The Babcock & Wilcox Company

830 MW once-through spiral wound universal pressure (SWUP™) coal-fired utility boiler.

Steam 42 / Steam Generation – An Overview

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 1
Steam Generation – An Overview

Steam generators, or boilers, use heat to convert ogy, empirical data and practical experience to produce
water into steam for a variety of applications. Primary a steam generating system that meets the steam supply
among these are electric power generation and industrial requirements in the most economical package. Other
process heating. Steam is a key resource because of its factors in the design process include fuel characteristics,
wide availability, advantageous properties and nontoxic environmental protection, thermal efficiency, operations,
nature. Steam flow rates and operating conditions are the maintenance and operating costs, regulatory require-
principal design considerations for any steam generator ments, and local geographic and weather conditions,
and can vary dramatically: from 1000 lb/h (0.1 kg/s) in among others. The design process involves balancing
one process use to more than 10 million lb/h (1260 kg/s) these complex and sometimes competing factors. For
in large electric power plants; from about 14.7 psi (0.1013 example, the reduction of pollutants such as nitrogen
MPa) and 212F (100C) in some heating applications to oxides (NOx) may require a larger boiler volume, increas-
more than 4500 psi (31.03 MPa) and 1100F (593C) in ing capital costs and potentially increasing maintenance
ultra-supercritical (USC) power plants. Work is underway costs. Such a design activity is firmly based upon the
to develop advanced USC cycles with steam temperatures physical and thermal sciences such as solid mechanics,
as high as 1400F (760C). thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechanics and
Fuel use and handling add to the complexity and materials science. However, the real world is so complex
variety of steam generating systems. The fuels used and variable, and so interrelated, that it is only by
in most steam generators are coal, natural gas and oil. applying the art of boiler design to combine science and
However, nuclear energy also plays a major role in the practice that the most economical and dependable design
electric power generation area. Also, an increasing variety can be achieved.
of biomass materials and process byproducts have become Steam generator design must also strive to address
heat sources for steam generation. These include peat, in advance the many changes occurring in the world
wood and wood wastes, bagasse, straw, coffee grounds, to provide the best possible option. Fuel prices can be
corn husks, coal mine wastes (culm), and waste heat from expected to escalate over time while fuel supplies become
steelmaking furnaces. Even renewable energy sources, less certain, thereby enforcing the need for continued
e.g., solar, are being used to generate steam. The steam efficiency improvement and fuel flexibility. Increased
generating process has also been adapted to incorporate environmental protection will drive improvements in
functions such as chemical recovery from paper pulping combustion, efficiency and emissions control technol-
processes, volume reduction for municipal solid waste or ogy capabilities. Demand growth continues in many
trash, and hazardous waste destruction. areas where steam generator load may have to cycle up
Steam generators designed to accomplish these tasks and down more frequently and at a faster rate. Also,
range from a small package boiler (Fig. 1) to large, high modularization and further standardization will help
capacity utility boilers used to generate 1300 MW of
electricity (Fig. 2). The former is a factory-assembled, fully
automated, gas-fired boiler, which can supply saturated
steam for a large building, such as a hospital. It arrives
at the site with all controls and equipment assembled.
On the other hand, the large field-erected utility boiler
will produce more than 10 million lb/h (1260 kg/s) steam
at 3860 psi (26.62 MPa) and 1010F (543C). Such a unit,
or its comparably rated nuclear option (Fig. 3), is part of
some of the most complex and demanding engineering
systems in operation today. Other examples illustrating
the range of combustion systems are shown by the 1000
t/d (907 tm /d) mass-fired refuse power boiler in Fig. 4 and
the circulating fluidized-bed combustion boiler in Fig. 5.
The central job of the boiler designer in any of these
applications is to combine fundamental science, technol- Fig. 1 Small shop-assembled package boiler.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 3 900 MW nuclear power system.

is evaporated. At this point, heat addition would increase

the temperature of the kettle and of any steam remaining
in the vessel. To provide a continuous process, all that
is needed is a regulated supply of water to the vessel to
equal the steam being generated and removed.
Technical and economic factors indicate that the most
effective way to produce high pressure steam is to heat
relatively small diameter tubes containing a continuous
flow of water. Regardless of whether the energy source is
nuclear or fossil fuel, two distinct boiling systems are used
to accomplish this task: those that include a steam drum

Fig. 2 1300 MW coal-fired utility steam generator.

reduce fabrication and erection schedules to meet more

dynamic capacity addition needs.

Steam Generation Fundamentals

Boiling
The process of boiling water to make steam is a
familiar phenomenon. Thermodynamically, instead of
increasing the water temperature, the energy used results
in a change of phase from a liquid to a gaseous state, i.e.,
water to steam. A steam generating system should provide
a continuous process for this conversion.
The simplest case for such a device is a kettle boiler
where a fixed quantity of water is heated. (See Fig.
6.) The applied heat raises the water temperature.
Eventually, for the given pressure, the boiling (saturation)
temperature is reached and bubbles begin to form. As
heat continues to be applied, the temperature remains
constant, and steam escapes from the water surface. If
the steam is continuously removed from the vessel, the
temperature will remain constant until all of the water Fig. 4 B&W 1000 ton per day mass-fired refuse power boiler.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

In-Furnace External
U-Beams U-Beams

Superheater
Steam Drum
Feedwater
Downcomer to Drum

Internal
Evaporative
Circuit
Wing Wall Multi-Cyclone
Dust
Fuel Bunker Collector
Economizer

Ash
Recycle
System

Air
Heater
Gravimetric
Feeder
Fuel
Chute
Refractory Flue
Line Gas
Fluid Bed
Cooler

Secondary Primary Air Duct to Steam Coil

Air Duct Air Duct Fluid Bed Cooler Air Heater

Fig. 5 Coal-fired circulating fluidized-bed combustion steam generator.

(see Fig. 7a), or fixed steam-water separation point, and

those that do not (see Fig. 7b), identified as once-through
steam generators (OTSG).
The most common and simplest to control is the steam Fig. 7 Boiling process in tubular geometries.
drum system. In this system, the drum serves as the
point of separation of steam from water throughout the
boiler’s load range. Subcooled water (less than boiling Without a steam drum, i.e., for an OTSG system,
temperature) enters the tube to which heat is applied. As subcooled water also enters the tube to which heat is ap-
the water flows through the tube, it is heated to the boiling plied, but the flowing water turns into steam somewhere
point, bubbles are formed, and wet steam is generated. along the flow path (length of tube), dependent upon
In most boilers, a steam-water mixture leaves the tube water flow rate and heat input rates. Shown in Fig. 7b,
and enters the steam drum, where steam is separated the flow rate and heat input are closely controlled and
from water. The remaining water is then mixed with coordinated so that all of the water is evaporated and
the replacement water and returned to the heated tube. only steam leaves the tube. There is no need for the steam
drum (fixed steam-water separation point).

