,000 shillings or to
imprisonment up to six months or to both.
❖ Free Protection
j) It is the responsibility of employer to provide free protective equipment
including clothing and appliances, and where necessary, suitable gloves,
footwear, goggles, and head coverings to the workers involved in hazardous
work.
❖ Staff Training
k) It is the responsibility of an employer to provide instruction, training, and
supervision as is necessary to ensure health and safety at work of his workers.

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Bench Processes

Students marking out at DeKUT

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2 Bench Processes
2.1 Introduction
Benchwork includes various cutting processes that machinists complete by hand rather
than on a machine when creating part features that require less power and force. Common
benchwork operations includes marking out, sawing, filling, chiseling, hand tapping, hand
reaming, hand filing, and engraving.

This section is an introduction to the basic complement of hand tools commonly used in
all branches of mechanical technology such as bench vise, files, hacksaw and center
punch, and scriber.

2.1.1 Marking Out

Students marking out at DeKUT

Marking out consists of transferring the dimensions from the plan to the workpiece in
preparation for the next step, bench process such as hack sawing or machining processes.

Marking out tools include:

▪ Marking out table-provides a true surface from which to work.

▪ Angle plates-assist in holding the workpiece perpendicular to the table.
▪ Scriber-is the equivalent of a pen or pencil. It literally scratches the metal surface
leaving behind a fine, bright line.
▪ Height gauge or scribing block-allows lines to be scribed at a preset distance, from
the tables surface.
▪ Surface gauge-an ungraduated comparison measuring tool that performs much the
same function as the vernier height gauge. It is often used in conjunction with a dial
indicator and a precision height gauge.
▪ Marking blue-to provide a usable writing surface by covering any existing
scratches and providing a contrasting background.

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 ▪ Protractor-to assist in the transfer of angular measurements.
▪ Combination square-an alternative tool for transferring angular measurements
▪ Square-to transfer 90° angles to the workpiece.
▪ Punches-either prick or center punch to create permanent marks or dimples for
drill bits to start in.
▪ Ball peen hammer-used in conjunction with the punches to provide the striking
blow needed
▪ Dividers or measuring compass-used for marking out circles of any desired radius.

Square

Combination square
Vernier Height gauge

Centre punch
Scriber
Angle plates

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2.1.2 Bench Vise

Fixed jaw Movable jaw

The bench vise is used to help grip the work piece for filing, hack sawing, chiseling, and
bending light metal. The bench vice mainly consists of a fixed jaw, movable jaw, and jaw
plates. Most bench vices have hardened insert jaws that are sharply serrated and will dig
into finished work pieces enough to mar them beyond repair. Hence, soft jaws made of
copper, other soft metals or wood are often slip over the vise jaws to protect the work
piece’s finished surface. Bench vise should be mounted correctly on the workbench where
the top of the vise jaws should be at elbow height. Inappropriately mounted bench vices
cause poor work piece to be produced.

2.1.3 Filing
Filing involves the small-scale removal of
material from a surface, corner, or hole,
including the removal of burrs. Files are
usually made of hardened steel and are
available in a variety of cross sections such
as flat, round, half round, square and
triangle. They are commonly manufactured
in four different cuts: single, double, curved
tooth and rasp. Each cut design has its own
purpose. For instance, rasp files are
frequently used with wood while curved
tooth files are used with soft materials such
as aluminum, brass, plastic, or lead. Files
also vary in their coarseness; rough, coarse,
bastard, second cut, smooth and dead
smooth. In order to produce a flat surface,
work should be held firmly in the vise with
the minimum amount of projecting and with
the surface to be filed to be truly horizontal.
The right-hand pushes and presses while
the left hand only presses with the same amount of pressure. Pressure should only be
applied during forward stroke only. Success in filing flat is dependent on hand control to
keep the file horizontal throughout its stroke and an equal distribution of pressure. In
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order to test the surface of work during filing, a straightedge can be placed on it. If rays of
light can be seen between the two surfaces of the work piece and the straightedge, then the
surface of the work piece is not flat. Care should be taken while filing to avoid dulling and
breakage of its teeth. Teeth on files will break if the tools lie on top of each other and if too
much pressure is applied while filing. Dulling of teeth is caused by the filing of hard
materials or by filing too fast. A good rule of thumb is the harder the material, the slower
the strokes should be the softer the material, the coarser the file should be.

Cut of the Teeth. The number of teeth per inch varies slightly according to the brand of file.

o Rough-20 teeth per inch

o Middle-25 teeth per inch
o Bastard-30 teeth per inch
o Second Cut-40 teeth per inch
o Smooth-50 to 60 teeth per inch
o Dead Smooth-100 or more teeth per inch

Filing Methods:

Cross filling-the file is moved across the surface of the workpiece in a crosswise
direction. Mainly used for roughing work.
Alternate Filling-the file position is interchanged from time to time. Filling is
carried out from one side of the workpiece then the person carrying out the filling
changes position. Used for finer finish.
Draw Filling-the filling direction usually at perpendicular angle to the workpiece.
The person carrying out the filling pulls or pushed the file towards or away from
him/her. Used for smooth finish.

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2.1.4 Sawing

The hacksaw is one of the more frequently

used hand tools. It consists of the frame, the
handle and the saw blade. The spacing of the
teeth on a hand hacksaw blade is called the
pitch. Standard pitches are 14, 18, 24 and 32
teeth per inch, with the 18-pitch blade used as
a general-purpose blade. The hardness and
thickness of a work piece determine to a great
extent which pitch blade to use. Generally, a
coarse tooth blade should be use on soft
materials and a fine-tooth blade on harder
materials. There are a few points that should
be noted in order to obtain maximum
performance from a blade:

▪ Make long steady strokes using the full

length of the blade
▪ Maintain sufficient pressure on the
forward stroke to keep the teeth cutting. Too
much pressure on the saw blade will cause its
teeth to dull.
▪ Do not apply any pressure at the blade
during return stroke since this will also dull
the teeth.
▪ The sawing speed should be at the rate
of 40~60 strokes per minute.

