DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MAT122 INTRODUCTORY MATHEMATICS II

WEEK 1: LECTURE NOTE

LIMITS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
A Preview of Calculus
What is calculus?
Key Takeaways:

• Calculus is a branch of mathematics that involves the study of rates of change.

• All mathematics was static before the invention of calculus; that is, it could only
help calculate objects that were perfectly still.

• No objects - from the stars in space to subatomic particles or cells in the body -
are always at rest. The universe is constantly moving and changing.

• Invention of calculus helped to determine how particles, stars, and matter actually
move and change in real time.

• Calculus is the mathematics of velocities, accelerations, tangent lines, slopes,

areas, volumes, arc lengths, centroids, curvatures, and a variety of other
concepts that have enabled scientists, engineers, and economists to model real-life
situations.

• Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton, 17th-century mathematicians, both in-

vented calculus independently. Newton invented it first, but Leibniz created the
notations that mathematicians use today.

• Differential calculus determines the rate of change of a quantity.

• Integral calculus finds the quantity where the rate of change is known.

• Practical Applications. Calculus is used in

(a) PHYSICS in the study of concepts of motion, electricity, heat, light, har-
monics, acoustics, and astronomy.
(b) Geography, computer vision, photography, artificial intelligence, robotics,
video games, and even movies.
(c) CHEMISTRY to calculate the rates of radioactive decay in, and even to
predict birth and death rates.
(d) SHIP BUILDING to determine both the curve of the hull of the ship (using
differential calculus) and the area under the hull (using integral calculus).
(e) ECONOMICS to predict supply, demand, and maximum potential profits.

1
 PRE-CALCULUS CALCULUS
Mathematics is more static Mathematics is more dynamic
Object moving with constant speed Accelerating object
Slope of straight line Slope of a curve
Secant line to a curve Tangent line to a curve
The curvature of a circle The curvature of a curve
The area of geometric shapes The area under a curve
Length of a line segment Length of an arc
Surface area of a cylinder Surface area of a solid of revolution
Mass of a solid of constant density Mass of a solid of variable density
Volume of a rectangular solid Volume of a region under a surface
Sum of a finite number of terms Sum of an infinite number of terms
What then is a bridge that connects PRE-CALCULUS and CALCULUS in Mathematics?
PRE-CALCULUS ⇒ LIMIT PROCESS ⇒ CALCULUS

Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

To sketch the graph of the function
x3 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
for values other than x 6= 1, you can use standard curve-sketching techniques. At x = 1,
however, it is not clear what to expect. To get an idea of the behavior of the graph of f
near x = 1, you can use two sets of x-values - one set approaches 1 from the left and one
set that approaches 1 from the right, as shown below.
x 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25
f (x) 2.313 2.710 2.9700 2.997 ? 3.003 1 3.310 3.813
The graph of f is a parabola that has a gap at the point (1, 3). Although x cannot equal
1, you can move arbitrarily close to 1, and as a result f (x) moves arbitrarily close to 3.
The limit of f as x approaches 1 is 3. Using limit notation, you can write
lim f (x) = 3
x→1

read as “The limit of f (x) as x approaches 1 is 3. ”

4

3 (1, 3)

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

Definition 1. If f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches c

from either side, then the limit of f as x approaches c is L. This limit is written as
lim f (x) = L.
x→c
2
 x
Example 2. Evaluate the function f (x) = √ at several x-values near 0 and
x+1−1
use the result to estimate the limit
x
lim √ .
x→0 x+1−1
The table below lists the values of f (x) for several x-values near 0.
x -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
f (x) 1.99499 1.99950 1.99995 ? 2.00005 2.00050 2.00499
From the results shown in the table, you can estimate the limit to be 2; that is,
x
lim √ = 2.
x→0 x+1−1

1,x 6= 2
Example 3. Find the limit of f (x) = as x approaches 2.
0,x = 2.
The table below lists the values of f (x) for several x-values near 2.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01
f (x) 1 1 1 ? 1 1 1
From the results shown in the table, you can estimate the limit to be 1; that is,
lim f (x) = 1.
x→2

Given the graph of f below.

2
(2, 1)
1
(2, 0)
−2 −1 1 2 3

From the graph of f we will get the same answer.

lim f (x) = 1.
x→2

Example 4 (Different Right and Left Behavior). Consider the graph of the function
|x|
f (x) = .
x
It follows from absolute value definition that

|x| 1, x > 0
f (x) = =
x −1, x < 0.

The graph is given below.

