Chapter 1: Sampling and Data

1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms

 Statistics is the study of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data.

 Probability is the likelihood of an event occurring.
 Population refers to the entire group under study, while sample is a smaller subset of that
population.
 Descriptive Statistics summarizes data using charts, tables, and numerical measures.
 Inferential Statistics uses sample data to make conclusions about a population.

Example:

A company wants to know the average salary of all employees. Instead of surveying every employee, they
take a sample of 500 employees and use that data to estimate the average salary for the whole company.

1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling

 Qualitative Data: Non-numeric (e.g., colors, names, labels).

 Quantitative Data: Numeric (e.g., height, weight, income).
o Discrete Data: Countable values (e.g., number of students in a class).
o Continuous Data: Measurable values (e.g., time, temperature).
 Sampling Methods:
o Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
o Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups, and samples are taken
from each.
o Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and a few clusters are selected.
o Systematic Sampling: Every nth individual is chosen.

Example:

A school wants to survey students about cafeteria food.

 Using random sampling, they select 50 students from all grade levels.
 Using stratified sampling, they select 10 students from each grade.
 Using cluster sampling, they randomly choose two classrooms and survey all students in those
rooms.

1.3 Frequency, Frequency Tables, and Levels of Measurement

 Nominal Level: Categories without a specific order (e.g., eye color, nationality).
 Ordinal Level: Categories with a meaningful order but without equal spacing (e.g., education level:
elementary, high school, college).
 Interval Level: Numeric data with meaningful differences but no true zero (e.g., temperature in
Celsius).
 Ratio Level: Numeric data with a true zero (e.g., height, weight, salary).

Example:
Temperature in Celsius is interval because 0°C does not mean "no temperature." But weight is ratio
because 0 kg means no weight.

1.4 Experimental Design and Ethics

 Observational Study: No interference; researchers observe subjects.

 Experiment: Researchers apply a treatment to study effects.
 Bias: Errors introduced due to flawed sampling or measurement.
 Ethics: Researchers must ensure informed consent, confidentiality, and unbiased reporting.

Example:

A medical trial tests a new drug. One group receives the drug, and another gets a placebo. The study
follows ethical guidelines by obtaining patient consent and ensuring safety.

Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics

2.1 Graphical Representations of Data

 Stem-and-leaf plots, bar graphs, and line graphs help visualize data.
 Histograms show data distribution.
 Box plots display data spread and outliers.

Example:

A class records quiz scores: 5, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10

 A bar graph shows how many students got each score.

 A histogram groups the scores into ranges.
 A box plot highlights the median and outliers.

2.2 Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)

 Mean: The average (sum of values divided by count).

 Median: The middle value when data is sorted.
 Mode: The most frequently occurring value.

Example:

Ages of five friends: 20, 22, 22, 24, 30

 Mean = (20+22+22+24+30) / 5 = 23.6

 Median = 22
 Mode = 22

2.3 Measures of Spread (Range, Variance, Standard Deviation)

 Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.

  Variance: The average squared deviation from the mean.
 Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance; measures data spread.

Example:

Exam scores: 50, 60, 70, 80, 90

 Range = 90 - 50 = 40
 Standard deviation = ≈15.8 (calculated using formula).

2.4 Skewness and Data Distribution

 Symmetrical Distribution: Mean = Median = Mode.

 Right Skewed (Positive): Mean > Median.
 Left Skewed (Negative): Mean < Median.

Example:

Income data: Most people earn around $40,000, but a few earn millions. This creates a right-skewed
distribution because the mean is pulled higher by extreme values.

Chapter 3: Probability Topics

3.1 Probability and Key Terms

 Probability (P) is a measure between 0 and 1.

 Sample Space (S): All possible outcomes.
 Event: A specific outcome or set of outcomes.

Example:

Rolling a die:

 Sample space: {1,2,3,4,5,6}

 Probability of rolling a 3: P(3) = 1/6

3.2 Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events

 Independent Events: One event does not affect another (e.g., flipping two coins).
 Mutually Exclusive Events: Events that cannot happen at the same time (e.g., rolling a 2 and a 5
on a single die).

Example:
  Flipping a coin and rolling a die are independent because one does not influence the other.
 Drawing an Ace and a King from the same deck at the same time is mutually exclusive because
you cannot draw both.

3.3 Probability Rules

 Addition Rule: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B).

 Multiplication Rule: P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) (if independent).

Example:

Drawing a heart or a spade from a deck:

 P(Heart) = 13/52
 P(Spade) = 13/52
 P(Heart or Spade) = 13/52 + 13/52 = 26/52 = 1/2

3.4 Conditional Probability

 Probability of event A given event B: P(A|B) = P(A and B) / P(B).

Example:

A company finds that 70% of employees use public transport, and 40% of those also use bicycles.

 P(Bicycle | Public Transport) = 0.40.

3.5 Tree and Venn Diagrams

 Tree Diagrams: Show possible outcomes step by step.

 Venn Diagrams: Show relationships between different sets.

Example:

A bag has 3 red balls, 2 blue balls, and 5 green balls. A tree diagram helps calculate probabilities of
drawing certain colors.

HOW TO GET THE MEDIAN AND MODE

How to Calculate the Median and Mode

1. Median (Middle Value of Data)

The median is the middle number in a sorted dataset.

Steps to Find the Median:

 1. Arrange the numbers in order (ascending or descending).
2. Find the middle value:
o If there is an odd number of values, the median is the middle number.
o If there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle
numbers.

Example 1 (Odd number of values):

Find the median of: 12, 15, 18, 20, 22

Step 1: Arrange in order (already sorted).

Step 2: Find the middle number → 18 (third value).

📌 Median = 18

Example 2 (Even number of values):

Find the median of: 8, 10, 14, 16, 18, 22

Step 1: Arrange in order (already sorted).

Step 2: Two middle numbers: 14 and 16
Step 3: Take their average:

(14+16)÷2=15

📌 Median = 15

2. Mode (Most Frequent Value)

The mode is the number that appears most often in a dataset.

Steps to Find the Mode:

1. List the numbers and count how many times each appears.
2. Find the number that appears the most.
o If one number appears most often, that’s the mode.
o If multiple numbers appear most often, the dataset is bimodal (two modes) or multimodal
(more than two).
o If no number repeats, there is no mode.

Example 1 (Single Mode):

Find the mode of: 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 3

 3 appears three times (more than any other number).

📌 Mode = 3

Example 2 (Bimodal Data):

Find the mode of: 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5

 2 and 3 both appear twice.

📌 Modes = 2 and 3 (bimodal dataset)

Example 3 (No Mode):

Find the mode of: 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

 Each number appears only once → No mode

Summary

 Median = The middle value in a sorted list.

 Mode = The most frequently occurring number(s).