Linear functions, graphs

5 and models
LEARNING SEQUENCE
5.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 262
5.2 Linear functions and their features ............................................................................................................... 263
5.3 Sketching linear graphs .................................................................................................................................... 272
5.4 Linear modelling ...................................................................................................................................................282
5.5 Determining equations of straight lines ...................................................................................................... 288
5.6 Piecewise linear graphs and their application .......................................................................................... 292
5.7 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 307

Fully worked solutions for this topic are available online.

5.1 Overview
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5.1.1 Introduction
Linear equations use one or more variables where one variable is dependent on the other. Almost any situation
where there is an unknown quantity can be represented by a linear equation, such as predicting profit or
calculating the cost of booking accommodation at a hotel. A useful way to apply linear equations is to make
predictions about what will happen in the future. For example, if a linear profit equation is modelled, then this
model could be used to predict future profits.

Long jump record vs the number

of years past 1900
y
Bob Mike
9.0
8.8

Jump distance (m)

8.6
8.4
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.4

0 x
20 40 60 80 100
Years past 1900

It is always interesting to note that a lot of world records follow a linear trend over time. One event that
challenges this is the men’s long-jump world record. In 1968, Bob Beamon smashed the record by an amazing
55 cm with a jump of 8.90 m at the Olympics. This jump certainly went against the linear trend. This record
stood until 1991, when Mike Powell jumped 8.95 m at the World Championships in Athletics. If we plot the
world records from 1900 to 1964 and draw a line of best fit, we can clearly see that Bob’s long jump went
against the linear trend over the previous 60 years.

KEY CONCEPTS

This topic covers the following key concepts from the VCE Mathematics Study Design:
• the linear function y = a + bx, its graph, and interpretation of the parameters, a and b, in terms of initial
value and constant rate of change respectively
• graphing linear relations Ax + By = C and equivalent forms
• formulation and analysis of linear models from worded descriptions or relevant data (including
simultaneous linear equations in two variables) and their application to solve practical problems
including domain of interpretation
• piecewise linear (line segment, step) graphs and their application to modelling practical situations,
including tax scales and charges, and payment.
Source: VCE Mathematics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

262 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
5.2 Linear functions and their features
LEARNING INTENTION

At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:

• determine the gradient between two points
• determine the y-intercept of a linear graph
• identify gradient and intercepts from linear equations.

5.2.1 Gradient-intercept form

The gradient-intercept form, as the name suggests, allows us to easily see the values of the gradient and the
y-intercept.

y = a + bx

y-intercept gradient

Note: Previously we called the gradient and y-intercept m and c, respectively. In General Mathematics
Units 1 & 2 and General Mathematics Units 3 & 4, we will use a and b in the form y = a + bx. This notation is
used in the field of statistics and is preferred to the form y = mx + c when constructing regression equations.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Identifying gradient and intercepts from linear equations

State the gradients and y-intercepts of the following linear equations.

x
a. y = 2 + 5x b. y = −3 + c. 2x + y = 4
2

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. It is in the form a. y = 2 + 5x
y = a + bx.
2. Identify the coefficient of x. The coefficient of x is 5.
3. Identify the value of a. The value of a is 2.
4. Write the answer. The gradient is 5 and the y-intercept is 2.

x
b. 1. Write the equation. It is in the form b. y = −3 +
y = a + bx. 2
1 1
2. Identify the coefficient of x. x has been multiplied by , so the coefficient is .
2 2
3. Identify the value of a. The value of a is −3.
1
4. Write the answer. The gradient is and the y-intercept is −3.
2

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 263

 c. 1. Transpose the equation to be in the form c. 2x + y = 4
y = a + bx. y = 4 − 2x
2. Identify the coefficient of x. The coefficient of x is −2 (the coefficient includes the
sign).
3. Identify the value of a. The value of a is 4.
4. Write the answer. The gradient is −2 and the y-intercept is 4.

5.2.2 The gradient of a linear function

The gradient (also known as slope) of a linear function, represented by the letter b, describes how steep the
graph is. It also describes how the two variables are related to one another.