A cut on a work piece should be started with

only light cutting pressure. A small vee-notch
A student hacksawing at DeKUT
could also be filed onto the material to help
start a blade. In order to avoid vibration and
chatter, ensure that the cutting is done close to the vise jaws.

2.1.5 Center Punch

The centre punch is used when circular dot marks are required. When job has been
marked out it is usual to follow along the lines with small dot marks in case the line
becomes obliterated. It is also used to mark the centre point of drilling holes for the
purpose of giving starts to the drill and to mark the centre of circles to provide a point for
placing the leg of the dividers to scribe the circle.

2.1.6 Scriber
A round steel piece of about 150mm to 300mm long and 3mm to 5mm in diameter. It is one
end is sharp and pointed and the other end is also sharp but bent. The bent end is used to
scratch lines in places where the straight end cannot reach.

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Machining Processes

It is a process in which
a piece of raw material
is cut into a desired
shape and size using
sharp cutting tools.

Conventional
Machining Processes:
▪ Turning
▪ Milling
▪ Drilling
Non-Conventional
Machining Processes:
▪ Water jet
machining
▪ Ultra-Sonic
Machining
▪ Electrical
Machining at DeKUT Discharge
Machining

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3 Machining
Processes
3.1 Introduction

Machining is a manufacturing term that encompasses a broad range of technologies and

techniques. Machining can be defined as the process of removing material from a
workpiece using power-driven machine tools to shape it into an intended shape. Most
metal components and parts require some form of machining during their manufacturing
process.

Machining tools may be used alone or in conjunction with other tools at various stages of
the manufacturing process so as to achieve the intended part geometry.

The major categories of machining tools are:

▪ Boring tools: These are typically used as finishing equipment to enlarge holes
previously cut into the material.
▪ Cutting tools: Devices such as saws and shears are typical examples of cutting
implements. They are often used to cut material with predetermined dimensions,
such as sheet metal, into a desired shape.
▪ Drilling tools: This category consists of two-edged rotating devices that create
round holes parallel to the axis of rotation.
▪ Grinding tools: These instruments apply a rotating wheel to achieve a fine finish or
to make light cuts on a workpiece.
▪ Milling tools: A milling tool employs a rotating cutting surface with several blades
to create non-circular holes or cut unique designs out of the material.
▪ Turning tools: These tools rotate a workpiece on its axis while a cutting tool shapes
it to form. Lathes are the most common type of turning equipment.

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3.2 Machine Tool

Lathe machines at DeKUT

A machine tool is a power-driven device used for sizing, shaping, and processing of a
product to the desired accuracy by removing the excess material in the form of chips.
Example of machine tool includes Lathe Machine, Drilling Machine, Shaping Machine,
Planar Machine etc.

3.3 Cutting Tool

A cutting tool is used to remove the material
from the surface of the workpiece. It must be
harder than the workpiece to carry out the
operation.

Single-Point Cutting Tool:

▪ A single point cutting tool has only one

edge for cutting.
▪ This single point cutting tool is used as a
cutting tool in turning operation.

Other Examples include the tools used in

lathe, Planning, Shaping etc.
Single point tool
Multi-Point Cutting Tool:

▪ A Multi-point cutting tool has more than

one edges for cutting Operation.
Shaping at DeKUT ▪ This multi-point cutting tool is used as a
cutting tool in the drilling operation, milling
operation etc.

Examples include Milling cutter, Grinding wheel, Drill bit etc.

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 Single point cutting tool geometry

3.4 Chip formation

The unwanted material removed from the surface of the workpiece due to the application
of load upon the cutting tool called as Chips.

Discontinuous chips:

The Discontinuous chips are simply thrown away from the work zone during machining.

Continuous chips:

The Continuous chips may get adhered or welded onto the rake face of the tool due to the
high temperature called as Built-Up Edge formation (BUE).

Continuous chip Discontinuous chip Built up chip

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3.5 Tool life

Tool life is defined as the time elapsed between two consecutive tool resharpening. During
this period, the tool serves effectively and efficiently.
The Taylor Model

In the early 1900s American engineer FW Taylor developed a tool life model that included factors
relevant to metal cutting. Taylor observed that increasing depth of cut had minimal effect on tool
life. Increasing feed rate had somewhat more effect, while higher cutting speeds influenced tool life
the most. This prompted Taylor to develop a model focused on the effect of varying cutting speeds.
The equation for Taylor’s basic model is VC * Tm = CT, where VC is cutting speed, T is tool life, and m
and CT are constants with CT representing the cutting speed that would result in a tool life of one
minute.

Taylor also observed that tool wear typically accelerates at the beginning of an operation, settles
into a steady but slower rise in a second phase, and finally enters a third and final phase of rapid
wear until the end of tool life. He designed his model to represent the length of time between phases
two and three.

As a result, Taylor’s model does not apply at lower cutting speeds in which workpiece material
adheres to and builds up on the cutting edge, affecting the quality of the cut and damaging the tool.
Also, outside the model’s scope are cutting speeds high enough to promote chemical wear. The
Taylor model is based on the second phase of tool life, namely steady and predictable abrasive
wear.