Circulation
For both types of boiling systems described above,
water must continuously pass through, or circulate
through, the tubes for the system to generate steam con-
tinuously. For an OTSG, water makes one pass through
the boiler’s tubes before becoming steam to be sent to the
turbine-generator. However, for those boilers with a fixed
steam-water separation point or steam drum, a molecule
of water can make many passes through a circulation loop
before it leaves as steam to the turbine-generator. Options
for this latter system are shown in Fig. 8.
Two different approaches to circulation are com-
monly used: natural or thermal circulation, and forced or
pumped circulation. Natural circulation is illustrated in
Fig. 8a. In the downcomer, unheated tube segment A-B, no
steam is present. Heat addition generates a steam-water
mixture in segment B-C. Because the steam and steam-
water mixture in segment B-C are less dense than the
Fig. 6 Simple kettle boiler. water segment A-B, gravity will cause the water to flow

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 8 Simple circulation systems.

downward in segment A-B and will cause the steam-water gravity steam-water separation (similar to a kettle) can
mixture (B-C) to move upward into the steam drum. be sufficient. However, in high capacity, high pressure
The rate of water flow or circulation depends upon the units, mechanical steam-water separators are needed
difference in average density between the unheated water to economically provide moisture-free steam from the
and the heated steam-water mixture. drum. With such devices installed in the drum, the vessel
The total circulation rate in a natural circulation diameter and cost can be significantly reduced.
system depends primarily upon four factors: 1) the height At very high pressures, a point is reached where water
of the boiler, 2) the operating pressure, 3) the heat input no longer exhibits boiling behavior. Above this critical
rate, and 4) the free flow areas of the components. Taller pressure [3200.1 psi (22.1 MPa)], the water temperature
boilers result in a larger total pressure difference between continuously increases with heat addition, and the fluid
the heated and unheated legs and therefore can produce changes phase from water to steam in a continuous
larger total flow rates. Higher operating pressures fashion. Steam generators can be designed to operate
provide higher density steam and higher density steam- at pressures above this critical pressure, during which
water mixtures. This reduces the total weight difference drums and steam-water separation are no longer required
between the heated and unheated segments and tends to for higher load operation, and the steam generator oper-
reduce flow rate. Higher heat input typically increases the ates effectively on the once-through principle.
amount of steam in the heated segments and reduces the There are a large number of design methods used
average density of the steam-water mixture, increasing to evaluate the expected flow rate for a specific steam
total flow rate. An increase in the cross-sectional (free generator design and set of operating conditions. In
flow) areas for the water or steam-water mixtures may addition, there are several criteria which establish the
increase the circulation rate. For each unit of steam minimum required flow rate and maximum allowable
produced, the amount of water entering the tube can steam content or quality in individual tubes, as well as
vary from 3 to 25 units. the maximum allowable flow rates for the steam drum.
Forced or pumped circulation is illustrated in Fig. 8b.
A mechanical pump is added to the simple flow loop and
the pressure difference created by the pump controls the System Arrangement and Key Components
water flow rate. Most applications of steam generators involve the
The steam-water separation in the drum requires production of electricity or the supply of process steam. In
careful consideration. In small, low pressure boilers, some cases, a combination of the two applications, called
steam-water separation can be easily accomplished with cogeneration, is used. In each application, the steam
a large drum approximately half full of water. Natural generator is a major part of a larger system that has

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

many subsystems and components. Fig. 9 shows a modern

coal-fired power generating facility; Fig. 10 identifies the
major subsystems. Key subsystems include fuel receiving
and preparation, steam generator and combustion,
environmental protection equipment, turbine-generator,
and heat rejection including cooling tower.
First, follow the fuel and products of combustion
(flue gas) through the system. The fuel handling system
stores the fuel supply (coal in this example), prepares
the fuel for combustion and transports it to the steam
generator. The associated air system supplies air to the
burners through a forced draft fan. The steam generator
subsystem, which includes the air heater, burns the
fuel-air mixture, recovers the heat, and generates the
controlled high pressure and high temperature steam. Fig. 9 Coal-fired utility power plant.
The flue gas leaves the steam generator subsystem and
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system if supplied,
then passes through particulate collection and sulfur shown). Ultimately, the steam is passed from the turbine
dioxide (SO2) scrubbing systems where pollutants are to the condenser where the remaining waste heat is
collected and the ash and scrubber residue are removed. rejected. Before the water from the condenser is returned
To remove mercury and other hazardous air pollutants to the boiler, it passes through several pumps and heat
(HAPs), various fuel additives and sorbent injection exchangers (feedwater heaters) to increase its pressure
systems are used throughout the process. The remaining and temperature. The heat absorbed by the condenser
flue gas is then sent to the stack through an induced is eventually rejected to the atmosphere by one or more
draft fan. cooling towers. These cooling towers are perhaps the
Next, follow the steam-water path. The steam most visible component in the power system (Fig. 9). The
generator (boiler) evaporates water and supplies high natural draft cooling tower shown is basically a hollow
temperature, high pressure steam, under carefully cylindrical structure which circulates air and moisture
controlled conditions, to a turbine-generator set that to absorb the heat rejected by the condenser. Such cooling
produces the electricity. The steam may also be reheated towers exist at most modern power plant sites, both
in the steam generator, after passing through part of nuclear and fossil fuel-fired.
a multi-stage turbine system, by running the exhaust For an industrial power system, many of the same
steam back to the boiler convection pass (reheater not features are needed. However, the turbine-generator and

Fig. 10 Coal-fired utility power plant schematic.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

heat rejection portions are replaced by the process applica- Operating pressures range from 150 to 1800 psi (1.04
tion, such as radiant space heaters or heat exchangers. to 12.41 MPa) with saturated or superheated steam
In a nuclear power system (Fig. 11), the fossil fuel-fired conditions.
steam generator is replaced by a nuclear reactor vessel
and, typically, two or more steam generators. The coal Impact of energy source
handling system is replaced by a nuclear reactor fuel The primary fuel selected has perhaps the most
bundle handling and storage facility, and the large-scale significant impact on the steam generator system
air pollution control equipment is not needed. configuration and design. In the case of nuclear energy,
a truly unique system for containing the fuel and the
Fossil steam generator classifications nuclear reaction products has been developed with an
Modern steam generating systems can be classified intense focus on safety and protecting the public from
by various criteria. These include end use, firing method, radiation exposure. Acceptable materials performance
operating pressure, fuel, and circulation method. in the radiative environment and the long-term thermal-
Utility steam generators are used primarily to gener- hydraulic and mechanical performance are central to
ate electricity in large central power stations. They are system design. When fossil, biomass or byproduct fuels
designed to optimize overall thermodynamic efficiency are burned, widely differing provisions must be made
at the highest possible availability. New units are typi- for fuel handling and preparation, fuel combustion, heat
cally characterized by large, main steam flow rates with recovery, fouling of heat transfer surfaces, material cor-
superheated steam outlet pressures from 1800 to above rosion, and emissions control. For example, in a natural
3860 psi (12.41 to 26.62 MPa) with steam temperatures gas-fired unit (Fig. 12), there is minimal need for fuel
at or above 1050F (566C). A key characteristic of modern storage and handling. Only a small furnace is needed for
units is the use of a reheater section to increase overall combustion, and closely spaced heat transfer surfaces may
cycle efficiency. be used because of a lack of ash deposits (fouling). The
Industrial steam generators generally supply steam to corrosion allowance is relatively small and the emissions
processes or manufacturing activities and are designed control function is primarily for NOx formed during the
with particular attention to: 1) process controlled (usu- combustion process. The result is a relatively small,
ally lower) pressures, 2) high reliability with minimum compact and economical design.
maintenance, 3) use of one or more locally inexpensive If a solid fuel such as coal (which has a significant
fuels, especially process byproducts or wastes, and 4) level of noncombustible ash) is used, the overall system is
low initial capital and minimum operating costs. On a much more complex. This system could include extensive
capacity basis, the larger users of such industrial units fuel handling and preparation facilities, a much larger
are the pulp and paper industry, municipal solid waste furnace, and more widely spaced heat transfer surfaces.
reduction industry, food processing industry, petroleum/ Additional components could be special cleaning equip-
petrochemical industry, independent power producers and ment to reduce the impact of fouling and erosion, air
cogenerators, and some large manufacturing operations. preheating to dry the fuel and enhance combustion, more
extensive environmental equipment, and equipment to
collect and remove solid wastes.
The impact of fuel alone on a utility boiler design is
clearly indicated in Fig. 12, where both steam generators
produce the same steam flow rate. Further adding to the
size and cost difference, but not shown, are the facts that
the coal-fired boiler will be wider (dimension not shown)
and will require more flue gas cleanup equipment to meet
emissions requirements. However, coal is a plentiful fossil
fuel, with a large installed base of steam generators and
a fuel cost which has been more historically stable than
natural gas. For these reasons, The Babcock & Wilcox
Company (B&W) continues to develop innovative ways
to use coal in an environmentally conscious manner.
The particular challenge when burning different solid
fuels is indicated in Fig. 13, where provision is made for
burning both pulverized (finely ground) coal using the
burners and for wood chips and bark which are burned
on the moving grate (stoker) at the bottom of the unit.