3
 2

(0, 1)
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1 (0, −1)

−2

It follows from the graph that

1. f (x) approaches to -1 when x approaches to 0 from the left.

2. f (x) approaches to 1 when x approaches to 0 from the right.

Therefore, there does not exist a single number L to which f (x) approaches as x ap-
proaches 0 from both sides. Hence lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0

Common Types of Behavior Associated with Nonexistence of a Limit

1. f (x) approaches a different number from the right side of c than it approaches from
the left side.
1
2. f (x) increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c. [f (x) = at x = 0]
x2
1
3. f (x) oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches c. [f (x) = cos ( ) at x = 0]
x
Numerical and Graphical approaches to limit produce an estimate of the limit. In the
subsequent sections we will study analytic techniques for evaluating limits. Throughout
the course, try to develop a habit of using this three-pronged approach to problem solving.

1. Numerical approach ... [Construct a table of values.]

2. Graphical approach ..... [Draw a graph by hand or using technology.]

3. Analytic approach ...... [Use algebra or calculus.]

Evaluating Limits Analytically

The limit of f (x) as x approaches c does not depend on the value of f at c. It may
happen, however, that the limit is precisely f (c). In such cases, the limit can be evaluated
by direct substitution. That is,

lim f (x) = f (c)

x→c
(Substitute c for x)

4
Theorem 5 (Some Basic Limits). Let b and c be real numbers, and let n be a positive
integer.

(1) lim b = b Limit of a Constant function

x→c
(2) x→c
lim x = c Limit of the identity function
(3) lim xn = cn Limit of a power function
x→c

Example 6 (Evaluating Basic Limits).

(a) lim 3 = 3 (c) lim x2 = 22 = 4 (e) lim x3 = (−5)3 = −125

x→3 x→2 x→−5
√ √
(b) lim x = −4 (d) lim 5 = 5 (f ) lim x10 = (−1)10 = 1
x→−4 x→ 0 x→−1

Theorem 7 (Properties of Limits). Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive

integer, and let f (x) and g(x) be functions with the limits

lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = K.

x→c x→c

(1) Scalar multiple: lim [bf (x)] = bL = b lim f (x).

x→c x→c
(2) Sum or difference: lim[f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± K = lim f (x) ± lim g(x).
x→c x→c x→c
(3) Product: lim [f (x)g(x)] = LK = lim f (x). lim g(x).
x→c x→c x→c
f (x) L limx→c f (x)
(4) Quotient: lim[ ]= = , K 6= 0.
x→c g(x) K limx→c g(x)
 n
(5) Power: lim [f (x)]n = Ln = lim f (x) .
x→c x→c

Example 8 (Limit of a Polynomial Function). Find the limit

lim (4x2 + 3).

x→2

Solution.

lim (4x2 + 3) = lim (4x2 ) + lim 3 Sum Rule

x→2 x→2 x→2
= 4 lim x2 + lim 3 Scalar Multiple Rule
x→2 x→2
2
= 4(2 ) + 3 Power Rule
= 19 Simplify.

NB. Note that the limit (as x approaches 2) of the polynomial function p(x) = 4x2 +3
is simply the value of p at x = 2.
The direct substitution property is valid for all polynomial and rational functions with
nonzero denominators.
Theorem 9. Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
1. If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then

lim p(x) = p(c).

x→c
5
 2. If r is a rational function given by
p(x)
r(x) =
q(x)
and c is a real number such that q(c) 6= 0, then
p(c)
lim r(x) = r(c) =
x→c q(c)

Example 10 (Limit of a Rational Function). Find the limits

x2 + x + 2 x−2
(a) lim (b) lim .
x→1 x+1 x→5 2x − 1

Solution.
(a) Here the numerator polynomial p(x) = x2 + x + 2 and the denominator polynomial is
q(x) = x + 1. Since q(1) = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0, we can apply the above Theorem to obtain:
x2 + x + 2 12 + 1 + 2 4
lim = = = 2.
x→1 x+1 1+1 2
(b) Here the numerator polynomial p(x) = x − 2 and the denominator polynomial is
q(x) = 2x − 1. Since q(5) = 9 6= 0, we can apply the above Theorem to obtain:
x−2 3 1
lim = = .
x→1 2x − 1 9 3
Theorem 11 (The Limit of a Function Involving a Radical). Let n be a positive integer.
The limit below is valid for all c when n is odd, and is valid for c > 0 when n is even.
√ √
lim n x = n c.
x→c

Theorem 12 (The Limit of a Composite Function). If f and g are functions such that
lim g(x) = L and lim f (x) = f (L) then
x→c x→L

lim(f ◦ g)(x) = lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)) = f (L).

