FIRST-TIME VOTERS’ CIVIC LITERACY AND THEIR PERCEPTIONS ON

VOTE-BUYING PRACTICES

An Undergraduate Research Paper

Presented to the Faculty of the College of Education
Mater Dei College
Tubigon, Bohol, Philippines

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Course Introduction to Educational Research
RESEARCH 101

By:
BACALSO, POUL DOMENIC
CANDELARIA, ANGEL JOY
GABUYA, KENT DARYL B.
LUMAYAG, CIELO MIGUEL J.
REMOJO, JASMIN M.

November 2024
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Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Knowledge is power and ignorance is dangerous. A lack of proper civic

education subjects in the curriculum can lead to ignorance of students' literacy to

basic rights and responsibilities.

There is a need to improve civic education in the current curriculum. This

was highlighted by DLSU-Department of Political Science and Development

Studies Professor Francisco Magno during a knowledge-sharing forum on the

theme “Capacitating and Investing in the Youth for a Productive and Resilient

Future” organized by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS)

through its Socioeconomic Research Portal for the Philippines (SERP-P)

initiative. He emphasized that there is a lack of extensive civic education where

he stated that the core subject “Understanding Culture, Society and Politics” only

covers eight hours and focuses more on discussion of society and culture and

less on citizenship.

The premise of this research is that the aim of having civic literate citizens

can only be achieved if proper civic education subjects in the curriculum are
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implemented and taught in schools. Without civic literacy, the risk of losing one’s

voice and right to freedom is inevitable. Civic literacy of citizens is not about

knowing facts; it is about the courage to fight against injustices and protect what

matters the most: freedom, equality, and humanity.

First-time voters represent a significant segment, with the potential to

make or break the election outcomes and drive political change. However, first-

time voters face challenges due the lack of civic literacy and potential

disappointment with the current political system. In the Philippines, where civic

literacy is institutionalized in the curriculum, the effectiveness of such programs is

still questioned to adequately equip first-time voters come election time. For

instance, about 3 million voters had been registered, totaling almost 4% of the

whole voting population, in the recently conducted 2022 national elections. This

emphasizes how crucial first-time voters are for the future of the country

(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2022).

Vote buying remains an ongoing problem around the globe, particularly

within developing democratic countries. The Global Corruption Barometer report

of 2021 indicates that most countries remain at risk; for example, 25% of

lowincome and middle-income countries reported electoral bribery experiences.

According to Pulse Asia (2019), 19% of Filipino voters have acknowledged

having been approached for vote-buying malpractices.

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The practice of vote-buying in the Philippine electoral system is a sinister

issue that threatens the core principles of democracy. This immoral custom of the

Filipino people disrupts the voting process by offering material grants and

financial rewards in exchange for votes, undermining the decision-making power

of the voters and independence to vote for who they truly want. The practice of

vote buying does not only distort election results, but it also perpetuates the cycle

of inequality and corruption. Local communities noted mixed reactions regarding

vote-buying practices; some think of it as an inevitable part of the Philippine

political culture whereas others find it threatening democratic principles. In some

localities, vote-buying offers readily available tangible benefits like goods or

money to families who are in dire need; therefore, it is both an economic and

ethical dilemma. For example, vote-buying is common among the youth, exposed

early in most provinces, who often witnessed these practices within their

communities. These first-hand encounters destroy their trust in the fair election

and they accept vote buying as a normal occurrence during elections.

According to Comparative Government and Politics which discussed vote

buying and its implications - a concept that sparked a question for the

researchers. How do first-time voters perceive vote buying and how does their

civic literacy affect their decision-making? The moment has inspired the drive to

measure the civic literacy of first-time voters and their perceptions about vote

buying practices. Through this study, the researchers intend to unveil the critical
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gaps in students' knowledge and perceptions that might continue vote-buying

practices. This study will serve as a basis for crafting targeted civic literacy

programs that address those gaps, which can promote a sense of integrity and

accountability in the minds of first-time voters. Ultimately, this study aims to

empower a generation of voters that will resist vote-buying and value genuine

democratic participation as a shift toward a more transparent and accountable

electoral system through strengthening civic literacy programs in the educational

curriculum.

Theoretical Background

This present study is anchored on the Theory of Robert Dahl’s Democracy

and its Critics, Rational Choice Theory of Down, Political Socialization Theory as

proposed by Easton and Dennis, Clientelism Theory by Kitschelt and Wilkinson,

and the Electoral Competition Theory by Brusco, Nazareno, and Stokes.