Impact of steam conditions

The steam temperature and pressure for different
boiler applications can have a significant impact on
design. Fig. 14 identifies several typical boiler types, as
well as the relative amount of heat input needed, for water
heating, evaporation (boiling), superheating, and reheat-
ing, if required. The relative amount of energy needed for
Fig. 11 Nuclear power plant schematic. evaporation is dramatically reduced as operating pressure

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 12 Comparison of natural gas- and coal-fired steam generators.

is increased. As a result, the relative amount of physical Fossil Fuel Systems

heat transfer surface (tubes) dedicated to each function
can be dramatically different. Fossil fuel steam generator components
Modern steam generators are a complex configuration
of thermal-hydraulic (steam and water) sections which
preheat and evaporate water, and superheat steam. These
surfaces are arranged so that: 1) the fuel can be burned
completely and efficiently while minimizing emissions, 2)
the steam is generated at the required flow rate, pressure
and temperature, and 3) the maximum amount of energy
is recovered. A relatively simple coal-fired utility boiler is
illustrated in Fig. 15. The major components in the steam
generating and heat recovery system include:
1. furnace and convection pass,
2. steam superheaters (primary and secondary),

Fig. 13 Large industrial boiler with multiple fuel capability. Fig. 14 Steam generator energy absorption by function.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

are gas-tight, continuous and rigid. The tubes are

usually prefabricated into shippable membrane panels
with openings for burners, observation doors, sootblowers
(boiler gas-side surface cleaning equipment) and gas
injection ports.
Superheaters and reheaters are specially designed
in-line tube bundles that increase the temperature of
saturated steam. In general terms, they are simple single-
phase heat exchangers with steam flowing inside the tubes
and the flue gas passing outside, typically in crossflow.
These critical components are manufactured from steel
alloy material because of their high operating temperature.
They are typically configured to help control steam outlet
temperatures, keep metal temperatures within acceptable
limits, and control steam flow pressure loss.
The main difference between superheaters and
reheaters is the steam pressure. In a typical drum
boiler, the superheater outlet pressure might be 2700
psi (18.62 MPa) while the reheater outlet might be only
580 psi (4.0 MPa). The physical design and location of the
surfaces depend upon the desired outlet temperatures,
heat absorption, fuel ash characteristics and cleaning
equipment. These surfaces can be either horizontal
or vertical as shown. The superheater and sometimes
Fig. 15 Coal-fired utility boiler. reheater are often divided into multiple sections to help
control steam temperature and optimize heat recovery.
The heat transfer surface in the furnace may not be
sufficient to generate enough saturated steam for the
3. steam reheater,
particular end use. If this is the case, an additional bank
4. boiler or steam generating bank (industrial units only),
of heat exchanger tubes called the boiler bank or steam
5. economizer,
6. steam drum, generating bank is added. (See Fig. 13.) This is needed
7. attemperator and steam temperature control system, on many smaller, low pressure industrial boilers, but is
and not often needed in high pressure utility boilers. This
8. air heater. boiler bank is typically composed of the steam drum on
top, a second drum on the bottom, and a series of bent
These components are supported by a number of subsys- connecting tubes. The steam drum internals and tube
tems and pieces of equipment such as coal pulverizers, sizes are arranged so that subcooled water travels down
combustion system, flues, ducts, fans, gas-side cleaning the tubes (farthest from the furnace) into the lower drum.
equipment and ash removal equipment. The water is then distributed to the other tubes where
The furnace is a large enclosed open space for fuel it is partially converted to steam and returned to the
combustion and for cooling of the flue gas before it enters steam drum. The lower drum is often called the mud
the convection pass. Excessive gas temperatures leaving drum because this is where sediments found in the boiler
the furnace and entering the tube bundles could cause water tend to settle out and collect.
particle accumulation on the tubes or excessive tube metal The economizer is a counterflow heat exchanger
temperatures. The specific geometry and dimensions of for recovering energy from the flue gas beyond the
the furnace are highly influenced by the fuel and type superheater and, if used, the reheater. It increases the
of combustion equipment. In this case, finely ground or temperature of the water entering the steam drum.
pulverized coal is blown into the furnace where it burns The tube bundle is typically an arrangement of parallel
in suspension. The products of combustion then rise horizontal serpentine tubes with the water flowing inside
through the upper furnace. The superheater, reheater and but in the opposite direction (counterflow) to the flue
economizer surfaces are typically located in the flue gas gas. Tube spacing is as tight as possible to promote heat
horizontal and vertical downflow sections of the boiler transfer while still permitting adequate tube surface
enclosure, called the convection pass. cleaning and limiting flue gas-side pressure loss. By
In modern steam generators, the furnace and convec- design, steam is not generated inside these tubes.
tion pass walls are composed of steam- or water-cooled The steam drum is a large cylindrical vessel at the
carbon steel or low alloy tubes to maintain wall metal top of the boiler, in which saturated steam is separated
temperatures within acceptable limits. These tubes are from the steam-water mixture leaving the boiler tubes.
connected at the top and bottom by headers, or manifolds. Drums can be quite large with diameters of 3 to 6 ft
These headers distribute or collect the water, steam (0.9 to 1.8 m) and lengths approaching 100 ft (30.5 m).
or steam-water mixture. The furnace wall tubes in They are fabricated from thick steel plates rolled into
most modern units also serve as key steam generating cylinders with hemispherical heads. They house the
components or surfaces. The tubes are welded together steam-water separation equipment, purify the steam, mix
with steel bars to provide membrane wall panels which the replacement or feedwater and chemicals, and provide

