MODULE 1: APPLY PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES

1.1: APPLYING SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientific method
• A standardized process used by scientists to investigate natural phenomena, acquire new
knowledge, or correct and integrate previous knowledge.

It involves the following steps:

1. Observation
Data or information gathered through the senses or through instruments. Observations
provide the raw data upon which scientific investigation is based.

Good scientific observations are objective, meaning they are based on facts rather than
personal feelings or interpretations. They should also be repeatable, meaning other scientists
should be able to observe the same phenomenon under similar conditions.

Observations can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (involving measurements or

numerical data).

2. Problem identification
Scientists recognize, define, and clarify the specific issue or question they aim to address
through their research. This step involves identifying a gap in knowledge, a phenomenon of
interest, or a problem in need of a solution.

3. Hypothesis
A tentative explanation or prediction that is formulated to answer the question posed in the
previous step. It is based on existing knowledge, observations, and logical reasoning.

A good hypothesis is testable and falsifiable, meaning that it can be tested through
experimentation and potentially proven wrong.

4. Experimentation
It involves careful planning of procedures, including selecting appropriate methods, tools, and
instruments for data collection.

Scientists design and conduct experiments to test the predictions derived from the hypothesis.
Experiments are carefully controlled procedures that manipulate variables and measure their
effects on the phenomenon of interest. The goal of experimentation is to gather empirical
evidence that either supports or disproves the hypothesis.

Experiments involve:

Independent variables: the factor being manipulated or changed. It is always plotted on the X-axis.

Dependent variables: the factor being measured or observed for change in response to the
independent variable. It is always plotted on the Y-axis.
Control variables: factors held constant to ensure that any observed effects are due to the variable
being manipulated and not to other factors.

Scientific experiments should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to repeat
the experiment using the same methods and obtain similar results. This helps verify the reliability and
validity of findings.

5. Analysis of data
After collecting data from experiments or observations, scientists analyse the data to evaluate
whether it supports or disproves the hypothesis. This involves both quantitative and
qualitative analysis to uncover patterns, relationships, and explanations within the data to
determine the significance of the results and whether they are due to chance or represent true
effects.

This includes arranging data into tables, graphs, charts, or other formats that facilitate easy
interpretation.

Quantitative data: numerical information or data that can be quantified and expressed in terms of
numbers. It involves measurements, counts, or other numerical representations of observations and
variables.

Qualitative data: non-numerical information that is typically descriptive in nature. It provides

insights into qualities, characteristics, opinions, behaviours, and other aspects that cannot be easily
measured numerically.

6. Conclusion
Final decision, judgment, or interpretation reached after analysing the results of an experiment
or investigation. It represents the conclusion of the scientific process where researchers
evaluate their findings in light of the original hypothesis or research question.

Based on the analysis of the data, scientists draw conclusions about the validity of the
hypothesis. If the data support the hypothesis, it may be accepted as a plausible explanation for
the phenomenon. If the data do not support the hypothesis, it may be rejected or revised.

Regardless of the outcome, the conclusions drawn should be based on empirical evidence and
logical reasoning.
ARRANGING DATA COLLECTED FROM EXPERIMENTATION

Table

• A table has complete rows and columns.

• Each column of a table will be headed with the physical quantity and the appropriate SI units,
time/s rather than time(s)
• No units in the body of the table.
• There are two acceptable methods of stating units, e.g., m/s or ms-1
• Candidates should use the number of significant figures appropriate to the accuracy of the
measuring instrument.
• Calculated values must be recorded to 2/ 3 significant figures and must be consistent.