3.5.1 Example 1
A steel rod is turned by a cutting tool at a given machining conditions (So and t) with
cutting fluid application, the tool life decreases from 80 min to 20 min. due to increase
in cutting velocity, Vc from 60 m/min to 120 m/min. Determine at what cutting velocity,
Vc the life of the tool under the same cutting conditions will be 40 min?

Solution 1
Assuming Taylor’s tool life equation, VTn=C

V1T1=V2T2=V3T3=.........=C

Here,

V1=60 m/min, T1=80 min.

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 V2=120 m/min, T2=20 min.

V3 =? (To be determined), T3=40 min.

Taking:
𝑽𝟏 𝑻𝒏𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝒏𝟐

𝑇1 𝑛 𝑣2
( ) =( )
𝑇2 𝑣1
80 𝑛 120
( ) =( )
20 60
𝑛 =0⋅5
𝑣3 𝑇3𝑛 = 𝑣1 𝑇1𝑛

𝟖𝟎 𝟎⋅𝟓
𝑽𝟑 = ( ) × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟖𝟒𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟒𝟎
3.5.2 Example 2
The lives of two tools are governed by Taylor equation VT0.25=7.0 and VT0.125=2.5
respectively in a machining operation where V is the cutting speed in m/s while T is the
tool life in seconds. Find out the speed (Vo) at which both tools have the same life and
also calculate their corresponding tool lives.

Solution 2
Let VO =Speed at which both tools have the same tool life.

Tool 1:
Factors that affect cutting
𝑽𝟏 𝑻𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝟏 =𝟕
tool life.
𝟒
𝟕
𝑻𝟏 = ( )
𝑽𝟏 i. Application of cutting fluid
Tool 2: (coolant)-takes away the heat
generated by the cutting
𝑽𝟏 𝑻𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟓 process thus lengthening the
tool life.
𝟐. 𝟓 𝟖
𝑻𝟏 = ( ) ii. Cutting/machining speed-
𝑽𝟐
High cutting/machining
And: 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 𝒂𝒕 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟎 speeds results in faster tool
Therefore: wear and tear thus shortening
the tool life.
𝟕 𝟒 𝟐. 𝟓 𝟖 iii. Depth of cut-Shallow depth
( ) =( )
𝑽𝟎 𝑽𝟎 of cut especially on hard
𝟕 𝟐. 𝟓 𝟐 materials results in longer
=( ) tool life all factors held
𝑽𝟎 𝑽𝟎
constant.
𝑽𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟑𝒎|𝒔
Corresponding Tool life at:
Page | 22
 V1=V2=1m/s
𝟕 𝟒
(𝑽 ) ; 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟏𝒎|𝒔;
𝟎
𝟕 𝟒
( ) = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝟏
𝟐.𝟓 𝟖
( 𝑽 ) ; 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟏𝒎|𝒔;
𝟎
𝟐. 𝟓 𝟖
( ) = 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝟏
Tool 1 Has longer life over tool 2.

3.6 Machining Parameters

N = Rotational speed of the workpiece, RPM

f = Feed, mm/rev, or in/rev
v = Feed rate, or linear speed of the tool along workpiece length, mm/min or in/min
V = Surface speed of workpiece, m/min, or ft/min
l = Length of cut, mm, or in.
Do = Original diameter of workpiece, mm, or in.
Df = Final diameter of workpiece, mm, or in.
Davg = Average diameter of workpiece, mm, or in.= (Do +Df)/2
d = Depth of cut, mm, or in. = (Do - Df)/2
Tm= Cutting time, seconds, or min
MRR = the volume of material removed per unit time (mm3/min or in3/min).
Power = kW or hp
𝐂𝐮𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐕𝐜 ):

Page | 23
 Vc = πD0 N (Usually given in M/min)
Spindle speed (N):
V
N = πDc (Given in RPM)
0

𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐌𝐚𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐞 (𝐓𝐦 ):

l
Tm = fN (in Minutes)

𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝐌𝐑𝐑):

D0 + Df
MRR = πDavg dfN = π ( ) dfN
2

3.7 Machining power

Power required by the cutting tool is the product of the material removal rate (MRR) and
the Specific cutting power. While the power input by the electrical motor is the power
required by the cutting tool divided by the mechanical efficiency of the machine tool.

𝒅 × 𝒇 × 𝑽𝑪 × 𝑲 𝑪
𝑷𝑪 =
𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝒏
Where:
d = depth of cut (mm)
f = Feed per revolution (mm/rev)
Vc = Cutting speed/velocity (m/min)
KC = Specific cutting force (MPa)
n = Machine tool efficiency

The above formula is used to calculate the net power when the depth of cut (d), the feed
per revolution (f), the cutting speed/velocity (VC), the specific cutting force (MPa), and the
machine efficiency (n) are specified.

3.7.1 Example 3
Determine the net machining power for an operation with the following parameters:
▪ Depth of cut = 5 mm
▪ Feed per revolution (f) = 0.1 mm/rev
▪ Cutting speed (vc) = 140 m/min
▪ Machine efficiency (η) = 80% (0.8)
▪ Specific cutting force=3610 MPa

Page | 24
Solution 3
5 × 0.1 × 140 × 3610
PC =
60 × 103 × 0.8
= 𝟓. 𝟐𝟔𝐤𝐖

3.7.2 Example 4
Calculate the specific power and unit power in a turning process given the following
data:
▪ Workpiece diameter (D): 50mm
▪ Cutting velocity (VC): 40 m/min
▪ Feed (f):0.24 mm/sec
▪ Depth of cut (d): 1.8 mm
▪ Tangential component of the force: 800N

Solution 4
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆:
𝑉𝑐
𝒁𝒘 = 𝑓 × 𝑑 × [𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠]
60
0.24 1.8 40 × 100
=( )×( )×( )
10 10 60
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝒄𝒎𝟑 /𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅:
𝐹𝑡 ×𝑉𝑐
𝑷= [𝑊]
60