x→c x→c x→c

Remark 13 (Limits of Algebraic Functions). We have seen in Theorems 5, 6, and 7

the limits of the basic three algebraic functions: (1) polynomial functions, (2)rational
functions, and (3) functions involving radicals.
Example 14 (The Limit of a Composite Function). Find the limit
√ √
3
(a) lim x2 + 4 (b) lim 2x2 − 10
x→0 x→3

Solution.
√ √
(a) If g(x) = x2 + 4 and f (x) = x, then (f ◦ g)(x) = x2 + 4. Since lim (x2 + 4) = 4
√ √ x→0
and lim x = 4 = 2, we can apply Theorem 8 to obtain:
x→4
√
lim x2 + 4 = lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)) = f (4) = 2.
x→0 x→0 x→0
√ √
(b) If g(x) = 2x2 −10 and f (x) = 3 x, then (f ◦g)(x) = 3 2x2 − 10. Since lim g(x) = −8
x→3
and lim f (x) = f (−8) = −2, we can apply Theorem 8 to obtain:
x→−8
√
3
lim 2x2 − 10 = −2.
x→3
6
Limits of Trigonometric Functions
We have seen that the limits of many algebraic functions (polynomial, rational, and
radicals) can be evaluated by direct substitution. The six basic trigonometric functions
also exhibit this desirable quality.
Theorem 15 (Limits of Trigonometric Functions). Let c be a real number in the domain
of the given trigonometric function.

1. x→c
lim sin x = sin c 3. x→c
lim tan x = tan c 5. x→c
lim sec x = sec c.
2. lim cos x = cos c 4. lim cot x = cot c 6. lim csc x = csc c.
x→c x→c x→c

Example 16 (Evaluating Limits of Trigonometric Functions).

(a) lim tan x = tan 0 = 0 (c) lim (x cos x) = (lim x)(lim cos x) = π. cos π = −π
x→0 x→π x→π x→π
π
(b) limπ sin x = sin ( ) = 1 (d) lim sin2 x = lim (sin x)2 = 02 = 0
x→ 2 2 x→ 0 x→ 0

Strategies for Finding Limits

Theorem 17 (Functions That Agree at All but One Point). Let c be a real number, and
let f (x) = g(x) for all x 6= c in an open interval containing c. If the limit of g(x) as x
approaches c exists, then the limit f (x) of also exists and

lim f (x) = lim g(x).

x→c x→c

Example 18 (Finding the Limit of a Function). Find the limit

x3 − 1
lim .
x→1 x − 1

Solution. Note that for x 6= 1,

x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)
= = x2 + x + 1.
x−1 x−1
3
Let f (x) = xx−1
−1
and g(x) = x2 + x + 1. Then f (x) = g(x) for all x 6= 1 in any open
interval containing 1. Therefore, by the above theorem,
x3 − 1
lim = lim f (x) = lim g(x) = lim x2 + x + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x→1 x→1

Alternatively, we can find the limit as follows:

x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)
lim = lim Factor
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1

(x− 1)(x2 + x + 1)
= lim Divide out like factors
x→1 x
 −1
2
= lim (x + x + 1) Apply Theorem
x→1
=1+1+1 Limit of polynomial function
= 3.
7
 A Strategy for Finding Limits

1. Learn to recognize which limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.

2. When the limit f (x) of x as approaches c cannot be evaluated by direct

substitution, try to find a function that agrees with for all x other than
x = c. [Choose g such that the limit of g(x) can be evaluated by direct
substitution.] Then apply Theorem 3 to conclude analytically that

lim f (x) = lim g(x) = g(c).

x→c x→c

3. Use a graph or table to reinforce your conclusion.

Example 19 (Dividing Out Technique). Find the limit
x2 + x − 6
lim .
x→−3 x+3
Solution. Note that direct substitution produces the meaningless fractional form 00 . By
factorization of the numerator we get
x2 + x − 6 = (x + 3)(x − 2).
Therefore,
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2)
lim = lim Factor
x→−3 x+3 x→1 x+3

(x+3)(x
 − 2)
= lim  Divide out like factors
x→−3  
x+3
= lim (x − 2) Apply Theorem
x→−3
= −3 − 2 Limit of polynomial function
= −5.
0
Definition 20. An expression of the form 0
is called an indeterminate form.
Example 21 (Rationalizing Technique). Find the limit
√
x+1−1
lim .
x→0 x
Solution. By direct substitution, we obtain the indeterminate form 00 .
√ √ √
x+1−1 ( x + 1 − 1)( x + 1 + 1)
lim = lim √ Rationalizing the numerator
x→0 x x→0 x( x + 1 + 1)
(x + 1) − 1
= lim √
x→0 x( x + 1 + 1)
x