Graphs

When drawing graphs, candidates should:

• label the axes with both quantity (e.g., distance or d) and unit (e.g., metres or m).
Then write it as distance / metres or even just d / m.
• Make sure the axes are the correct way round. You are usually told, for example,
to plot distance on the x-axis, so make sure you know that x is the horizontal
axis!
• Make the scales go up in sensible amounts, i.e., 0, 5, 10… or 0, 2, 4… but not 0, 3, 6… or
0, 7, 14…
• Make sure that the plotted points fill at least half the graph paper. This means if
you can double the scale and still plot all the points then you should double the
scale.
• Check if you have been told to start the scales from the origin. If not, then think
carefully about where to start the axes.
• When you are told to start the axes from a certain point (e.g., x=1, y=20) you must do
so. You will lose a mark if you use a different point (e.g., the origin).
• Use a sharp pencil to plot the points and draw the line.
• Plot the points carefully. It is best to use small, neat crosses. Every point will be
checked by the examiner, and you will lose the mark if any are wrongly plotted.
• Draw either a straight line or a smooth curve. In physics we never join the dots!
• Your line may not go through all the points – especially in the practical papers.
• Remember that a best fit line (curve or straight) should have some points above
and some points below the line.

When taking readings from a graph, candidates should:

• Draw a large triangle when measuring the gradient of a line. It must be at least half
the length of the line. Top tip: draw a triangle the full size of the graph! It is best to
show the numbers on the sides of the triangle when finding the gradient.
• Always use points on the line, not your plotted points, when calculating the
gradient. · Sometimes Gradient have units. (Always check that)
• Draw a tangent to find the gradient of a curve. Make sure it is at the right place
on the curve. Again, use a large triangle.
• Make sure you read the scales correctly when reading a value from a graph. It may
be that they are in mA rather than A or km rather than m
When describing the shape of a graph, remember that:

1. Direct proportion is when one quantity increases, the other quantity increases, and when one
quantity decreases, the other quantity decreases too.

If 𝑦 is directly proportional to 𝑥, we write it as:

𝑦 ∝ 𝑥.
There is also a direct proportion formula which uses the constant 𝑘, as the constant of proportionality.
The direct proportion formula is:
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥.
As the variable 𝑥 increases, the 𝑦 variable increases and so the straight line continues on the same
gradient as 𝑥 gets larger; conversely, the straight line tends to 0 as 𝑥 and 𝑦 get smaller.
The straight line has a positive gradient, 𝑘, and the line intersects the origin (0,0).

There are two ways to check if quantities are directly proportional:

• doubling one quantity will cause the other to double, 2𝑦: 2𝑥.
𝑦
• dividing one by the other will give the same result, 𝑥 = 𝑘.
2. Inverse proportion is when one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases, and when
one quantity decreases, the other quantity increases.

If 𝑦 is inversely proportional to 𝑥 then we write:

1
𝑦∝𝑋
There is also an inverse proportion formula which uses the constant 𝑘, as the constant of
proportionality. The inverse proportion formula is:
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥.
Inversely proportional graphs are reciprocal graphs consisting of one smooth curve in the first
quadrant only.
As the variable 𝑥 increases, the 𝑦 variable decreases and so the curve tends towards the 𝑥-axis
as 𝑥 gets larger; conversely, the curve tends towards the 𝑦-axis as 𝑥 gets smaller. The curve does not
touch or intersect either axis at any point.

There are two ways to check if quantities are directly proportional:

• doubling one quantity will cause the reciprocal of the
1
other, 2𝑦: 2 𝑥.
• multiplying one by the other will give the same result, 𝑦𝑥 = 𝑘

1.2: USE OF SCIENTIFIC CONVENTIONS

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
It is a way of expressing numbers that are very large or very small in a more compact and
manageable form, using powers of ten. It is particularly useful where large ranges of values need
to be represented without writing out many zeros.

FORMAT OF SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Base Number:
The base number is typically a decimal number greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. It
represents the significant digits of the original number.
Exponent:
The exponent indicates the power of 10 by which the base number is multiplied or divided.

Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation

For Large Numbers:

Move the decimal point to the left so that there is only one non-zero digit to the left of the decimal.
Count the number of places you moved the decimal point. This count gives you the exponent of 10.

Example: 6 500 000 = 6.5×106

For Small Numbers:

Move the decimal point to the right so that there is only one non-zero digit to the left of the
decimal. Count the number of places you moved the decimal point. This count gives you the
negative exponent of 10.

Example: 0.00025 = 2.5×10−4

 Key Point to Remember:

Significant Digits: In scientific notation, the base number includes all significant digits of the
original number. The exponent tells you how many places the decimal point was moved.
Standard Form: Scientific notation is also known as standard form.