The gradient is calculated by dividing the rise (distance up) by the run (distance across).
Suppose a line passes through the points (1, 4) and (3, 8) as shown in the graph.

8 (3, 8)

6 rise = 4

4
(1, 4) run = 2
2

0 1 2 3 x

By completing a right-angled triangle, it can be seen that:

• the rise (difference in y-values): 8 − 4 = 4
• the run (difference in x-values): 3 − 1 = 2
• to determine the gradient:

8−4
gradient =
3−1
4
= =2
2

264 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 Determining the gradient (b) of a line passing through two points
To determine the gradient of a straight line that passes through two points. First, identify two clear
points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) and use one of the following relations:
B
(x2, y2)
rise y2 − y1
gradient (b) = =
run x2 − x1

Rise: how much the graph has gone up rise

Run: how much the graph has travelled across

Note: If the line is sloping upwards (from left to right), the gradient is positive;
A
if it is sloping downwards, the gradient is negative. (x1, y1)
run

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Determining the gradient of a graph

tlvd-3851

Determine the values of the gradients of the following graphs.

a. y b. y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Determine two points on the graph. (Select a. y
the x- and y-intercepts.) 6
5
4 (0, 4)
3
2
1
(–3, 0)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

(−3, 0) and (0, 4)

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 265

 2. Determine the rise in the graph (change in 4−0=4
y-values).
3. Determine the run in the graph (change in 0 − −3 = 3
x-values).
rise
4. Substitute the values into the formula for the Gradient =
gradient. run
4
=
3

b. 1. Determine two points on the graph. (Select b. y

the x- and y-intercepts.) 6
5
4 (0, 4)
3
2
1 (5, 0)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

(0, 4) and (5, 0)

2. Determine the rise in the graph (change in 0 − 4 = −4
y-values).
3. Determine the change in the x-values. 5−0=5
rise
4. Substitute the values into the formula for the Gradient =
gradient. run
4
=−
5

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining the gradient between two points

Determine the value of the gradients of the linear graphs that pass through the following points.
a. (4, 6) and (5, 9) b. (2, −1) and (0, 5) c. (0.5, 1.5) and (−0.2, 1.8)

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Assign the points. a. Let (4, 6) = (x1 , y1 ) and (5, 9) = (x2 , y2 ).
Note: It doesn’t matter how you assign the
points, as long as you’re consistent with
which point is point 1 and which is point 2.

266 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 y2 − y1
2. Write the formula for the gradient and b=
substitute the values. x2 − x1
9−6
=
5−4
3
=
1
3. Simplify the fraction and write the answer. The gradient is 3 or b = 3.

b. 1. Assign the points. b. Let (2, −1) = (x1 , y1 ) and (0, 5) = (x2 , y2 ).
Note: It doesn’t matter how you assign the
points, as long as you’re consistent with
which point is point 1 and which is point 2.
y2 − y1
2. Write the formula for the gradient and b=
substitute the values. x2 − x1
5 − −1
=
0−2
6
=
−2
3. Simplify the fraction and write the answer. The gradient is −3 or b = −3.

c. 1. Assign the points. c. Let (0.5, 1.5) = (x1 , y1 ) and (−0.2, 1.8) = (x2 , y2 ).
Note: It doesn’t matter how you assign the
points, as long as you’re consistent with
which point is point 1 and which is point 2.
y2 − y1
2. Write the formula for the gradient and b=
substitute the values. x2 − x1
1.8 − 1.5
=
−0.2 − 0.5
0.3
=
−0.7
3 3
3. Simplify the fraction and write the answer. The gradient is − or b = − .
7 7

5.2.3 Identifying features of linear functions

The key features of linear graphs are the gradient and intercepts. The gradient describes the rate of change of
a graph and how the two variables are related to one another.
The x-intercept tells us what the x-value is when the y-value hits zero. For example, in the case of a car
depreciation, the x-intercept tells us when the asset will be worth nothing.
The y-intercept tells us the starting point, or initial state of the linear model. For example, in case of a car
depreciation, the y-intercept would tell us the starting value of the car.
The intercepts are important because they relate to certain key points of the linear model.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 267

In the graph of y = 3 + x, we can see that the x-intercept is at (−3, 0) and the
y-intercept is at (0, 3). These points can also be determined algebraically by putting y = 0 and x = 0 into the
equation.

y=3+x
(0, 3)

(–3, 0) 0 x

Determining intercepts
To determine the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into your equation and solve for x.
To determine the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into your equation and solve for y.