= lim √ Divide out like factors
x( x + 1 + 1)
x→0 

1
= lim √
x→0 x+1+1
1
=√ Limit of a function involving radicals
1+1
1
= .
2
8
 √
x+1−1 1
Reinforce the conclusion that lim = by constructing a table or a graph.
x→0 x 2
Theorem 22 (The Squeeze/ or Sandwich/ or Pinching/ Theorem). If h(x) ≤ f (x) ≤
g(x) for all x in an open interval containing c, except possibly at c itself, and if

lim h(x) = L = lim g(x),

x→c x→c

then lim f (x) exists and

x→c
lim f (x) = L.
x→c

Theorem 23. Two Special Trigonometric Limits

sin x 1 − cos x
(1) lim =1 (2) lim =0
x→0 x x→0 x
Example 24 (A Limit Involving a Trigonometric Function). Find the limit
tan x
lim .
x→0 x
Solution. Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 00 . To solve this problem,
sin x
you can write tan x as cos x
and obtain
tan x sin x sin x 1
= = .
x x cos x x cos x
sin x 1 1
Now, because lim = 1 and lim = = 1, we can obtain
x→0 x x→0 cos x cos 0
tan x sin x
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x cos x
sin x 1
= (lim )(lim )
x→0 x x→0 cos x
=1

Example 25 (A Limit Involving a Trigonometric Function). Find the limit

sin (4x)
lim .
x→0 x
Solution. Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 00 . To solve this problem,
you can rewrite the limit as
sin (4x) sin (4x)
lim = 4(lim ) Multiply and divide by 4.
x→0 x x→0 4x
Now, by letting y = 4x and observing that y approaches 0 if and only if x approaches 0,
you can write
sin (4x) sin 4x
lim = 4(lim )
x→0 x x→0 4x
sin y
= 4(lim ) Let y = 4x
y→0 y

=4
9
One-Sided Limits
Definition 26 (One-Sided Limits). Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number.

1. A real number L is called the left-hand limit of f at c, written as lim− f (x) = L,

x→c
if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the left side of c (x
approaches c from values less than c), the corresponding values of f approach to L.

2. A real number L is called the right-hand limit of f at c, written as lim+ f (x) = L,

x→c
if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the right side of c (x
approaches c from values greater than c), the corresponding values of f approach to
L.

y = f (x)
lim+ f (x) = a
x→c

lim f (x) = b b
x→c−

x → c+

x → c− c

One-sided limits can be used to investigate the behavior of step functions. One com-
mon type of step function is the greatest integer function ⌊.⌋ defined as

⌊x⌋ = greatest integer n such that n ≤ x.

Example 27 (The Greatest Integer Function). Find the limit of the greatest integer
function f (x) = ⌊x⌋ as x approaches 0 from the left and from the right.
Solution.

10
As shown in Figure on the right, the limit
as x approaches 0 from the left is Greatest Integer Function

lim f (x) = −1 f (x) = ⌊x⌋

x→0−
2
and the limit as x approaches 0 from the
right is
lim+ f (x) = 0.
x→0

The greatest integer function has a discon- −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

tinuity at zero because the left- and right-
hand limits at zero are different. By simi-
lar reasoning, you can see that the greatest −2
integer function has a discontinuity at any
integer n.
Theorem 28 (The Existence of a Limit). Let f be a function, and let c and L be real
numbers. The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is L if and only if

lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→c− x→ c+

INFINITE LIMITS
Infinite Limits from the left and from the right
Consider the function
3
f (x) = .
x−2
Note that domain of f is R \ {2} = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞). Let us discuss the behavior of the
function, numerically or graphically, as x−values approaches 2 from the left (x − 2 < 0)
and from the right(x − 2 > 0.) Carefully examine the numerical tables and graph of the
function f to get clear image of the nature of the values of f when x gets very close and
close to 2 from the left or from the right.

1. The values of the function f as x approaches 2 from the left is given in the following
table.

x 1 1.5 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999 1.999999 1.9999999 2

f (x) -3 -6 -30 -60 -300 -3,000 -30,000 -300,000 -3,000,000 -30,000,000 ∄

From this table we observe that x goes from 1 t0 1.999999, (move close to 2 from
the left in less than one unit) the value of f jumped from −3 to −3, 000, 000. This
situation can be expressed as:

f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from the left.