40
= 800 × [𝑊]
60
= 𝟓𝟑𝟑. 𝟑 𝑾
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓:
𝑝 (800 × 40)
𝑷𝒔 = =
𝑍𝑤 (60 × 0.288)
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝒌𝑾 /𝒄𝒎𝟑 /𝑺𝒆𝒄

3.8 Work holding devices

Three Jaw Chuck

The three-jaw chuck is self-centering. The jaws all move together and are always
the same distance from the centre. This chuck is designed to hold round or

Page | 25
hexagonal work pieces. The movements of the jaws are controlled by a scroll plate
which is rotated by a chuck key.
Four Jaw Chuck
The 4-jaw chuck has jaws that can be moved independent of each other. The chuck
is used to hold irregular workpieces or odd shaped workpieces. It requires careful
setting up unlike the 3-jaw chuck. It holds workpieces firmer and the workpiece
can be made to run perfectly true with the aid of dial indicator.

3-Jaw Chuck 4-Jaw Chuck

3.9 Cutting Fluid/Coolant

Cutting fluid is a fluid that is mainly used to remove the heat produced during the
metal cutting and other machining processes. It is also used as a lubricant in some
cases.
Used as a coolant:
The main function for which cutting fluids were discovered is for cooling the tool
and the workpiece. By cooling the tool and the workpiece, we can also minimize
the tool wear, thermal expansion of the tool and get a good surface finish.
Used for lubrication:
Cutting fluids are also used for lubrication. By lubricating, chips and other
contaminants can be easily removed from the workpiece.
Used for cleaning the machining area:
Cutting Fluids are also used as a cleansing agent and remove dust near and inside
the cutting area. This dust removal is important as dust can cause uneven cutting.
Used to reduce friction:
Cutting Fluids also reduces the friction between the tool and the workpiece that
keeps down the cutting forces and also reduces the heat generation.

Page | 26
3.10Drilling Process

Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of

required diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating edges of a drill.
The cutting tool known as drill is fitted into the spindle of the drilling machine.
A mark of indentation is made at the required location with a centre punch. The
rotating drill is pressed at the location and is fed into the work. The hole can be
made up to a required depth.
3.10.1 General purpose drilling machines for common use

3.10.1.1 Bench top/Tabletop small sensitive drilling machine

They are small capacity (≤ 0.5 kW) upright single spindle drilling machines
mounted on rigid table and manually operated using small size (φ≤ 10 mm)
drills.

Tabletop drilling machine

Page | 27
3.10.1.2Pillar drilling machine
They are quite similar to the tabletop drilling machines but of slightly larger size
and higher capacity (0.55-1.1 kW) with a tubular column and are floor mounted
(foundation). The drill-feed and the worktable movement are manually operated.
3.10.1.3 Column drilling machine
They are box shaped column type drilling machines are more strong, rigid, and
more powerful than the pillar drills. In column drills the feed gear box enables
automatic and power feed of the rotating drill at different feed rates as desired.
3.10.1.4Radial drilling machine
They are large drilling machine possessing a radial arm which along with the
drilling head can swing and move vertically up and down. The radial, vertical and
swing movement of the drilling head enables locating the drill spindle at any point
within a large space required by large and odd shaped jobs. There are some more
versatile radial drilling machines where the drill spindle can be additionally
swiveled and / or tilted.
3.10.1.5 CNC column drilling machine
They are versatile and flexibly automatic drilling machine having box-column
type rigid structure. The worktable movements and the spindle rotations are
programmed and accomplished by Computer Numerical Control (CNC). They are
modern sophisticated drilling machines that are suitable for piece meal or batch
production of highly precise jobs.

Radial drill Machine

Pillar drill Machine

Page | 28
 Radial drill machine at DeKUT
Radial Drill Machine at DeKUT CNC drilling at DeKUT

3.10.2 General purpose drilling machines with more specific use

3.10.2.1Hand drills
Unlike the grounded stationary drilling machines, the hand drill is a portable
drilling device which is mostly held in hand and used in locations where holes
have to be drilled. The small and reasonably light hand drills are run by a high-
speed electric motor. In fire hazardous areas the drill is often rotated by
compressed air.
3.10.2.2 Gang drilling machine
They are single purpose and very productive machines. They have a number (2 to
6) of spindles with drills (of same or different size) in located in a row. The
machines usually produce a number of holes progressively or simultaneously
through the jig.
3.10.2.3 Turret (type) drilling machine
Turret drilling machines are structurally rigid column type but are more
productive like gang drill by having a pentagon or hexagon turret. The turret
bearing a number of drills and similar tools is indexed and moves up and down to
quickly perform the desired series of operations progressively. These drilling

Page | 29
 machines are available with varying degree of automation both fixed and flexible
type.
3.10.2.4 Multi spindle drilling machine
They are high production machine tool which can carry out large number of drill
work operations simultaneously on a blank through a jig specifically made for a
particular job. The entire drilling head works repeatedly using the same jig for
batch or lot production of a particular job. The rotation of the drills is derived from
the main spindle and the central gear through a number of planetary gears in mesh
with the central gear and the corresponding flexible shafts. The positions of those
parallel shafts holding the drills are adjusted depending upon the locations of the
holes to be made on the job. In some heavy duty multi spindle drilling machines,
the worktable is raised to give feed motion instead of moving the heavy drilling
head.