PREFIXES
In scientific and mathematical contexts, prefixes are preceding factor used to denote multiples or
fractions of units of measurement. These prefixes are standardized and attached to the unit
symbol to indicate a specific magnitude.

VALUE STANDARD FORM PREFIX SYMBOL

0.000 000 000 001 10-12 pico- p
0.000 000 001 10-9 nano- n
0.000 001 10-6 micro- 𝜇
0.001 10-3 milli- m
0.01 10-2 centi- c
0.1 10-1 deci- d
10 101 deca- da
100 102 hecto- h
1000 103 kilo- k
1000 000 106 mega- M
1 000 000 000 109 giga- G
1 000 000 000 000 1012 tera- T

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND DECIMAL PLACES

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Significant figures, also known as significant digits, are the digits in a number that carry meaning
contributing to its precision. They indicate the reliability or precision/accuracy of a measurement or
calculation.

Rules for significant figures

Determining the number of significant figures in measured quantities is essential when reporting
the precision of measured values and the precision that can be reported when measured values
are used in calculations. The rules for determining the number of significant figures are as follows:
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
For example, the value 211.8 has four significant figures.
2. All zeros that are found between nonzero digits (Captive zeros) are significant.
For example, in the number 10.07, all digits (1, 0, 0, 7) are significant.
3. Leading zeros (to the left of the first nonzero digit) are not significant.
For example, the value 0.0085 has two significant figures because the 0s before the 8 are
placeholders and are not significant.
4. Trailing zeros for a whole number that ends with a decimal point are significant.
• For example, a value 320. shows the decimal point, which indicates that the 0 to the right of the
2 was measured; therefore, the value has a total of three significant figures.
• If the decimal point was not written, then 320 would have only two significant figures.
 • In general, any confusion this may cause can be avoided by writing values such as these in
scientific notation.
5. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal place are significant.
For example, the value 12.000 has a total of five significant figures, since the 0s after the
decimal place have been measured to be zeros, indicating they are as significant as any other
nonzero digit.
6. Exact numbers, and irrationally defined numbers like Euler’s number (e) and pi (π), have
an infinite number of significant figures.
• In a defining expression like 1 metre = 100 centimetres, these values are considered exact and
thus have an infinite number of significant figures. While π is usually written as 3.14 for ease of
calculation, the π button on the calculator would be used in any calculations, and thus it is
considered to be a value with infinite significant figures.
7. For any value written in scientific notation as A ×10x, the number of significant figures is
determined by applying the above rules only to the value of A; the x is considered an exact
number and thus has an infinite number of significant figures.
• For example, the value 3,500 can be written in scientific notation to reflect two, three, and four
significant digits:
• 3.5 × 103 has two significant figures
• 3.50 × 103 has three significant figures
• 3.500 × 103 has four significant figures

DECIMAL PLACES
Decimal places refer to the number of digits that appear to the right of the decimal point in a
decimal number. These digits represent fractional parts of a whole number.

For example:
• In the number 3.14159, there are five decimal places.
• In the number 0.25, there are two decimal places.

The decimal point separates the whole number part from the fractional part. The digits to the
left of the decimal point represent whole numbers, while the digits to the right represent
fractions of a whole.

Decimal places in measurements and calculations involving quantities that are not whole numbers
indicate the level of precision or accuracy of the measurement.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND DECIMAL PLACES RULES IN CALCULATIONS

For calculations involving measured quantities, the first step in determining the precision of the
answer is to determine the number of significant figures in each of the measured quantities. Once
done, the number of significant figures in a calculated value involving measurements is determined
based on the mathematical operation being performed.
Addition/Subtraction
When adding/subtracting, the answer should have the same number of decimal places as the limiting
term. The limiting term is the number with the least decimal places.

Examples:

Multiplication/Division
When multiplying/dividing, the answer should have the same number of significant figures as the
limiting term. The limiting term is the number with the least number of significant figures.

Examples:

Rounding off:
When a value is to be rounded off, the rules for rounding are:
1. When the digit to the right of the one being rounded to is less than 5, the remaining digit remains
the same as the value rounds down (i.e., drop all digits to the right of rounding digit).