According to Dahl (1989), democracy means rule by the people and a

democratic process must make effective participation and voting equality

available to all qualified adults who are subject to the binding collective decisions

of society. It also stated that democracy maximizes freedom by embracing basic

political rights and liberties, such as free expression, and allows “persons to live

under laws of their own choosing.” It was relevant since emphasis on political
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equality is very crucial and it signifies that for a legitimate democracy to be

exercised, all citizens must have equal opportunities to influence political results.

This is directly associated to how first-time voters perceive vote buying. If they

view the practice of vote buying as inappropriate and diminishes political equality,

it can break their trust in the democratic process and weaken their civic

participation.

Political participation by the public in a democracy fosters the desirable

qualities of “independence, self-reliance, and public-spiritedness,” and it

provides opportunities for individuals to develop their full capacities. Democracy

must also provide citizens with opportunities for understanding civic issues, as

well as allow them to have control over the matters that reach the decision-

making agenda. The discussion on the legitimacy of democratic systems is

important to the firsttime voter’s view on vote buying practices because if they

see vote buying as a common or accepted practice, it may affect these voters'

belief in the legitimacy of democratic processes. It can also cause in reducing

their motivation to engage in future political activities. Dahl’s principle of political

equality can be used to examine whether first-time voters feel that their votes

and voices matter equally in a system where vote buying occurs.

Rational Choice Theory also supports this study. As cited by Down

(1957), the voters make their decision based on a political party or candidates

suited to their personal interest. The first-time voters are new to the electoral
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process which view voting according to a cost-benefit analysis. It emphasized

that their perception of vote buying is influenced by the rational calculation. It

also stated that because individuals may choose not to be fully informed about

the political issues rather than they believe that their vote will not make a

significant difference. This is a reason to make them more vulnerable towards

vote buying practices.

The Political Socialization Theory by Easton and Dennis (1967) is

another theory that supports this study. According to this theory, the experiences

at early ages of political socialization-through one's family, educational

institutions, peer groups, and exposure to the media-are most formative for an

individual's political orientation. First-time voters reach a critical age when

participation in elections is at a very active stage of such socialization. These

experiences, therefore, most often influence their perception of civic

responsibilities and literacy of the political system that either encourages or

discourages them from active participation in democratic processes.

A person who grows up in societies where this practice is openly

accepted or ignored may grow to be more tolerant of the practice, while those

brought up under conditions that place a premium on democratic ideals may

view votebuying as unethical or injurious to the political process. It therefore

reflects accumulated political education and experiences of first-time voters in

civic literacy.
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Clientelism Theory is a theory where a political strategy used by the

candidates exchange material things or favors such as cash, sustenance, or

admission to public properties for political backing. This affiliation works on a

patron-client source, with electorates stand-in as clients who return the material

profits by supporting their patron in votes. The theory recommends that

clientelism succeeds in societies where societies are weak and scarcity is

extensive, as these conditions create a dependence on personalized exchanges

rather than policy-driven governance. Politicians depend on this system to

merge their power, bypassing the need for extensive programmatic appeals

(Kitschelt & Wilkinson, 2007).

In addition, in the Theory of Electoral Competition, where highly

competitive elections, the risks are often higher, leading politicians to recourse

to vote-buying as a way to advance on power. This theory proposes that vote-

buying is utmost predominant in closely disputed elections, where every ballot

count. Politicians practice material inducements to influence unsure voters or

secure support in swing electorates. The strength of competition creates an

environment where the deliberate use of vote buying becomes serious for voting

success (Brusco, Nazareno, & Stokes, 2004).

Moreover, according to Easton and Dennis (1967), institutions,

specifically educational systems, are crucial for civic literacy among new voters.

Schools, universities, and civic programs will give the knowledge to citizens
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regarding their roles in democracy and the effects brought about by corrupt

practices such as vote-buying. The process of political socialization, therefore,

influences not only the way that first-time voters perceive vote-buying but also

affects more general civic responsibility, engagement in activities, and the

perception of effectiveness when taking part in the electoral process.

Niemi and Junn’s (1998) study reveals that the enhancement of civics

curriculum is in a positive relationship with the level of political activity and well-

informed voting patterns. Moreover, Dela Cruz (2018) in his study also revealed

that the students who acquired ample civic education had higher chances of

voting during election periods and showing informed vote during election periods.

Civic literacy is the skill to keep informed, understand governmental

procedures, and exercise one’s rights and responsibilities as a citizen at the

local, state, federal, and international levels. The local and global results of civic

decisions are also understood by individuals (Partnership for 21 st Century Skills,

2009; Morgan, 2016).