Standard form
Equations are commonly written in either standard form or gradient-intercept form. Writing equations like this
makes it easier to identify key features of the linear functions.
The standard form is useful when graphing because it makes it easier to determine the intercepts.

Standard form of a linear equation

Ax + By = C

where A, B and C are variables and are often integers (whole numbers).
( )
C
The x-intercept is at ,0 .
A
( )
C
The y-intercept is at 0, .
B

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Linear graphs (int-6484)

268 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 5.2 Exercise

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1. WE1 State the gradients and y-intercepts of the following linear equations.
1
a. y = 1 + 2x b. y = 3 − x c. y = 4 + x
2
d. −4x + 4y = 1 e. 3x + 2y = 6

2. Determine the gradients and y-intercepts of the following linear equations.

3x − 1 3−x
a. y = b. y = 5(2x − 1) c. y =
5 2
3. WE2 Determine the value of the gradient of each of the following graphs.
a. y b. y
6 6 (0, 6)
5 5
4 (0, 4) 4
3 3
2 2
(–4, 0) 1 1 (3, 0)
x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6

4. Determine the value of the gradient and y-intercept of each of the following graphs.
a. y b. y
6 (4, 6) 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 (–2, 0) 2
1 (2, 0) 1
x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3 (3, –3)
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 269

 1
5. MC Select the graph with a gradient of − .
4
A. y B. y
12 6
10 5
8 (0, 8) 4 (1, 4)
6 3
4 2
2 (4, 0) (–2, 0) 1
x x
–12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–2 –1
–4 –2
–6 –3
–8 –4
–10 –5
–12 –6

C. y D. y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 (–3, 2) 1
(–1, 0)
x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
–1 –1
–2 –2 (13, –2)
–3 –3
–4 (0, –4) –4
–5 –5
–6 –6

E. y
6
5
4
3
2
(–3, 0) 1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
(1, –4)
–4
–5
–6

6. WE3 Determine the values of the gradients of the straight-line graphs that pass through the following points.
a. (2, 3) and (5, 12) b. (−1, 3) and (2, 7) c. (−0.2, 0.7) and (0.5, 0.9)

7. A line has a gradient of −2 and passes through the points (1, 4) and (a, 8). Calculate the value of a.

8. Write the equations of the linear graphs with the following y-intercepts (a) and gradients (b).
a. a = 7 b. a = −3 c. a = 2 d. a = −1
b=2 b=4 b = −1 b=3

270 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 9. Determine the values of the gradients of the straight-line graphs that pass through the following points.
a. (3, 6) and (2, 9) b. (−4, 5) and (1, 8) c. (−0.9, 0.5) and (0.2, −0.7)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 1 6 2 1 3 2
d. (1.4, 7.8) and (3.2, 9.5) e. , and ,− f. , and ,−
5 5 5 5 3 4 4 3
10. Write the equations of the linear graphs with the following x- and y-intercepts.
a. x-intercept = 3 b. x-intercept = 3 c. x-intercept = −2 d. x-intercept = −5
y-intercept = 4 y-intercept = 9 y-intercept = 2 y-intercept = −3

5.2 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
MC Which of the following is an accurate sketch of 2x − 3y = 12?
A. y B. y

0 4 x

0 x
–6

–6

C. y D. y

0 4 x 0 6 x

E. y

0 6 x

–4

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 271

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The gradient and y-intercept of the graph with equation 3x − 4y + 12 = 0 are
3 4 4
A. b = and a = 4 B. b = and a = 3 C. b = and a = 4
4 3 3
3
D. b = 3 and a = 12 E. b = and a = 3
4
Question 3 (1 mark)
MC The gradient of the line connecting the two points (−6, 2) and (2, 10) is
A. 1 B. −1 4 4 E. 3
C. D. −
3 3
More exam questions are available online.