Example:
3.423 may be rounded off to 3.42 when rounded off to 2 decimal places.
3.423 may be rounded off to 3.4 when rounded off to 1 decimal place.

2. When the digit to the right of the one being rounded to is greater than 5, the value rounds up (i.e.,
add one to the rounding digit and drop all digits to the right of rounding digit).

Example:
2.786 may be rounded off to 2.79 when rounded to 2 decimal places.
2.786 may be rounded off to 2.8 when rounded to 1 decimal place.
2.856 may be rounded off to 2.9 when rounded to 1 decimal place.

3. When the digit to the right of the one being rounded to is exactly 5 (and no nonzero digit follows
it, or the digits following are zeros), the value is rounded so that the preceding digit is an even
number.

Example:
2.315 and 2.325 are both 2.32 when rounded to 2 decimal places.
38.25003 is 38.3 when rounded to 1 decimal place.
Mixed operations and intermediate calculations

BODMAS: It's a set of rules used to clarify the order of operations in arithmetic and algebra. Here's
what each letter represents:

• B: Brackets (also known as parentheses in some regions): Perform operations inside brackets
first.
• O: Orders (exponents and roots): Evaluate expressions involving exponents (powers) and
roots next.
• D: Division: Perform division operations from left to right.
• M: Multiplication: Perform multiplication operations from left to right.
• A: Addition: Perform addition operations from left to right.
• S: Subtraction: Perform subtraction operations from left to right.
Following these rules ensures that complex expressions are evaluated consistently and correctly.

Interaction between BODMAS and Significant Figures/Decimal Places:

Combining Rules: In practical applications, after applying BODMAS to perform the operations in the
correct order, the final result should be rounded according to the rules of significant figures or
decimal places.

Example: Consider the expression

1. Apply BODMAS: First, perform the addition inside the brackets:

3.27+1.8=5.07

2. Then multiply: 2.15×5.07=10.9005

3. Finally, divide:
10.9205
= 4.541875
2.4

4. Applying significant figures or decimal places:

Final Result: the result should be rounded accordingly or to the rules specified.

For example:

4.541875 = 4.5 (rounded to 2 significant figures because 2.4 has the least significant figures)

4.541875 = 4.54 (rounded to 3 significant figures)

4.541875 = 4.5 (rounded to 1 decimal place)

4.541875 = 4.54 (rounded to 2 decimal place)

 1.3: USE OF FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, THEIR
CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Physical quantity
• A property that can be measured and expressed numerically.
• They are typically represented using symbols and units, and mathematical equations are used
to describe the relationships between them.

Fundamental physical quantity

• A basic and irreducible quantity that serves as a building block for describing other physical
quantities.

These quantities cannot be defined in terms of other quantities and are typically measured in
reference to standards or defined units.

In the International System of Units (SI), there are seven fundamental physical quantities:

1. Length: The extent of an object from one end to another.

2. Mass: The amount of matter in an object.
3. Time (second, s): The duration between two events.
4. Electric current: The flow of electric charge.
5. Temperature: The measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
6. Amount of substance: The quantity of particles, such as atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons.
7. Luminous intensity: The measure of the amount of light emitted or received by a surface.

These fundamental quantities are used as the basis for deriving all other physical quantities in
various fields of science and engineering.

Fundamental Quantity S.I. Unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Length l,L metre m
Luminous intensity lv candela cd
Current I ampere A
Amount of substance n mole mol
Temperature T kelvin K
 Other units:

Fundamental Quantity Unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Mass m gram g
tonne t
Time t minute min
hour h
day d
Length l,L millimetre mm
centimetre cm
kilometre km
Current I Joule per second J/s
milliampere mA
Temperature T degree Celsius oC

fahrenheit F

Derived physical quantities

• A quantity that results from one or more fundamental physical quantities through
mathematical combinations or operations. These quantities can be expressed as combinations
of fundamental quantities using multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, or
exponentiation.