Gang Drilling Machine

Turret Drilling Machine

Multi Spindle Drilling Machine

Page | 30
3.10.3 Drilling Tools & Operations
3.10.3.1 Drill
A drill is a tool used to originate a hole in a solid material. A helical groove
known as ‘flute’ is cut along the length of the drill. Different types of drills
are:
▪ Flat Drill
▪ Straight fluted drill
▪ Twist drill
▪ Centre drill

Twist drills are the type generally used in shop work. They are made of
High-speed steel (HSS) or High carbon steel. There are two types of twist
drills namely (i) Straight shank twist drill and (ii) Taper shank twist drill.
The diameter of the straight shank drill ranges from 2 to 16mm. Taper
shanks is provided on drills of larger diameter.
3.10.3.2 Reamer
The tool used for enlarging and finishing a previously drilled hole is known
as a reamer. It is a multi-tooth cutter and removes smaller amount of
material. It gives a better finish and accurate dimension.
3.10.3.3 Counter bore
A Counter bore is a multi-tooth cutting tool used for enlarging the top of the
previously machined hole. It has three or four cutting teeth. The flutes on
them may be straight or helical. Straight fluted tools are used for machining
softer materials like brass and aluminum and for short depth of cut. Helical
fluted counter bores are used for longer holes.
3.10.3.4 Countersink
A countersink has cutting edges on its conical surfaces. It has a similar
construction of a counter bore except for the angle of the cutting edges. The
angle of countersinks will generally be 60°, 82° or 90°. It is used for
enlarging the top of the holes conically.
3.10.3.5 Tap
A tap has threads like a bolt. It has three to four flutes cut across the threads.
It can cut threads on the inside of a hole. The flutes on the threads form the
cutting edges. It is a multi-point cutting tool. It will dig into the walls of the
hole as the lower part of the tap is slightly tapered. The shank of the tap is
square shaped to enable it to be held by a tap wrench.

Page | 31
3.10.4 Drilling Computations

3.10.5 Example 5

Determine the time required to drill a blind hole of diameter 10 mm to a depth of 120mm in a
mild steel solid block by HSS twist drill of 1200 cone angle. Assume the following values:
Cutting Velocity, VC=40 m/min, drill feed, So=0.20 mm/rev and approach, A=5.0 mm.

Page | 32
Solution 5
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐝𝐫𝐢𝐥𝐥:
LC
Tm =
NS0
LC = Ln + A + O + C
Lh = 120 mm A = 5 mm O = 0 mm
D
C= Cotδ
2
10
C= Cot60
2
= 5 × 0.577
= 2.885 mm
LC = (120 + 5 + 2.885)mm
= 67.885 mm
1000VC (1000 × 40)
N= = = 1274 RPM
πD (π × 10)
(127.885)
Tm =
(0.2 × 1274)
= 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦𝐢𝐧

3.11 Turning Process

Types of lathe:

1. Engine Lathe
2. Speed Lathe
3. Bench Lathe
4. Tool Room Lathe
5. Gap Bed Lathe
6. Special Purpose
Lathe
Lathe Machine

Page | 33
The purpose of a lathe is to rotate a part against a tool whose position it controls. It
is useful for fabricating parts and/or features that have a circular cross section.
The spindle is the part of the lathe that rotates. Various work holding attachments
such as three jaw chucks, collets, and centers can be held in the spindle. The
spindle is driven by an electric motor through a system of belt drives and/or gear
trains. Spindle speed is controlled by varying the geometry of the drive train.

The tailstock can be used to support the end of the work piece with a center, or to
hold tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in
position along the ways to accommodate different length work pieces.

The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. It consists of:

▪ A saddle that mates with and slides along the ways.

▪ An apron that controls the feed mechanisms.
▪ A cross slide that controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away
from the operator).
▪ A tool compound that adjusts to permit angular tool movement.
▪ A tool post T-slot that holds the tool post.

3.11.1 Choosing a Cutting Tool

The standard cutting tool shapes are shown below.

• Facing tools are ground to provide clearance with a center.

• Roughing tools have a small side relief angle to leave more material to
support the cutting edge during deep cuts.
• Finishing tools have a more rounded nose to provide a finer finish. Round
nose tools are for lighter turning.
• Left hand cutting tools are designed to cut best when travelling from left to
right.
• Aluminium is cut best by specially shaped cutting tools that are used with the
cutting edge slightly above center to reduce chatter.

Page | 34
3.11.2 Feed, Speed, and Depth of Cut
The primary factor in choosing feed and speed is the material to be cut.
However, one should also consider material of the tool, rigidity of the
workpiece, size and condition of the lathe, and depth of cut. For most
Aluminum alloys, on a roughing cut (.010 to .020 inches depth of cut) run at
600 fpm. On a finishing cut (.002 to .010 depth of cut) run at 1000 fpm. To
calculate the proper spindle speed, divide the desired cutting speed by the
circumference of the work. It is important to remember that for each
thousandth depth of cut, the work diameter is reduced by two thousandths.
3.11.3 Turning
The lathe can be used to reduce the diameter of a part to a desired dimension.
The part should not extend more than three times its diameter. Then install
a roughing or finishing tool (whichever is appropriate). If one is feeding the
saddle toward the headstock, then a right-hand turning tool should be used.
A finish cut is made using the power feed for a smoother finish. For each
thousandth depth of cut, the work diameter is reduced by two thousandths.
3.11.4 Facing
A lathe can be used to create a smooth, flat, face very accurately
perpendicular to the axis of a cylindrical part. Install a facing tool. Bring the
tool approximately into position, but slightly off of the part always before
turning it on. Then, feed the tool across the face with the cross slide. If a finer
finish is required, take just a few thousandths on the final cut and use the
power feed.
3.11.5 Parting
A parting tool is deeper and narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for
making narrow grooves and for cutting off parts. When a parting tool is
installed, ensure that it hangs over the tool holder enough that the holder will
clear the work piece (but no more than that). Ensure that the parting tool is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation and that the tip is the same height as the
center of the part. A good way to do this is to hold the tool against the face of
the part. Set the height of the tool; lay it flat against the face of the part, then
lock the tool in place. When the cut is deep, the side of the part can rub
against sides of the groove, so it's especially important to apply cutting fluid.
3.11.6 Drilling
A lathe can also be used to drill holes accurately concentric with the
centreline of a cylindrical part. Always drill past the beginning of the taper
to create a funnel to guide the bit in. Take at most one or two drill diameters
of material before backing off, clearing the chips, and applying cutting fluid.
The drill chuck can be removed from the tail stock by drawing back the drill
chuck as far as it will easily go, then about a quarter turn more. A pin will
press the chuck out of the collet.