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limited water storage to accommodate small changes into the drum and steam-water separators. The separa-
in unit load. Major connections to the steam drum are tion equipment returns essentially steam-free water to
provided to receive the steam-water mixture from the the downcomer inlet connections. The residual moisture
boiler tubes, remove saturated steam, add replacement in the steam that leaves the primary steam separation
or makeup water, and return the near saturated water devices is removed in secondary steam separators, and
back to the inlet of the boiler tubes. dry steam is discharged to the superheater through a
The steam temperature control system can be complex number of drum outlet connections (H-I and H-J).
and include combinations of recirculating some of the The steam circuitry serves dual functions: cooling the
flue gas to the bottom or top of the furnace, providing convection pass enclosure, and generating the required
special gas flow passages at the back end of the steam superheated steam conditions. Steam from the drum
generator, adjusting the combustion system, and passes through multiple connections to a header (I)
adding water or low temperature steam to the high supplying the roof tubes and, separately, to headers (J)
temperature steam flow (attemperation). The component supplying the membrane panels in the pendant convection
most frequently used for the latter is called a spray pass (so named because the superheater/reheater vertical
attemperator. In large utility units, attemperators with tubes are hanging from supports above). The steam
direct injection of water or low temperature steam are flows through these membrane panels to outlet headers
used for dynamic control because of their rapid response. (K). Steam from these headers and the roof tube outlet
They are specially designed to resist thermal shock and headers (L) then provides the cooling for the horizontal
are frequently located at the inlet of the superheater convection pass enclosure (L-M) (so named because the
or between superheater sections to better control the superheater/reheater/economizer tubes are horizontal in
superheater outlet metal temperatures. Positioning of this flue gas downpass). Steam flows downward through
individual superheater sections can also help maintain these panels and is collected in outlet headers (M) just
proper outlet steam temperatures. upstream of the economizer bank.
The air heater is not a portion of the steam-water Steam flow then rises through the primary super-
circuitry, but serves a key role in the steam generator heater and discharges through the outlet header (N) and
system heat transfer and efficiency. In many cases, connecting piping equipped with a spray attemperator
especially in high pressure boilers, the temperature of (O). It then enters the secondary superheater inlet header
the flue gas leaving the economizer is still quite high. (P), flowing through the superheater sections to an outlet
The air heater recovers much of this energy and adds it header (Q). A discharge pipe (R) terminates outside of the
to the combustion air to reduce fuel use. Designs include boiler enclosure where the main steam lines route the
tubular, flat plate, and regenerative heat exchangers, steam flow to the control valves and turbine.
among others.
Combustion system and auxiliaries
Steam-water flow system Most of the nonsteam generating components and
The steam-water components are arranged for the auxiliaries used in coal-fired steam generators are part
most economical system to provide a continuous supply
of steam. The circulation system (excluding reheater) for
a natural circulation, subcritical pressure, drum type
steam generator is shown in Fig. 16. Feedwater enters the
bottom header (A) of the economizer and passes upward
in the opposite direction to the flue gas. It is collected in
an outlet header (B), which may also be located in the flue
gas stream. The water then flows through a number of
pipes which connect the economizer outlet header to the
steam drum. It is sometimes appropriate to run these
tubes vertically (B-C) through the convection pass to
economizer outlet headers located at the top of the boiler.
These tubes can then serve as water-cooled supports
for the horizontal superheater and reheater when these
banks span too great a distance for end support. The
feedwater is injected into the steam drum (D) where it
mixes with the water discharged from the steam-water
separators before entering connections to the downcomer
pipes (D-E) which exit the steam drum.
The water travels around the furnace water wall
circuits to generate steam. The water flows through
the downcomer pipes (D-E) to the bottom of the furnace
where supply tubes (E-F) route the circulating water to
the individual lower furnace panel wall headers (F). The
water rises through the furnace walls to individual outlet
headers (G), absorbing energy to become a steam-water
mixture. The mixture leaves the furnace wall outlet
headers by means of riser tubes (G-D), to be discharged Fig. 16 Coal-fired boiler steam-water circulation system.

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of the fuel preparation and combustion systems. These coal-fired utility boiler. Air is supplied by the forced
include: draft fan (A) to the air heater (B) where it is heated to
1. fuel preparation: feeders and coal pulverizers, recover energy and enhance combustion. Most of the hot
2. combustion system: burners, overfire air systems, air (typically 70 to 80%), called secondary air, passes
flame scanners, lighters, controls, windbox, directly to the windboxes (C) where it is distributed to
3. air-gas handling: fans, flues and ducts, dampers, individual burners. The remaining 20 to 30%, called
control and measurement systems, silencers, and primary air, passes to the booster (or primary air) fan and
4. other components and auxiliaries: sootblowers (heat then to the coal pulverizers (D) where the coal is dried and
transfer surface cleaning equipment), ash collection ground. The hot primary air then pneumatically conveys
and handling equipment, control and monitoring the pulverized coal to the burners (E) where it is mixed
equipment. with the secondary air for combustion. The coal and air
are rapidly mixed and burned in the furnace (F) and the
Because of their intimate relationship with the steam flue gas then passes up through the furnace, being cooled
generation process, many of these components are primarily by radiation until it reaches the furnace exit (G).
supplied with the boiler. If not, careful specification and The gas then progressively passes through the second-
interaction with the steam generator manufacturer are ary superheater, reheater, primary superheater and
critical. economizer before leaving the steam generator enclosure
The combustion system has a dramatic impact on (H). Radiation becomes progressively less important and
overall furnace design. Wall mounted burners are shown convection heat transfer becomes more important as the
in Figs. 15 and 17. These are typical for large coal-, oil-, or flue gas passes over successive tube bundles on its way to
gas-fired units. However, a variety of other systems are the exit of the steam generator enclosure. The gas passes
also used and are continuing to be developed to handle through the air heater (B) and then through any pollution
the variety of fuel characteristics and unit sizes. Other control equipment and induced draft fan (I) before being
combustion systems include stokers (Figs. 4 and 13), exhausted to the atmosphere.
Cyclone furnaces, and fluidized-bed combustion units
(Fig. 5). All have their strengths and weaknesses for Emissions control
particular applications. Key elements of these systems A key element of fossil fuel-fired steam generator
involve the need to control the formation and emission system design is environmental protection. A broad
of pollutants, provide complete efficient combustion, range of government regulations sets limits on primary
and handle inert material found in the fuel. The fuel gaseous, liquid and solid waste emissions from the steam
characteristics play a central role in how these functions generating process. For coal-, oil-, and gas-fired units, the
are met and how the equipment is sized and designed. primary air pollutant emissions include sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and airborne particulate or
Air-gas flow system flyash. In addition, other acid gases such as sulfuric acid
Many auxiliary components and systems are identified mist (H2 SO4), hydrogen chloride (HCl), and hydrogen
in Fig. 17 along with the air-gas flow path in a large fluoride (HF), as well as metals such as mercury and lead,
must be controlled to trace emission levels. Water dis-
charges include trace chemicals used to control corrosion
and fouling, waste water from wet flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) systems, as well as waste heat rejected from the
condenser. Solid waste primarily involves the residual ash
from the fuel and any spent sorbent from the pollution
control systems.
The gaseous and solid waste from the fuel and
combustion process can be minimized by fuel selection,
control of the combustion process, and equipment located
downstream of the steam generator. SO2 emissions may
be reduced by using fuels which contain low levels
of sulfur, by fluidized-bed combustors, or by using a
post-combustion scrubber system. Combustion NO x
emissions are typically controlled by using equipment
such as special low NO x burners, often coupled with
overfire air systems to stage the combustion process,
or fluidized-bed combustors. Where it is required to
significantly reduce NOx emissions (to levels lower than
is practically achieved by combustion techniques alone),
back-end or post-combustion techniques, such as selec-
tive catalytic reduction (SCR) or selective noncatalytic
reduction (SNCR) technologies, are employed. Flyash
or airborne particulate is collected by either a fabric
filter (baghouse) or electrostatic precipitator (ESP) with
removal efficiencies above 99%. These particulate control
Fig. 17 Coal-fired boiler air and gas flow path. devices are capable of removing a high percentage