5.3 Sketching linear graphs

LEARNING INTENTION

At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:

• plot a linear graph by using a table of values
• construct a linear graph
• sketch linear graphs using gradient and y-intercepts
• sketch linear graphs using the x- and y-intercepts.

5.3.1 Plotting linear graphs

One way to plot a linear graph is to first draw up a table of values, then plot those coordinates and draw a line
through the points.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Plotting a linear graph by using a table of values

Plot the graph of y = 1 + 2x by first constructing a table of values with x-values from 0 to 5.
THINK WRITE
1. To plot, first make a table of values with x 0 1 2 3 4 5
x-values from 0 to 5.
y

2. Substitute the x-value into the equation to get

the corresponding y-value.
i. Substitute x = 0 x=0
y = 1 + 2x
y = 1 + 2(0)
y=1

272 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 ii. Substitute x = 1 x=1
y = 1 + 2x
y = 1 + 2(1)
y=3

iii. Substitute x = 2 x=2

y = 1 + 2x
y = 1 + 2(2)
y=5

iv. Substitute x = 3 x=3

y = 1 + 3x
y = 1 + 2(3)
y=7

v. Substitute x = 4 x=4
y = 1 + 2x
y = 1 + 2(4)
y=9

vi. Substitute x = 5 x=5

y = 1 + 2x
y = 1 + 2(5)
y = 11

3. Fill in the table with the values obtained. x 0 1 2 3 4 5

y 1 3 5 7 9 11

4. Plot the points on a Cartesian plane, y

remembering that the x-axis is horizontal 12
(5, 11)
and y-axis is vertical.
10
(4, 9)
8
(3, 7)
6
(2, 5)
4
(1, 3)
2
(0, 1)
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 273

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Constructing a linear graph

Construct a linear graph that passes through the points (−1, 2), (0, 4), (1, 6) and (3, 10):
a. without technology b. using CAS.

THINK DRAW/DISPLAY
a. 1. Using grid paper, rule up the Cartesian plane a. y
(set of axes) and plot the points. 10 (3, 10)

9
8
7
6 (1, 6)

5
4 (0, 4)
3
(–1, 2) 2
1

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1

2. Using a ruler, rule a line through the points. y

10 (3, 10)

9
8
7
6 (1, 6)

5
4 (0, 4)
3
(–1, 2) 2
1

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1

274 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE
b. 1. On a Lists & Spreadsheets b. 1. On a Statistics screen, label
page, label the first column list1 as x and list2 as y. Enter
x and the second column y. the x-coordinates of the given
Enter the x-coordinates of points in the first column, and
the given points in the first y-coordinates in the second
column, and y-coordinates column.
in the second column.

2. On a Data & Statistics 2. Click the G icon and complete

page, click the horizontal the fields as:
axis label and select x, then Draw: On
click the vertical axis label Type: LinearR
and select y. XList: main\x
YList: main\y
Freq: 1 Then select Set.

3. Press MENU and select: 3. Click the y icon.

−4: Analyze
−6: Regression
−2: Show Linear (a + bx)

5.3.2 Sketching linear graphs using the gradient and y-intercept

This is useful when you know the starting point of a function and its rate of change. For example, you may only
know how much water there is in a tank and the rate at which the water is flowing out.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Sketching a linear graph using the gradient and y-intercept
tlvd-3852

Using the gradient and the y-intercept, sketch the graph of each of the following.
a. A linear graph with a gradient of 3 and a y-intercept of 1
b. y = 4 − 2x
3
c. y = −2 + x
4
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Interpret the gradient. a. A gradient of 3 means that for an increase of 1
in the x-value, there is an increase of 3 in the
y-value.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 275