Page | 35
3.11.7 Boring
Boring is an operation in which a hole is enlarged with a single point cutting
tool. A boring bar is used to support the cutting tool as it extends into the hole.
Because of the extension of the boring bar, the tool is supported less rigidly
and is more likely to chatter. This can be corrected by using slower spindle
speeds or by grinding a smaller radius on the nose of the tool.

Turning operation Parting/Grooving off operation Boring operation

Page | 36
3.11.8 Turning Computations

Page | 37
3.11.9 Example 6

A 100 mm long, 30 mm diameter mild steel shaft is reduced to 20 mm diameter in a single pass
straight turning operation. If the feed, f=0.78 mm/rev and cutting velocity, V=60 m/min, Approach
(A) and overrun (O)=5mm each. Determine:
▪ Spindle speed (N)
▪ Feed rate (Fr)
▪ Material removal rate (MRR)
▪ Machining time (Tc)

Solution 6
i. 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝(𝐑𝐏𝐌):
1000VC
N=
πD0
1000 × 60
=
π × 30
= 𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝐑𝐏𝐌
ii. 𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞:
Fr = N × f
637 rev 0.78 min
= ×
min rev
= 𝟒𝟗𝟕 𝐦𝐦/𝐦𝐢𝐧
iii. 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞:
MRR = V × f × d
60m 0.78mm
= × × 3 mm × 1000
min rev
= 𝟏𝟒𝟎, 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝐦𝐦𝟑 /𝐦𝐢𝐧
iv. 𝐌𝐚𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞:
L
Tm =
Fr
100mm mim
= ×
497 mm
= 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐧

Page | 38
3.11.10Example 7

How much machining time will it take to reduce the diameter of a shaft from 120 mm to 110 mm
over a length of 300 mm long, in a single pass straight turning operation? Assume the following:
feed, So=0.2 mm/rev and cutting velocity, V=100m/min, approach, A=5 mm and overrun, O=5
mm.

Solution 7
𝐋𝐜
𝐓𝐦 = 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝐍𝐒𝟎
where, Lc = Lw + O + A
= (300 + 5 + 5) 𝑚𝑚
= 310 𝑚𝑚
𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬:
1000𝑉𝑐
𝑁= 𝜋𝐷0

𝐷0 = 120 𝑚𝑚, 𝑉𝑐 = 100 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛

1000(100)
𝑁 =
𝜋 × 120
= 265.4 𝑅𝑃𝑀 ≈ 265 𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞:
310 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑚 =
(265) × (0.2)
= 𝟓. 𝟖𝟓 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
3.11.11Example 8
A metal workpiece is being machined at Vc=150 m/min. The machining power is found to be 5
kW. Machining process feed rate=0.2 mm/rev, and depth of cut=0.5 mm. Determine:

▪ The main cutting force in Newtons

▪ The specific cutting energy in N/mm2
▪ The necessary machining time required if the diameter of the machined bar is diameter
(D)=30 mm and its length (L)=180 mm

Page | 39
Solution 8

i. 𝐂𝐮𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐏𝐒 × 𝐯

150
4000 = PS ×
60
60
PS = 5000 ×
150
𝐏𝐒 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐍
ii. 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐂𝐮𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 (𝐔𝐭 )
PS 2000N
Ut = =
f × d (0.2 × 0.5)mm2
= 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐
iii. 𝐌𝐚𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞:
L
Tm =
f×N
180 mm
=
0.2 × N
V (150 × 1000)
N= =
πD (3.14 × 30)
= 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐯/𝐦𝐢𝐧
180 mm
=
(0.2 × 1592)
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 𝐦𝐢𝐧

Page | 40
3.12 Milling Process

Milling is the most common form of machining, a

material removal process, which can create a variety
of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted
material. The milling process requires a milling
machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter. The cutter is
a cutting tool with sharp teeth that is also secured in
the milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By
feeding the workpiece into the rotating cutter,
material is cut away from this workpiece in the form
of small chips to create the desired shape.
Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have
many features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three-dimensional surface
contours. Parts that are fabricated completely through milling often include
components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as
custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another application of milling is the
fabrication of tooling for other processes. For example, three-dimensional molds are
typically milled.
Milling is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on
parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances
and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal for adding precision features to a
part whose basic shape has already been formed.

Vertical Milling Horizontal Milling CNC Milling

Machine at DeKUT Machine at DeKUT Machine at DeKUT

Page | 41
3.12.1 Milling Types

Up/Conventional Milling Down/Climb Milling

▪ Work is feed against the rotating ▪ Work moves parallel to the cutter
cutter rotation
▪ Thickness of the chip is minimum in ▪ Thickness of the chip is maximum in
the initial stages and increases the initial stages and minimum at the
maximum at the end of the cut end of the cut
▪ Cutter lifts the work, so requires ▪ Cutter holds the work. Requires less
more claiming force claiming force
▪ Surface finish is not good ▪ Good surface finish

3.12.2 Milling Operations

End milling - An end mill makes either peripheral or slot cuts, determined by the step-
over distance, across the workpiece in order to machine a specified feature, such as a
profile, slot, pocket, or even a complex surface contour.
Face milling - A face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in order to provide
a smooth finish. The depth of the face, typically exceedingly small, may be machined
in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and
making multiple passes.
Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to
that of the tool. A drilling operation can produce a blind hole, which extends to some
depth inside the workpiece, or a through hole, which extends completely through the
workpiece.