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

of the trace metals in the flue gas. Depending on the atom nucleus together. The nucleus splits apart producing
characteristics of the coal and the combustion process, new atoms as well as an average of two to three neutrons,
mercury emissions may be significantly reduced by an gamma radiation and energy.
FGD system with supplemental control by the injection The nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) is designed
of activated carbon or other mercury sorbents. Additives to serve a number of functions: 1) house the nuclear fuel,
to the coal, combustion process, or FGD system can be 2) stimulate the controlled fission of the fuel, 3) control
used to enhance mercury capture. Solid sorbents may be the nuclear reaction rate to produce the required amount
injected into the flue gas to capture H2SO4, HCl, and HF. of thermal energy, 4) collect the heat and generate steam,
FGD systems may also enhance collection of these acid 5) safely contain the reaction products, and 6) provide
gases. The particulate collection equipment and FGD backup systems to prevent release of radioactive material
systems produce solid byproduct streams which must be to the environment. Various systems have been developed
safely landfilled or used for some industrial applications. to accomplish these functions. The main power producing
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from boiler systems can system in commercial operation today is the pressurized
be concentrated and captured by combustion with nearly water reactor (PWR).
pure oxygen or directly captured via post-combustion A key difference between the nuclear and chemical
scrubbing processes (e.g., regenerable solvent absorption). energy driven systems is the quantity of fuel. The energy
The water discharges are minimized by installing released per unit mass of nuclear fuel is many orders of
recirculating cooling systems. An example of this is magnitude greater than that for chemical based fuels.
cooling towers that reject the waste heat from the power For example, 1 lb (0.454 kg) of 3% enriched uranium fuel
cycle to the air, instead of to a water source. These are produces about the same amount of thermal energy in
used on virtually all new fossil and nuclear power plants. a commercial nuclear system as 100,000 lb (45,360 kg)
Chemical discharges are minimized by specially designed of coal in a fossil-fired steam system. While a 500 MW
zero discharge systems. A set of emissions rates before power plant must handle approximately one million tons
and after control for a typical 500 MW power plant is of coal per year, the nuclear plant will handle only 10
shown in Table 1. tons of fuel. The fossil fuel plant must be designed for a
continuous fuel supply process, while most nuclear plants
Nuclear Steam Generating Systems use a batch fuel process, where about one third of the fuel
is replaced during periodic outages. However, once the
Overview steam is generated, the balance of the power producing
system (turbine, condenser, cooling system, etc.) is similar
Nuclear steam generating systems include a series to that used in the fossil fuel plant.
of highly specialized heat exchangers, pressure vessels,
pumps and components which use the heat generated by
nuclear fission reactions to efficiently and safely generate Nuclear steam system components
steam. The system is based upon the energy released A typical nuclear steam system from B&W is shown in
when atoms within certain materials, such as uranium, Fig. 3 and a simplified schematic is shown in Fig. 18. This
break apart or fission. Fission occurs when a fissionable nuclear system consists of two coolant loops. The primary
atom nucleus captures a free subatomic particle — a loop cools the reactor, transports heat to two or more
neutron. This upsets the internal forces which hold the steam generators (only one shown), and returns coolant

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Fig. 18 Nuclear steam system schematic. Fig. 19 Reactor vessel and internals.

to the reactor by four or more primary coolant pumps more likely. It also serves as the coolant to maintain
(only one shown). The coolant is high purity, subcooled, the core materials within acceptable temperature limits
single-phase water flowing at very high rates [350,000 and transports thermal energy to the steam generators.
to 450,000 gpm (22,100 to 28,400 l/s)] at around 2200 psi The control rods contain neutron absorbing material and
(15.17 MPa) and an average temperature of approximately are moved into and out of the nuclear core to control the
580F (304C). The primary loop also contains a pressurizer energy output.
to maintain the loop pressure at design operating levels. The steam generators can be of two types, once-through
The secondary loop includes the steam generation and (Fig. 20) and recirculating (Fig. 21). In both types, the
interface with the balance of the power plant. High purity pressure vessel is a large heat exchanger designed to gen-
water from the last feedwater heater passes through the erate steam for the secondary loop from heat contained in
steam generator and is converted into steam. From the the primary coolant. The primary coolant enters a plenum
steam generator outlet, the saturated or superheated and passes through several thousand small diameter
steam flows out of the containment building to the high [approximately 0.625 in. (15.9 mm)] Inconel® tubes. The
pressure turbine. The operating pressure is typically steam generator is a large, carbon steel pressure vessel.
around 1000 psi (6.9 MPa). The balance of the secondary Specially designed tubesheets, support plates, shrouds
loop resembles fossil fuel-fired systems. (See Figs. 10 and baffles provide effective heat transfer, avoid thermal
and 11.) expansion problems, and avoid flow-induced vibration.
The center of the NSSS is the reactor vessel and reactor In the once-through steam generator (OTSG), Fig. 20,
core. (See Fig. 19.) The fuel consists of compressed pellets the secondary loop water flows from the bottom to the top
[for example, 0.37 in. (9.4 mm) diameter by 0.7 in. (18 of the shell side of the tube bundle and is continuously
mm) long] of 2.5 to 5% enriched uranium oxide. These converted from water to superheated steam. The super-
pellets are placed in zircaloy tubes which are sealed at heated steam then passes to the high pressure turbine.
both ends to protect the fuel and to contain the nuclear In the recirculating steam generator (RSG), Fig. 21,
reaction products. The tubes are assembled into bundles water moves from the bottom to the top of the shell side of
with spacer and closure devices. These bundles are then the tube bundle being converted partially into steam. The
assembled into the nuclear fuel core. steam-water mixture passes into the upper shell where
The reactor enclosure (Fig. 19) is a low alloy steel steam-water separators supply saturated dry steam to
pressure vessel lined with stainless steel for corrosion pro- the steam generator outlet. The steam is sent to the high
tection. The rest of the reactor includes flow distribution pressure turbine. The water leaving the steam generator
devices, control rods, core support structures, thermal upper shell is mixed with feedwater and is returned to
shielding and moderator. The moderator in this case is the bottom of the tube bundle.
water which serves a dual purpose. It reduces the velocity The pressurizer is a simple cylindrical pressure vessel
of the neutrons thereby making the nuclear reactions which contains both water and steam at equilibrium.