According to the Youth Urban Agenda/Civic Literacy Project at Wayne State

University: “Civic Literacy is the knowledge of how to actively participate and

initiate change in your community and the greater society. It is the foundation by

which a democratic society functions: Citizen Power as a check and as a means

to create avenues for peaceful change.” Also, according to Concordia University,

Nebraska: “While civic responsibility is minimally understood as the act of fulfilling

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duties such as serving on a jury, paying taxes, and obeying laws, civic literacy can

be defined in two parts. First, students must understand the role and operation of

local, state and national governments. The second component of civic literacy is

active participation in civic processes, including elections.”

Civic education also emphasized by the study revealing that the positive

effects had a role in enhancing their civic consciousness regarding their voting

rights and responsibilities. This is important as it helps to make the newly voters

more informed in an effort to enhance their political knowledge and thus change

their attitudes towards vote buying.

According to the study made by Castañeda (2020), a great percentage of

voters get acquainted with vote buying and corruption as usual incidents of

Philippine elections. It negates voter trust on the electoral process and in turn

influences the way people vote. First-time voters may perceive such corrupt

practices differently because their opinions on the electoral system are rather

more likely to be less biased than those voters who have been active voters for

many years. These individuals are likely to be vulnerable to these practices

especially if they are not civic conscious or lack adequate knowledge of the

ethical roles of vote buying. According to the findings of Mendoza (2021), a group

of teenage voters with high level of electoral integrity knowledge were active and

had concern with equality of the electoral process. Literacy enhances link with

the publication that stresses much on ethical voting.

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Moreover, Mendoza’s study also highlighted that sense of literacy must be

provided among the first-time voters on electoral integrity. As such, the given civic

literacy can help voters enhance their comprehension of electoral quality in order

to reject unethical and corrupt practices such as vote buying. Thus, this study

focuses on first-time voters, their knowledge about their roles and duties as the

citizens on how they regard the act of vote buying.

The election is at the heart of democracy because citizens have the right to

vote (Belknap & Campbell, 1952). For instance, new generation voters are in the

maker processes of constructing their civic selves/subjectivities as pointed out by

Borhaug in 2008. With regard to the academic performance, civic literacy assists

in the comprehension and control of people with political techniques and

accountability.

Batas Pambansa Blg.881 (The Omnibus Election Code of the Philippines

Act of 1985) section 261-266, has provisions that exclusively cover and

categorize enough provisions on vote buying and electoral offense establishing a

coherent lawful source for forbidding corrupt practices.

Therefore, the knowledge and understanding of this code needs to be

developed to realize civic literacy in direct relation with the harmful practices of

vote buying. Additionally, the code also goes further to support efforts and to

initiate literacy among the first-time voters on the importance of their vote and the
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consequence of electoral trickery by stirring up vote buying and enforcing

campaign finance regulation under Section 84-98.

The study by Baidoo, Dankwa, and Eshun (2018) titled “Culture of Vote

Buying and its Implications: Range of Incentives and Conditions Politicians Offer

to Electorates’’ disclosed that each election year and in almost every local and

institutional elections the issue of vote buying surfaces. This study investigated

the range of incentives and conditions politicians give to electorates. Voter views

in areas where economic hardship is common often leads to the of vote buying,

which may have a huge impact on first-time voters’ understanding of their civic

rights and responsibilities. Furthermore, the study aimed to investigate the long-

term impact of vote buying, suggesting that practices can establish systems of

corruption and weaken governance. This study highlights the long-term effects of

vote buying, arguing that these actions may strengthen corrupt governments and

undermine the government.

Moreover, the study of Kaid, McKinney, and Tedesco (2007) titled

“Perceptions of Vote Buying Practices, the Literature on Political Information

Efficacy and Young Voters” revealed that specific types of political messages

affect young and older citizens’ political information efficacy differently and that

political information efficacy plays a significant role in voting or nonvoting for

young citizens. This study highlights the role of media, education, and campaign

communication in shaping the political attitudes and behaviors of young voters,

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offering insights into how these factors might influence first-time voters’

perceptions on vote-buying. It provides a valuable foundation for understanding

how young voters’ confidence in their political knowledge influences their civic

engagement.

All of the abovementioned literature supported the tenets of this study

from the theories, related literature, legal basis and related studies. The

researchers strongly believe that a deeper understanding of this study opens

avenues to improve the civic literacy of first-time voters and their perceptions of

vote-buying practices.
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THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to investigate first-time voters’ civic literacy and their

perceptions on vote-buying practices. It also determines the relationship between

the first-time voters’ civic literacy and their perceptions on vote buying practices.

Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions.

1. What is the demographic profile of the participants in terms of

1.1 sex; and

1.2 year level?

2. What is the level of civic literacy of the first-time voters?

3. What are the perceptions of first-time voters on vote buying

practices?

4. Is there a significant difference between the first-time voters’ civic

literacy when grouped according to profile?

5. Is there a significant difference between the first-time voters’

perceptions on vote buying practices when grouped according to

their profile?

6. Is there a significant relationship between the first-time voters’ civic

literacy and their perception on vote buying practices?

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Research Hypotheses

1. There is a significant difference between the first-time voters’ civic literacy

when grouped according to their sex and year level.

2. There is a significant difference between the first time’ voters’ perceptions

on vote buying practices when grouped according to their sex and year

level.

3. There is a significant relationship between the first-time voters’ civic literacy

and their perception on vote-buying practices.

Significance of the Study

This study intends to investigate the civic literacy of first-time voters and their

perceptions on vote-buying practices providing valuable insights into the civic

literacy of a particular population. By understanding how these first-time voters

perceive civic responsibilities and electoral malpractices, this research adds to

the joint effort to reinforce just and fair democratic processes. The results of this

study will hold essential relevance to educators, policymakers, and civic groups

as they can inform the people about the creation of targeted interventions and

educational programs aimed at engraving ethical, knowledgeable, and informed

voting practices, which will eventually lead to the development of an accountable

and principled political system.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Design

This study will employ an explanatory sequential research design.

Quantitative data will be gathered first to measure the participants’ level of civic

literacy and perceptions of first-time voters regarding to vote-buying practices. It

will be followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data to validate the

quantitative findings. Furthermore, this study will gather the data at one point in

time from the research participants with the aid of the standardized

questionnaires that will be taken from the previous researches and tailored for

this study to measure the level of civic literacy and perception on vote buying

practices of the first-time voters. The data will be utilized to evaluate the level of

civic literacy of the first-time voters and to analyze the relationship between the

civic literacy and the perception of first-time voters to vote buying practices.

Environment

This study will be conducted at Mater Dei College and Salus Institute of

Technology located in Cabulijan, Tubigon, Bohol where the researchers will focus

on the first-time voters currently studying both in college and high school

departments in the said academic institutions.

Mater Dei College, also known as MDC, is a private, Roman Catholic,

coeducational basic and higher education institution consisting of an elementary

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department, high school and senior high school department, and college

department with six colleges, namely College of Accountancy, Business, and

Management- Business Department (CABM-B), College of Accountancy,

Business, and Management Hospitality Department (CABM-H), College of Arts

and Sciences and Technology (CAST), College of Criminal Justice (CCJ), College

of Nursing (CON), and the College of Education (COE). Meanwhile, Salus

Institute of Technology, also known as SIT, is a private Roman Catholic institution

consisting of a high school department.

Participants

This study will involve 180 participants that will consist of senior high school

students from Salus Institute of Technology and college students from Mater Dei

College that are enrolled in the academic year 2024-2025. In both the

quantitative phase and the qualitative phase, participants will be chosen through

non-probabilistic sampling, specifically judgmental sampling, where participants

who meet specific criteria will be selected (e.g. students who are first time

voters).

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The criteria for the selection of participants for this study are senior high school

and college students who are qualified as first-time voters. The participants
 18

must currently be enrolled in Mater Dei College for college students and Salus

Institute of Technology for high school students. Anyone who does not meet the

criteria will not be selected.

Instrument

In this explanatory-sequential study, two research instruments will be

utilized: a survey questionnaire and a face-to-face interview. First, the

researchers will use an adapted and modified standardized questionnaire with

the help of an

AI tool. The questionnaire will be adapted and modified from "The Role of Civic

Literacy and Social Empathy on Rates of Civic Engagement among University

Students” by Hylton (2018) and "The Influence of Economic Status on Electoral

Behavior" by Garcia (2019).

The research survey questionnaires will have three parts. The first part is

to determine the profile of the participants. The second part measures the level of

civic literacy of first-time voters. The third part aims to determine the perceptions

of first-time voters regarding vote-buying practices.

The second part of the questionnaire will use a 4-point Likert scale that
can interpret the level of civic literacy of the first-time voters. The parameters to
be used in the adapted-modified questionnaire will be as follows:
Responses Interval Interpretation
Strongly Agree 3.26-4.00 Very Good
Agree 2.51-3.25 Good
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Disagree 1.76-2.00 Poor

Strongly Disagree 1.00-1.75 Very Poor

The third part of the questionnaire will also use a 4-point Likert Scale that

can interpret the perceptions of first-time voters toward vote-buying practices.