Page | 42
3.12.3 Milling Computations

3.12.4 Example 9

Determine Tm for plain milling a rectangular surface of length 100 mm and width
50 mm by a helical fluted plain HSS milling cutter of diameter 60 mm, length 75 mm
and 6 teeth. Assume A = O = 5 mm, VC = 40 m/min and so = 0.1 mm/tooth

Solution 9:

Page | 43
3.12.5 Example 10

Determine the time (Tm) required to carry out peripheral milling operation on the
workpiece below. Also determine the material removal rate (MRR) for the
operation. The workpiece width (W) is 50mm, the cutting velocity, VC is 40m/min,
and the milling cutter teeth number (nt) is 14 and feed (f)=0.0125mm.

Solution 10:
D=100
mm

d=0.5m
m
Side view

200mm
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐩𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠: A
A = √d(D − d)

A = √0.5 (100 − 0.5)

= 𝟕. 𝟎𝟓 𝐦𝐦
𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐑𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧/𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝:
1000V 1000 × 40
N= =
πD π × 100
= 127.4 RPM ≈ 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝐑𝐏𝐌
𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞:
F r = N × nt × f
= 127 × 14 × 0.0125
= 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝐦𝐦/𝐦𝐢𝐧
Time:
(L + A)
Tm =
fr
(200 + 7.05)mm
= × min = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐧
22.225 mm

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3.12.6 Example 11

A machinist working on a horizontal milling machine wishes to face mill the top of
a block, 250 mm length by 50 mm width using a 50 mm diameter mill cutter. Using
the following values: cutting velocity (VC), 100m/min, feed (f), 0.25 mm/tooth,
number of teeth on the cutter, 5. determine:

i. Spindle speed (RPM)

ii. Feed rate (FR)
iii. Time to machine (TC)

Solution 11:
i.𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 f × nt × N

= 0.25 × 10 × N
1000Vc
ii.𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 N= πD

= 𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝐑𝐏𝐌
iii.𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 f × nt × N

= 0.25 × 10 × 637
= 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝐦𝐦/𝐌𝐢𝐧
iv. 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐌𝐚𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐞
(L + 2A)
Tm =
FR
[250 + 2(50/2)]
=
1592
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝐌𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
3.12.7 Extra work

Determine the time in minutes

required to face mill the
workpiece on the left given the
following: Cutter diameter,
D=0.625”; depth of cut, d=0.375”;
feed, f=0.0015in/teeth; number of
teeth, n=6; cutting velocity,
Vc=100fpm

Page | 45
Welding
is a process of permanent
joining two materials
(usually metals) through
localized coalescence
resulting from a suitable
combination of
temperature, pressure, and
metallurgical conditions.

Page | 46
4 Metal Welding
Welding is a process of permanent joining two materials (usually metals) through
localized coalescence resulting from a suitable combination of temperature,
pressure, and metallurgical conditions.
Depending upon the combination of temperature and pressure from a high
temperature with no pressure to a high pressure with low temperature, a wide range
of welding processes has been developed.

4.1 Classification of Welding Process

Welding Processes can also be classified as follows (based on the source of
energy):
1. Gas Welding
Process of combining fuel gasses and oxygen to increase the welding torch’s flame
temperature to around 3,500°C. It is used today in pipe and tube welding and
certain repair industries.
▪ Oxyacetylene
▪ Oxy hydrogen
2. Arc Welding
A manual process of stick welding where the stick uses an electric current to form
an arc between it and the metals to be joined.
▪ Carbon Arc
▪ Metal Arc
▪ Submerged Arc
▪ Inert-gas-Welding TIG and MIG
▪ Plasma Arc
▪ Electro-slag
3. Resistance Welding
Involves applying force to adjacent surfaces and then applying an electric current
near those surfaces to generate intense heat. Variations of this technique include
spot welding, seam welding, butt welding, flash welding, projection welding, and
upset welding.
▪ Spot
▪ Seam
▪ Projection
▪ Butt Welding
▪ Induction Welding
4. Solid State Welding

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Uses time, temperature, and pressure, individually or in tandem, to join the metals
without significantly melting them. Variations of solid-state welding include
ultrasonic welding, explosion welding, friction welding (including friction stir
welding), magnetic pulse welding, co-extrusion welding, cold welding, diffusion
bonding, exothermic welding, high-frequency welding, hot pressure welding,
induction welding, and roll welding.
▪ Friction Welding
▪ Ultrasonic Welding
▪ Explosive Welding
▪ Forge and Diffusion Welding
5. Thermo-chemical Welding
▪ Thermit Welding
▪ Atomic H2 Welding
▪ Radiant Energy Welding
▪ Electron Beam Welding
▪ Laser Beam Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) – More commonly known as Metal Inert Gas
(MIG) welding, the process uses a shielding gas along the wire electrode, which
heats up two metals to be joined. This method requires a constant voltage and
direct-current power source and is the most common industrial welding
process.
Gas Tungsten Arc Gas Welding (GTAW/TIG) is a variation of arc-welding in
which a tungsten electrode is used to produce the weld. This process is
primarily used to weld together thick sections of stainless steel or non-ferrous
metals.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is a manual process of stick welding
where the stick uses an electric current to form an arc between it and the metals
to be joined. This is often used in the construction of steel structures and in
industrial fabrication to weld iron and steel.
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is an alternative to SMAW, which is often
used in construction projects due to its high welding speed and portability.
Submerged Arc Welding is a type of arc welding that is safer, quicker, and
more efficient than most arc welding processes; it emits fewer welding fumes
and arc lights than other types of arc welding.
Electroslag welding (ESW) is an efficient, single pass welding process that is
generally used on thick, nonferrous metals. ESW requires a high level of skill,
and it is popular in maritime applications as well as the aerospace industry.