 2. Write the coordinates of the y-intercept. y-intercept: (0, 1)
3. Determine the x- and y-values of another New x-value = 0 + 1
point using the gradient. =1
New y-value = 1 + 3
=4
Another point on the graph is (1, 4).
4. Construct a set of axes and plot the two y
points. Using a ruler, rule a line through the 6
points. 5
4 (1, 4)
3
2
1 (0, 1)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

b. 1. Identify the value of the gradient and b. y = 4 − 2x has a gradient of −2 and a

y-intercept. y-intercept of 4.
2. Interpret the gradient. The gradient of −2 means that for an increase
rise of 1 in the x-value, there is a decrease of 2 in
Note: Recall that gradient is .
run the y-value.
3. Write the coordinates of the y-intercept. y-intercept: (0, 4)
4. Determine the x- and y-values of another New x-value = 0 + 1
point using the gradient. =1
New y-value = 4 − 2
=2
Another point on the graph is (1, 2).
5. Construct a set of axes and plot the two y
points. Using a ruler, rule a line through the 6
points. 5
4 (0, 4)
3
2 (1, 2)
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

276 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 3 3
c. 1. Identify the value of the gradient and c. y = −2 + x has a gradient of and a
y-intercept. 4 4
y-intercept of −2.
3
2. Interpret the gradient. A gradient of means that for an increase of
rise 4
Note: Recall that gradient is . 4 in the x-value, there is an increase of 3 in the
run y-value.
3. Write the coordinates of the y-intercept. y-intercept: (0, −2)

4. Determine the x- and y-values of another New x-value = 0 + 4

point using the gradient. =4
New y-value = −2 + 3
=1
Another point on the graph is (4, 1).
5. Construct a set of axes and plot the two y
points. Using a ruler, rule a line through the 6
points. 5
4
3
2 (4, 1)
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2 (0, –2)
–3
–4
–5
–6

TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

b. 1. On a Graphs page, b. 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the entry complete the entry line for
line for function 1 as: equation 1 as: y1 = 4 − 2x
f1(x) = 4 − 2x Then click the tick box.
Then press ENTER. Click the $ icon to view the
graph.

5.3.3 Sketching linear graphs using the x- and y-intercept

When given the x and y-intercepts, plot the coordinates of the intercepts and rule a line through both points.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 277

 WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Sketching a linear graph using intercepts

Determine the values of the x- and y-intercepts for the following linear equations, and sketch their
graphs.
a. 3x + 4y = 12 b. y = 5x c. 3y = 1 + 2x

THINK WRITE/DRAW

a. 1. To determine the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 a. x-intercept: y = 0

and solve for x. 3x + 4y = 12
3x + 4 × 0 = 12
3x = 12
3x 12
=
3 3
x=4
x-intercept: (4, 0)
2. To determine the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 y-intercept: x = 0
into the equation and solve for y. 3x + 4y = 12
3 × 0 + 4y = 12
4y 12
=
4 4
y=3
y-intercept: (0, 3)
3. Draw a set of axes and plot the x- and y
y-intercepts. Draw a line through the two 6
points. 5
4
3 (0, 3)
2
1 (4, 0)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

b. 1. To determine the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 b. x-intercept: y = 0

into the equation and solve for x. y = 5x
0 = 5x
x=0
x-intercept: (0, 0)
2. To determine the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 y-intercept: x = 0
into the equation and solve for y. y = 5x
= 5×0
=0
y-intercept: (0, 0)
3. As the x- and y-intercepts are the same, we y = 5x
need to determine another point on the graph. = 5×1
Substitute x = 1 into the equation. =5
Another point on the graph is (1, 5).

278 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 4. Draw a set of axes. Plot the intercept and the y
second point. Draw a line through the points. 6
5 (1, 5)
4
3
2
1
(0, 0)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

c. 1. To determine the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 c. x-intercept: y = 0

into the equation. 3y = 1 + 2x
3 × 0 = 1 + 2x
0 = 1 + 2x
2. Solve the equation for x. 0 − 1 = 1 + 2x − 1
−1 = 2x
−1 2x
=
2 2
−1
x=
2 ( )
1
x-intercept: − , 0
2

3. To determine the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 y-intercept: x = 0

into the equation and solve for y. 3y = 1 + 2 × 0
3y = 1
3y 1
=
3 3
1
y=
3 ( )
1
y-intercept: 0,
3
4. Draw a set of axes and mark the x- and y
y-intercepts. Draw a line through the 6
intercepts. 5
4
3
2
(– —12 , 0) 1 (0, —13 )
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 279

 5.3 Exercise

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1. WE4 Plot the graph of y = 6 − 3x by first constructing a table of values, with x-values from 0 to 5.
2. Plot the graph of 4x + 2y = 12 by first constructing a table of values from x = 0 to x = 4.