2. The values of the function f as x approaches 2 from the right is given in the following
table.

11
 x 2 2.00000003 2.0000001 2.000001 2.00003 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.05 2.2
f (x) ∄ 100,000,0000 30,000,000 3,000,000 100,000 30,000 3000 300 60 15

From this table we observe that x goes from 2.2 to 2.00000003, (move close to 2
from the left in less than one unit) the value of f jumped from 15 to 100, 000, 000.
This situation can be expressed as:
f (x) increases without bound as x approaches 2 from the right.
In addition to the above numerical observation let us also investigate the nature of
the graph of f when x approaches 2 from the left or from the right.

20

−2 2 4 6 8

−20

The graph justifies our numerical observations very well. We have the following mathe-
matical notations for the behavior of the function f.

lim f (x) = −∞ f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from the left.
x→2−
lim f (x) = ∞ f (x) increases without bound as x approaches 2 from the right.
x→2+

The symbol −∞ and +∞ refer to positive infinity and negative infinity, respectively.
These symbols do not represent real numbers. They are convenient symbols used to
describe unbounded conditions more concisely.
Definition 29 (Definition of Infinite Limits). Let f be a function that is defined at every
real number x in some open interval containing c (except possibly at c itself). A limit in
which f (x) increases and decreases without bound as x approaches c is called an infinite
limit. The statement
1. lim− f (x) = −∞ means that f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches c from
x→c
the left.
2. lim− f (x) = +∞ means that f (x) increases without bound as x approaches c from
x→c
the left.
12
 3. lim+ f (x) = −∞ means that f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches c from
x→c
the right.

4. lim+ f (x) = +∞ means that f (x) increases without bound as x approaches c from
x→c
the right.

5. x→c
lim f (x) = −∞ means that f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches c.

6. lim f (x) = +∞ means that f (x) increases without bound as x approaches c.

x→c

Example 30. Determine the limit of the function in the Figure below as x approaches 1
from the left and from the right.

40

30

20

10

−1 1 2 3 4
−10
It is simple observation that gives us:
1 1 1
(i) lim− = +∞ (ii) lim+ = +∞ lim = +∞
x→1 (x − 1)2 x→1 (x − 1)2 x→1 (x − 1)2

Example 31. Use a graphing utility to graph each function. For each function, analyt-
ically find the single real number c that is not in the domain. Then graphically find the
limit (if it exists) of f (x) as x approaches c from the left and from the right.
3 1 2 −3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
x−4 2−x (x − 3)2 (x + 2)2

subsectionVertical Asymptotes

Definition 32. If f (x) approaches infinity (or negative infinity) as x approaches c from
the right or the left, then the vertical line x = c is called a vertical asymptote of the
graph of f.

13
Theorem 33 (Vertical Asymptotes). Let f and g be continuous on an open interval
containing c. If f (c) 6= 0, g(c) = 0, and there exists an open interval containing c such
that g(x) 6= 0 for all x 6= c in the interval, then the graph of the function

f (x)
h(x) =
g(x)

has a vertical asymptote at x = c.

Example 34. Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of

1 x2 + 1 2
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) = cot x
2(x + 1) x2 − 1 (x − 3)2

Solution.
1
(a) When x = −1 the denominator of f (x) = 2(x+1) is 0 and the numerator is not 0.
So, by the Theorem, we can conclude that the line x = −1 is a vertical asymptote
as shown in the figure below.

−4 −2 2
−2

−4

(b) By factoring the denominator as

x2 + 1 x2 + 1
f (x) = 2 = f (x) =
x −1 (x − 1)(x − 1)

we see that the denominator is 0 at x = 1 and x = −1. Also, because the numerator
is not 0 at these two points, we can apply the Theorem to conclude that the graph
of f has two vertical asymptotes

x = −1 and x = 1.

See the graph of f given below.

14
 4

−4 −2 2 4
−2

−4

(c) By writing the cotangent function in the form

cos x
f (x) = cot x =
sin x
we can apply the theorem to conclude that vertical asymptotes occur at all values
of x such that sin x = 0. So, the graph of this function has infinitely many vertical
asymptotes. These asymptotes occur at x = nπ where n is an integer. See the graph
of f (x) = cot x given below to support our conclusion.

THE GRAPH OF f (x) = cot x

y
+4

+3

+2

+1

−2π −1 21 π −π − 12 π + 12 π +π +1 12 π +2π
x

−1

−2

−3

−4

15