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 In order to obtain coalescence between two metals there must be a combination
of proximity and activity between the molecules of the pieces being joined,
sufficient to cause the formation of common metallic crystals.
Proximity and activity can be increased by plastic deformation (solid-state-
welding) or by melting the two surfaces so that fusion occurs (fusion welding).
In solid-state-welding the surfaces to be joined are mechanically or chemically
cleaned prior to welding while in fusion welding the contaminants are
removed from the molten pool by the use of fluxes. In vacuum or in outer space
the removal of contaminant layer is quite easy, and welds are formed under
light pressure.

4.2 Conditions for obtaining satisfactory welds

To obtain satisfactory welds it is desirable to have:
▪ a source of energy to create union by FUSION or PRESSURE
▪ a method for removing surface CONTAMINANTS
▪ a method for protecting metal from atmospheric CONTAMINATION
▪ control of weld METALLURGY

4.2.1 Source of energy

Energy supplied is usually in the form of heat generated by a flame, an arc, the
resistance to an electric current, radiant energy or by mechanical means
(friction, ultrasonic vibrations or by explosion). In a limited number of
processes, pressure is used to force weld region to plastic condition. In fusion
welding the metal parts to be joined melt and fuse together in the weld region.
The word fusion is synonymous with melting but in welding fusion implies
union. The parts to be joined may melt but not fuse together and thus the fusion
welding may not take place.
4.2.2 Surface Contaminants
Surface contaminants may be organic films, absorbed gases and chemical
compounds of the base metal (usually oxides). Heat, when used as a source of
energy, effectively removes organic films and adsorbed gases and only oxide
film remains to be cleaned. Fluxes are used to clean the oxide film and other
contaminants to form slag which floats and solidifies above the weld bead
protecting the weld from further oxidation.
4.2.3 Atmospheric Contaminants
To protect the molten weld pool and filler metal from atmospheric
contaminants, especially the oxygen and nitrogen present in the air, some
shielding gases are used. These gases could be argon, helium or carbon-dioxide

Page | 49
 supplied externally. Carbon dioxide could also be produced by the burning of
the flux coating on the consumable electrode which supplies the molten filler
metal to the weld pool.
4.2.4 Weld metallurgy
When the weld metal solidifies, the microstructures formed in the weld and the
heat-affected-zone (HAZ) region determines the mechanical properties of the
joint produced. Pre-heating and post welding heat-treatment can be used to
control the cooling rates in the weld and HAZ regions and thus control the
microstructure and properties of the welds produced. Deoxidants and alloying
elements are added as in foundry to control the weld-metal properties.

4.3 Selection of Welding Process and Filler Metal

The welding process and filler metal should be so selected that the weld deposit
will be compatible with the base metal and will have mechanical properties
similar to or better than the base metal. Comparison of high energy density
welding processes and TIG welding for plate thick-ness 6 mm.

PARAMETER TIG PLASMA LASER EB

Power input to 2 kW 4 kW 4 kW 5 kW
workpiece
Total power 3 kW 6 kW 50 kW 6 kW
Traverse
2 mm/s 5.7 mm/s 16 mm/s 40 mm/s
Speed
Positional Good Good Yes Requires
Welding penetration penetration Requires optics to mechanism to
move the beam move the beam
Nominal Nominal Small Minimum
Distortion Significant significant
Shrinkage in V-shaped in V-shaped Minimum Minimum
weld weld
Special Normal Normal Safety interlock Vacuum
Process Light Light against misplaced chambers,
Requirements
Screening Screening beam reflection X-ray Screening
Surface Underside Underside Exceptionally fine Ruffled swarf
Geometry
Protrusion protrusion ripples on back face

Page | 50
4.4 Welding joint types

Butt welding Fillet welding

4.5 Gas welding flame

Page | 51
4.5.1 Example 12

A cylindrical storage vessel as shown below is to be fabricated from steel. Briefly

describe the most suitable welding methods for the joints A, B and C.

A B
Solution 12:

Joint ‘A’- Joint root can be deposited by use of metal Arc Gas
Welding (MAG) then filled using sub-merged arc welding or flux
coated MAGs.
Joint ‘B’- Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding is preferable to weld the
nozzle into curved face of the reservoir tank.
Joint ‘C’- best welding method is submerged Arc welding with
removable flux backing support.

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4.5.2 Example 13

A welder using MIG process to butt weld a metal plate of 2mm thickness sets the
current at 40A. The arc length is 2 mm and the voltage in the Argon gas acting as a
shield is 12V. Taking the weld travel speed to be 80 mm/min, determine the arc
energy.

Solution 13:

𝐀𝐫𝐜 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐛𝐞:

40𝐴 × 12𝑣 = 480𝑊
𝑂𝑟 480 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐬: 80𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
80 𝑚𝑚
∴ 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = = 1.33𝑚𝑚/𝑠
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 = (480 j/s × (2 𝑚𝑚/1.33𝑚𝑚) = 𝟕𝟐𝟐𝑾

4.5.3 Example 14

List four types of rivets used for general application.

Solution 14: 1. Pan head

2. Mushroom head
3. Flat head
4. Countersunk head

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