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Fig. 20 Once-through steam generator.

Electrical heaters and spray systems maintain the Fig. 21 Recirculating steam generator.
pressure in the pressurizer vessel and the primary loop
within set limits. The primary loop circulating pumps
maintain high flow rates to the reactor core to control its
temperature and transfer heat to the steam generators. the reactor core. A steam-water mixture cools and
A number of support systems are also provided. These moderates the reactor core. Enriched uranium oxide
include reactor coolant charging systems, makeup water fuel is used.
addition, spent fuel storage cooling, and decay heat 3. CANDU ® (PHWR) Heavy water (deuterium) is used
removal systems for when the reactor is shut down. Other as the moderator and primary loop coolant. The reactor
specialized systems protect the reactor system in the configuration is unique but the steam generator is
case of a loss of coolant event. The key function of these similar to the recirculating steam generator for the
systems is to keep the fuel bundle temperature within PWR. Natural (not enriched) uranium oxide is used
safe limits if the primary coolant flow is interrupted. as the fuel.
4. Gas-cooled reactors These are a variety of gas-cooled
Nuclear steam system classifications reactors which are typically moderated by graphite
and cooled by helium or carbon dioxide.
A variety of reactor systems have been developed to 5. Breeder reactors These are advanced reactor systems
recover thermal energy from nuclear fuel and to generate using sodium as the reactor coolant with no moderator.
steam for power generation. These are usually identified These systems are specially designed to produce more
by their coolant and moderator types. The principal fissionable nuclear fuel than they use.
systems for power generation include: 6. Small modular reactor (SMR) A designation given
1. Pressurized water reactor (PWR) This is the system to reactors that produce less than 300 MW. These
discussed above, using water as both reactor coolant advanced reactor designs are generally scalable and
and moderator, and enriched uranium oxide as the designed for reduced siting costs and incremental
fuel. power additions.
2. Boiling water reactor (BWR) The steam generator 7. Integral pressurized water reactor (iPWR) These
is eliminated and steam is generated directly in are a variety of PWRs which feature a once-through

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

steam generator, pumps and pressurizer within a reheat stages; auxiliary equipment steam usage; and
single integral reactor vessel. future requirements.
2. Source of the steam flow makeup or replacement water
Engineered safety systems supply, water chemistry and inlet temperature.
Safety is a major concern in the design, construction 3. The type and range of fuels considered, including worst
and operation of nuclear power generating facilities. The case conditions, and the chemical analyses (proximate
focus of these efforts is to minimize the likelihood of a and ultimate analyses) for each fuel or mixture of fuels.
release of radioactive materials to the environment. Three 4. Elevation above sea level, overall climate history and
approaches are used to accomplish this goal. First, the forecast, earthquake potential and space limitations.
nuclear power industry has developed one of the most 5. Emissions control requirements and applicable
extensive and rigorous quality control programs for the government regulations and standards.
design, construction and maintenance of nuclear facili- 6. The types of auxiliary equipment; overall plant and
ties. Second, reactor systems are designed with multiple boiler efficiency; access needs; evaluation penalties,
barriers to prevent radioactive material release. These e.g., power usage; planned operating modes including
include high temperature ceramic fuel pellets, sealed fuel expected load cycling requirements, e.g., peaking,
rods, reactor vessel and primary coolant system, and the intermediate or base load; and likely future plant use.
containment building including both the carbon steel
reactor containment vessel and the reinforced concrete When these interfaces are established, boiler design and
shield building. The third approach includes a series evaluation may begin.
of engineered safety systems to address loss of coolant
Systematic approach
conditions and maintain the integrity of the multiple
barriers. These systems include: There are a variety of evaluation approaches that can
be used to meet the specific steam generator performance
1. emergency reactor trip systems including rapid requirements. These include the multiple iterations
insertion of control rods and the addition of soluble commonly found in thermal design where real world
neutron poisons in the primary coolant to shut down complexities and nonlinear, noncontinuous interactions
the nuclear reaction, prevent a straightforward solution. The process begins
2. high and low pressure emergency core cooling systems by understanding the particular application and system
to keep the reactor core temperature within acceptable to define conditions such as steam flow requirements,
limits and remove heat from the fuel in the event of a fuel source, operating dynamics, and emissions limits,
major loss of primary coolant or a small pipe break, among others. From these, the designer proceeds to assess
3. a heat removal system for the cooling water and the steam generator options, interfaces and equipment
containment building, and needs to achieve performance. Using a coal-fired boiler
4. spray and filtering systems to collect and remove as an example, a systematic approach would include the
radioactivity from the containment building. following:
Because of the high power densities and decay heat 1. Specify the steam supply requirements to define the
generation, the reactor integrity depends upon the overall inputs of fuel, air and water, and the steam
continuous cooling of the nuclear fuel rods. Multiple output conditions.
independent components and backup power supplies are 2. Evaluate the heat balances and heat absorption by
provided for all critical systems. type of steam generator surface.
3. Perform combustion calculations to define heat input
Steam System Design and gas flow requirements.
4. Configure the combustion system to complete the
Steam generator interfaces combustion process while minimizing emissions (fuel
preparation, combustion and air handling).
The steam generator system’s primary function is to 5. Configure the furnace and other heat transfer
convert chemical or nuclear energy bound in the fuel to surfaces to satisfy temperature, material and
heat and produce high temperature, high pressure steam. performance tradeoffs while meeting the system
The variety of fuel sources, the high temperature nature control needs.
of these processes, and the large number of subsystem 6. Size other water-side and steam-side components.
interfaces contribute to the challenging nature of the 7. Specify the back-end tradeoffs on the final heat
design process. The initial steps in evaluating the steam recovery devices such as water heaters (economizers)
generating system include establishing key interfaces and air heaters.
with other plant systems and with the power cycle. These 8. Check the steam generating system performance to
are typically set by the end user or consulting engineer ensure that the design criteria are met.
after an in-depth evaluation indicates: 1) the need for 9. Verify overall unit performance.
the expanded power supply or steam source, 2) the most 10. Repeat steps 2 through 9 until the desired steam
economical fuel selection and type of steam-producing mass flow and temperature are achieved over the
system, 3) the plant location, and 4) the desired power specified range of load conditions.
cycle or process steam conditions. The key requirements 11. Design pressure parts to meet the anticipated
fall into six major areas: operating conditions and complete mechanical design
1. Steam minimum, nominal, and maximum flow rates; using American Society of Mechanical Engineers
pressure and temperature; need for one or more steam (ASME) Code rules.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

12. Design and integrate environmental protection

equipment to achieve prescribed emissions levels.
13. Incorporate auxiliaries as needed, such as tube
surface cleaning equipment, fans, instrumentation
and controls, to complete the design and assure safe
and continuous operation.