The scale encompassed specific parameters for participants to provide their

responses.

Responses Interval Interpretation

Strongly Agree 1.00-1.75 Very Poor
Agree 1.76-2.00 Poor
Disagree 2.51-3.25 Good
Strongly Disagree 3.26-4.00 Very Good

Second, a face-to-face interview will be conducted among the participants. The

researchers will ask 5 interview questions to selected participants. The

qualitative data will be used to validate the quantitative data.

Procedures

Gathering of Data

The researchers will make a letter of request to Mr. Salvador R. Caberte, CPA,

LPT, the Principal of Salus Institute of Technology, and to the deans of the six

college departments of Mater Dei College, asking permission to conduct the

study within the school. After such permission is secured, the researchers will

distribute the informed consent to the valued participants, who are students of

the said institution. Once approved, the researchers will distribute the
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questionnaires personally to the valued participants, give them instructions, and

let them answer the questions. After collecting all the data, it will be tallied and

tabulated. The results will be examined to determine the civic literacy of the

participants and their perceptions on vote-buying practices.

Treatment of Data

In this research, the researchers will employ frequencies and percentages

to depict the characteristics of the participants. They will utilize these measures

to outline the participants' profiles. Additionally, the researchers will calculate the

weighted mean to measure the first -time voter’s civic literacy and their

perceptions on vote buying practices. The T-test is used to identify significant

differences in the student’s level of civic literacy and their perceptions on vote

buying practices according to profile. Regression Analysis will be used to identify

the significant relationship in the students’ level of civic literacy and their

perceptions on vote buying practices. All calculations will be conducted using

Microsoft Excel Software.

The qualitative data will then be gathered, coded, and used to validate the

quantitative results.
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DEFINITION OF TERMS

To enhance comprehension of the study, the following terms are clearly

defined in operational terms:

Civic Literacy refers to the understanding and knowledge of first-time

voters' civic rights and responsibilities necessary for informed and active

participation in the elections, governmental activities and issues.

First-time voters refer to the college students of Mater Dei College and

high school students of Salus Institute of Technology who are participating in the

electoral process for the first time.

Perceptions refers to how first-time voters at Mater Dei College and

Salus Institute of Technology interpret and understand the phenomenon of vote-

buying practices.

Vote buying practices refer to corrupt activities where political candidates

or their representatives offer money, goods, or services to voters at Mater Dei

College and Salus Institute of Technology in exchange for their votes.

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REFERENCES

Baidoo, P., Dankwa, S., & Eshun, A. (2018). Culture of vote-buying and its implications:
Range of incentives and conditions politicians offer to electorates. Journal of
Political Science and Public Administration, 6(4), 45-63

Batas Pambansa Blg.881 (The Omnibus Election Code of the Philippines Act of 1985)
section 261-266

Belknap, G., & Campbell, A. (1952). Political participation and democratic theory.
American Political Science Review, 46(2), 333-346.

Borhaug, K. (2008). Political education in schools: Democracy and participation. Nordic

Journal of Citizenship Education, 3(2), 45-58.

Brusco, V., Nazareno, M., & Stokes, S. C. (2004). Vote buying in Argentina. Latin
American Research Review.

Castañeda, D. (2020). Perceptions of vote buying in the Philippines: A qualitative study

of electoral malpractices. Philippine Political Review, 16(1), 123-137.

Dahl, R. A. (1989). Democracy and its critics. Yale University Press.

Dela Cruz, J. R. (2018). The impact of civic education on youth voter participation in the
Philippines. Philippine Journal of Political Science, 7(2), 110-128.

Downs, A. (1957). An economic theory of democracy. Harper & Row.

 23

Easton, D., & Dennis, J. (1967). The child’s acquisition of regime norms: Political
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American Political Science Review, 61(1), 25-38.

Hylton, M. E. (2018). The role of civic literacy and social empathy on rates of civic
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International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. (2022). Electora integrity
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Kaid, L. L., McKinney, M. S., & Tedesco, J. C. (2007). Perceptions of vote-buying

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Mendoza, J. A. (2021). Civic awareness and electoral integrity among teenage voters: A
survey study. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 9(3), 321-343.

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Pulse Asia. (2019). Vote-buying in the Philippines: Survey on election practices and
perceptions. Pulse Asia Research, Inc.

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