For example:
• Speed: Derived from the fundamental quantities of length and time. Speed is defined as the
distance travelled per unit of time (e.g., meters per second).
• Force: Derived from the fundamental quantities of mass, length, and time. Force is defined as
the product of mass and acceleration (e.g., kilogram meter per second squared, or newton).
• Energy: Derived from the fundamental quantities of mass, length, and time. Energy is defined
as the capacity to do work, and it can be expressed in units such as joules (kilogram meter
squared per second squared).

Derived Quantity S.I. Unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Area A square metre m2

Volume V cubic metre m3
Speed, Velocity v metre per second m/s
Acceleration a metre per second squared m/s2
Force F newton N
Energy E joule J
Density 𝜌 kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
Moment T newton metre Nm
Power P watt W
Work W joule J
Pressure P pascal Pa
concentration c mole per cubic metre mol/m3
 Other units:

Derived Quantity S.I. Unit

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Area A square millimetre mm2

square centimetre cm2
Volume V cubic millimetre mm3
cubic centimetre cm3(=ml)
Speed, Velocity v kilometre per hour km/h
Density 𝜌 kilogram per cubic metre g/cm3
Moment T newton centimetre Ncm
Power P joule per second J/s
Pressure P newton per square metre N/m2
concentration c mole per cubic metre mol/dm3

CONVERSION BETWEEN DIFFERENT UNITS

SI prefix conversion

When setting up a conversion factor to or from a base unit, use 1 for the prefixed unit and the power
of 10 in front of the base unit. Example: 1 mg = 10-3 g; 1 kg = 103 g.

Give all answers in scientific notation. Practice setting these up as dimensional analysis conversions
with cancelling units.

Converting to or from the base unit:

1. Convert 4.0 cm to m. 2. Convert 40.0 μL to L.

10−2 𝑚 10−6 𝐿
4.0𝑐𝑚 × = 4.0 × 10−2 𝑚 40.0 × = 4.00 × 10−5 𝐿
1𝑐𝑚 1𝜇𝐿

3. Convert 40.0 m to mm. 4. Convert 4 L to nL.

1 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝐿
40.0 𝑚 × −3 = 4.00 × 104 𝑚𝑚 4 𝐿 × −9 = 4 × 109
10 𝑚 10 𝐿

Note, you can avoid using negative exponents by using the inverse of the power of 10 in front of the
prefix - this is equal to having the power of 10 in front of the base unit.
For example, 1 cm = 10−2 m is mathematically equal to 102 cm = 1 m.

5. Convert 4.0 cm to m. 6. Convert 40.0 μL to L.

1𝑚 1𝐿
4.0𝑐𝑚 × 2 = 4.0 × 10−2 𝑚 40.0 × 6 = 4.00 × 10−5 𝐿
10 𝑐𝑚 10 𝜇𝐿

7. Convert 40.0 m to mm. 8. Convert 4 L to nL.

103 𝑚𝑚 109 𝑛𝐿
40.0 𝑚 × = 4.00 × 104 𝑚𝑚 4𝐿× = 4 × 109 𝑛𝐿
1𝑚 1𝐿
Converting between units with different prefixes:

The most systematic way to convert units from one prefix to another is to go through the base unit,
and use two conversion factors. One-step conversion is also shown with the powers of 10 on the
opposite sides of the fraction after cancelling the base unit (a power of 10 must never be placed next
to its own prefix) and simplified with a single positive power of 10.

9. Convert 4.0 cm to mm. 11. Convert 400.00 pL to dL.

10−2 𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚 10−12 𝐿 1 𝑑𝐿
= 4 𝑐𝑚 × × −3 = 400.00 𝑝𝐿 × × −1
1 𝑐𝑚 10 𝑚 1 𝑝𝐿 10 𝐿
1
= 4 × 10 𝑚𝑚 = 4.0000 × 10−9 𝑑𝐿

10. Convert 4 mL to µL. 12. Convert 0.04 mL to GL.

10−3 𝐿 1 𝜇𝐿 10−3 𝐿 1 𝐺𝐿
= 4 𝑚𝐿 × × −6 = 0.04 𝑚𝐿 × × 9
1 𝑚𝐿 10 𝐿 1 𝑚𝐿 10 𝐿
3
= 4 × 10 𝜇𝐿 = 4 × 10−14 𝐺𝐿