The life cycle and daily operation of the steam

generator (and the plant in which it will operate) are
important elements to be considered from the beginning
of the design and throughout the design process. Some
steam generators will be required to operate efficiently
and reliably for up to 60 years or more. During this time,
many components will wear out because of the aggressive
environment, so routine inspection of pressure parts is
needed to assure continued reliability. Unit operating
procedures, such as the permitted severity and magnitude
of transients, may be monitored to prevent reduced unit
life. Operating practices including water treatment,
cycling operation procedures, and preventive mainte-
nance programs, among others, can significantly affect
steam generator availability and reliability. Key unit
components may be upgraded to improve performance. Fig. 23 Small industrial boiler – sectional side view.
In each case, decisions made during the design phase and
subsequent operation can substantially enhance the life
and performance of the unit.
the desired pressure, temperature and flow rate. In this
System design example example, the customer specifies 400,000 lb/h (50.4 kg/s)
of superheated steam at 600 psi (4.14 MPa) and 850F
Now that the basic fossil fuel and nuclear steam (454C). The customer has agreed to supply high purity
generating systems have been described, it is appropriate feedwater at 280F (138C) and to supply natural gas as a
to explore the general design and engineering process. fuel source. As with all steam generating systems, there
While each of the many systems requires specialized are a number of additional constraints and requirements
evaluations, they share many common elements. To as discussed in the Steam generator interfaces section,
illustrate how the design process works, a small industrial but the major job of the steam generator or boiler is to
B&W PFI (Power for Industry) gas-fired boiler has been supply steam.
selected for discussion. (See Figs. 22 and 23.) Combustion of the natural gas produces a stream
Basically, the customer has one overriding need: when of combustion products or flue gas at perhaps 3600F
the valve is turned on, steam is expected to be supplied at (1982C). To maximize the steam generator thermal
efficiency, it is important to cool these gases as much
as possible while generating the steam. The minimum
flue gas outlet temperature is established based upon
technical and economic factors (discussed below). For
now, a 310F (154C) outlet temperature to the exhaust
stack is selected. The approximate steam and flue gas
temperature curves are shown in Fig. 24 and define
the heat transfer process. The heat transfer surface for
the furnace, boiler bank, superheater and air heater is
approximately 69,000 ft2 (6410 m2).
From a design perspective, the PFI boiler can be
viewed as either a steam heater or gas cooler. The latter
approach is most often selected for design. The design fuel
heat input is calculated by dividing the steam heat output
by the target steam generator thermal efficiency. Based
upon the resulting fuel flow, combustion calculations
define the air flow requirements and gas weight of the
combustion products. The heat transfer surface is then
configured in the most economical way to cool the flue
gas to the temperature necessary for the target steam
generator efficiency. Before proceeding to follow the gas
through the cooling process, the amount of heat recovery
for each of the different boiler surfaces (superheater and
boiler) must be established.
Fig. 22 Small PFI industrial boiler. Fig. 25 illustrates the water heating process from

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

range control. The windbox, which distributes the air to

individual burners, is designed to provide a uniform air
flow at low enough velocities to permit the burners to
function properly.
The furnace volume is then set to allow complete
fuel combustion. The distances between burners and
between the burners and the floor, roof, and side walls
are determined from the known characteristics of the
particular burner flame. Adequate clearances are speci-
fied to prevent flame impingement on the furnace surfaces,
which could overheat the tubes and cause tube failures.
Once the furnace dimensions are set, this volume
is enclosed in a water-cooled membrane panel surface.
This construction provides a gas-tight, all steel enclosure
which minimizes energy loss, generates some steam and
minimizes furnace maintenance. As shown in Fig. 23,
the roof and floor tubes are inclined slightly to enhance
water flow and prevent steam from collecting on the tube
surface. Trapped steam could result in overheating of
the tubes. Heat transfer from the flame to the furnace
enclosure surfaces occurs primarily by thermal radiation.
As a result, the heat input rates per unit area of surface
Fig. 24 Industrial boiler – temperature versus heat transfer surface.
are very high and relatively independent of the tubewall
temperatures. Boiling water provides an effective means
to cool the tubes and keep the tube metal temperatures
an inlet temperature of 280F (138C) to the superheater within acceptable limits as long as the boiling conditions
steam outlet temperature of 850F (454C). This curve are maintained.
indicates that about 20% of the heat absorbed is used Fig. 26 shows the effect of the furnace on gas tempera-
to raise the water from its inlet temperature to the ture. The gas temperature is reduced from 3600F (1982C)
saturation temperature of 490F (254C). About 60% of at point A to 2400F (1316C) at point B, while boiling
the energy is then used to evaporate the water to produce takes place in the water walls (points 1 to 2). A large
saturated steam. The remaining 20% of the heat input is amount of heat transfer takes place on a small amount
used to superheat or raise the steam temperature to the of surface. From the furnace, the gases pass through the
desired outlet temperature of 850F (454C). furnace screen tubes shown in Fig. 23. The temperature
The fuel and the combustion process selected set the drops a small amount [50F (28C)] from points B to C in
geometry of the furnace. In this case, simple circular Fig. 26, but more importantly, the superheater surface
burners are used. The objective of the burners is to mix is partially shielded from the furnace thermal radiation.
the fuel and air rapidly to produce a stable flame and The furnace screen tubes are connected to the drum
complete combustion while minimizing the formation
of NO x emissions. Burners are available in several
standardized sizes. The specific size and number are
selected from past experience to provide the desired heat
input rate while permitting the necessary level of load

Fig. 25 Steam-water temperature profile. Fig. 26 Gas and steam temperature schematic.

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and contain boiling water. Next, the gas passes through steam generator. Air heaters can be very compact. Also,
the superheater where the gas temperature drops from preheating the air can enhance the combustion of many
2350F (1288C) at point C to 1750F (954C) at point D. difficult to burn fuels such as coal. All of the parameters
Saturated steam from the drum is passed through the are reviewed to select the most economical solution that
superheater tubing to raise its temperature from 490F meets the technical requirements.
(254C) saturation temperature to the 850F (454C) desired In this case, the decision has been made to use an air
outlet temperature (points 5 to 4). heater and not an economizer. The air heater is designed
The location of the superheater and its configuration to take 80F (27C) ambient air (point 9) and increase
are critical in order to keep the steam outlet temperature the temperature to 570F (299C), at point 8. This hot
constant under all load conditions. This involves radiation air is then fed to the burners. At the same time, the gas
heat transfer from the furnace with convection heat trans- temperature is dropped from 760F (404C) to the desired
fer from the gas passing across the surface. In addition, 310F (154C) outlet temperature (points E to F). If a much
where ash-laden gases such as with combustion products lower gas outlet temperature than 310F (154C) is used,
from coal are used, the spacing of the superheater tubes the heat exchanger surfaces may become uneconomically
is also adjusted to accommodate the accumulation of large, although this is a case-by-case decision. In addi-
fouling ash deposits and the use of cleaning equipment. tion, for fuels such as oil or coal which can produce acid
After the superheater, almost half of the energy in the constituents in the gas stream (such as sulfur oxides),
gas stream has been recovered with only a small amount lower exit gas temperatures may result in condensation
of heat transfer surface [approximately 6400 ft2 (595 of these constituents onto the heat transfer surfaces, and
m2)]. This is possible because of the large temperature excessive corrosion damage. The gas is then exhausted
difference between the gas and the boiling water or steam. through the stack to the atmosphere.
The gas temperature has now been dramatically reduced, Finally, the feedwater temperature increases from
requiring much larger heat transfer surfaces to recover 280F (138C) to saturation temperature of 490F (254C).
incremental amounts of energy. In the absence of an economizer, the feedwater is supplied
The balance of the steam is generated by passing the directly to the drum where it is mixed with the water
gas through the boiler bank. (See Figs. 22 and 23.) This flowing through the boiler bank tubes and furnace. The
bank is composed of a large number of water-containing flow rate of this circulating water in industrial units is
tubes that connect the steam drum to a lower (mud) drum. approximately 25 times higher than the feedwater flow
The temperature of the boiling water is effectively constant rate. Therefore, when the feedwater is mixed in the drum,
(points 5 to 6 in Fig. 26), while the gas temperature drops it quickly approaches the saturation temperature without
by almost 1000F (556C) to an outlet temperature of 760F appreciably lowering the temperature of the recirculating
(404C), between points D and E. The tubes are spaced as water in the boiler tubes.
closely as possible to increase the gas flow heat transfer Reviewing the water portion of the system, the
rate. If a particulate-laden gas stream were present, the feedwater is supplied to the drum where it mixes with
spacing would be set to limit erosion of the tubes, reduce the recirculating water after the steam is extracted and
the heat transfer degradation due to ash deposits, and sent to the superheater. The drum internals are specially
permit removal of the ash. Spacing is also controlled by designed so that the now slightly subcooled water flows
the allowable pressure drop across the bank. In addition, down through a portion of the boiler bank tubes to the
a baffle can be used in the boiler bank bundle to force lower or mud drum. This water is then distributed to the
the gas to travel at a higher velocity through the bundle, remainder of the boiler bank tubes (also called risers) and
increase the heat transfer rate, and thereby reduce the the furnace enclosure tubes where it is partially converted
bundle size and cost. To recover this additional percentage to steam (approximately 4% steam by weight). The steam-
of the supplied energy, the boiler bank contains more water mixture is then returned to the steam drum. Here,
than 32,000 ft2 (3000 m2) of surface, or approximately the steam-water mixture is passed through separators
nine times more surface per unit of energy than in the where the steam is separated from the water. The steam
high temperature furnace and superheater. At this point is then sent to the superheater, and from there to its end
in the process, the temperature difference between the use. The remaining water is mixed with the feedwater
saturated water and gas is only 270F (150C), between and is again distributed to the downcomer tubes.
points 6 and E in Fig. 26.
Economics and technical limits dictate the type and Other Steam Producing Systems
arrangement of additional heat transfer surfaces. An
economizer or water-cooled heat exchanger could be A variety of additional systems also produce steam for
used to heat the makeup or feedwater and cool the gas. power and process applications. These systems usually
The lowest gas exit temperature theoretically possible take advantage of low cost or free fuels, a combination of
is the inlet temperature of the feedwater [280F (138C)]. power cycles and processes, and recovery of waste heat
However, the economizer would have to be infinitely large to reduce overall costs. Examples of these include:
to accomplish this goal. Even if the exit gas temperature 1. Gas turbine combined cycle (CC ) Advanced gas
is 310F (154C), the temperature difference at this point in turbines with heat recovery steam generators as part
the heat exchanger would only be 30F (17C), still making of a bottoming cycle to use waste heat recovery and
the heat exchanger relatively large. Instead of incorporat- increase thermal efficiency.
ing an economizer, an air heater could be used to recover 2. Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) Adds
the remaining gas energy and preheat the combustion a coal gasifier to the CC to reduce fuel costs and
air. This would reduce the natural gas needed to heat the minimize airborne emissions.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

3. Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion (PFBC ) The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is the
Includes higher pressure combustion with gas cleaning firm basis from which steam generator pressure parts
and expansion of the combustion products through a can be safely designed. Once built, the operation and
gas turbine. maintenance of the steam generator are critical to ensure
4. Blast furnace hood heat recovery Generates steam a long life and reliable service. Water chemistry and
using the waste heat from a blast furnace. chemical cleaning are increasingly recognized as central
5. Solar steam generator Uses concentrators to collect elements in any ongoing operating program. The impact of
and concentrate solar radiation and generate steam. fuel and any residual flyash is important in evaluating the
corrosion and fouling of heat transfer surfaces. The use of
modern techniques to periodically inspect the integrity of
Common Technical Elements the steam generator tubes leads to the ability to extend
The design of steam generating systems involves the steam generator life and improve overall performance.
combination of scientific and technical fundamentals, These are accomplished by the application of engineered
empirical data, practical experience and designer insight. component modification to better meet the changing
While technology has advanced significantly, it is still needs of the steam generating system. Finally, the control
not possible to base the design of modern systems on systems which monitor and operate many subsystems to
fundamentals alone. Instead, the fundamentals provide optimize unit performance are important to maintain
the basis for combining field data and empirical methods. system reliability and efficiency.
Even given the wide variety of shapes, sizes and All of these functions — functional performance,
applications (see Fig. 27), steam generator design mechanical design, manufacture, construction, operation,
involves the application of a common set of technologies. maintenance, and life extension —must be fully combined
The functional performance of the steam generator is to provide the best steam generating system. Long-term
established by combining thermodynamics, heat transfer, success depends upon a complete life cycle approach to
fluid mechanics, chemistry, and combustion science or the steam generating system. Steam generator system
nuclear science with practical knowledge of the fouling operators routinely require their equipment to operate
of heat transfer surfaces and empirical knowledge of the continuously and reliably for more than 60 years in
behavior of boiling water. The design and supply of the increasingly demanding conditions. Therefore, it is im-
hardware are aided by structural design and advanced portant to consider later boiler life, including component
material properties research combined with expertise in replacement, in the initial phases of boiler specification.
manufacturing technologies and erection skills to produce Changes in design to reduce initial capital cost must be
a quality, reliable product to meet the highly demanding weighed against any possible impact on future operation.
system requirements.

Fig. 27 This energy complex in the northern U.S. includes five coal-fired steam systems, ranging from 80 to 330 MW, installed over a
35-year period.

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Axtman, W.H., and American Boiler Manufacturers As- Gunn, D., and Horton, R., Industrial Boilers, Longman
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of Innovation,” American Boiler Manufacturers Association London, England, United Kingdom, April 1989.
(ABMA), Arlington, Virginia, 1988. Hambling, P., Modern Power Station Practice: Turbines,
“Boilers and auxiliary equipment,” Power, Vol. 132, No. 6, Generators and Associated Plant, Third ed., Pergamon
pp B-1 to B-138, Platts/McGraw-Hill, New York, New York, Press, Oxford, England, United Kingdom, April 1, 1993.
June 1988. Jackson, A.W., “The How and Why of Boiler Design,” Engi-
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CANDU is a trademark of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.

Inconel is a trademark of Huntington Alloys Corporation, a subsidiary of Special Metals Corporation.

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