3. Using the gradient, determine another point in addition to the y-intercept that lies on each of the following
straight lines. Sketch the graph of each straight line.
a. Gradient = 4; y-intercept = 3
b. Gradient = −3; y-intercept = 1

4. Using the gradient, determine another point in addition to the y-intercept that lies on each of the following
straight lines. Sketch the graph of each straight line.
1
a. Gradient = ; y-intercept = 4
4
2
b. Gradient = − ; y-intercept = −2
5
5. WE5 Construct a straight-line graph that passes through the points (2, 5), (4, 9) and (0, 1):
a. without technology
b. using CAS.

6. A straight line passes through the following points: (3, 7), (0, a), (2, 5) and (−1, −1). Construct a graph and
hence determine the unknown value, a.
7. A straight line passes through the points (2, 5), (0, 9), (−1, 11) and (4, a). Construct a graph of the straight
line and hence determine the unknown value, a.
8. A line has a gradient of 5. If it passes through the points (−2, b) and (−1, 7), determine the value of b.

9. WE6 Using the gradient and the y-intercept, sketch the following linear graphs.
a. Gradient = 2; y-intercept = 5
b. Gradient = −3; y-intercept = 0
1
; y-intercept = 3
c. Gradient =
2
10. WE7 Determine the values of the x- and y-intercepts for the following linear equations, and sketch their
graphs.
a. 2x + 5y = 20 b. y = 4 + 2x c. 4y = 5 + 3x

11. Determine the values of the x- and y-intercepts for the following linear equations, and sketch their graphs.
a. 2x + y = 6
b. y = 9 + 3x
c. 2y = 4 + 3x
d. 3y − 4 = 5x

280 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
12. The table shows the value of x- and y-intercepts for different linear equations.

Equation x-intercept y-intercept

7
y = 7 + 2x − 7
2
5
y = 5 + 3x − 5
3
1
y = −1 + 4x −1
4
4
y = −4 + 2x =2 −4
2
y=2+x −2 2

1 −1
y=1+ x 1
= −2 1
2 2
x −2
y=2+ 1
= −6 2
3 3

a. Explain how you can determine the x- and y-intercepts for equations of the form shown. State whether
this method works for all linear equations.
b. Using your explanation from part a, write the x- and y-intercept for the equation y = a + bx.
4
c. A straight line has an x-intercept of − and a y-intercept of 4. Write its rule.
5

5.3 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCE 2019, Further Mathematics Exam 1, Module 4, Q4; © VCAA.
MC The following graph shows a straight line that crosses the x-axis at (–10, 0), passes through the point (–6, 8)

and crosses the y-axis at (0, q).

(0, q)

(–6, 8)

x
(–10, 0) O

What is the value of q?

A. 14 B. 16 C. 18 D. 20 E. 22

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 281

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCE 2016, Further Mathematics Exam 1, Module 4, Q3; © VCAA.
MC The following graph shows a straight line that passes through the points (6, 6) and (8, 9).

y
(8, 9)

(6, 6)

The coordinates of the point where the line crosses the x-axis are
A. (–3, 0) B. (1, 0) C. (1.5, 0) D. (2, 0) E. (4, 0)

Question 3 (3 marks)
1
The equation of a straight line is y = 4 + x.
2
a. State the gradient and the y-intercept. b. Determine the x-intercept.
c. Draw the graph.
More exam questions are available online.

5.4 Linear modelling

LEARNING INTENTION

At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:

• construct a linear model
• interpret a linear model
• identify domains of linear models.

5.4.1 Constructing a linear model

One of the key applications of linear equations is creating a linear model. Linear models represent real
situations and can be used to make predictions.

When we construct a linear model, we look for two key things:

• the starting state (which is represented by a)
• the rate of change (which is represented by b).

For example, in order to construct a model of the growth of a tree’s height over time, it’s important to know the
starting height and the amount the tree has grown every year.

282 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Constructing a linear model

Elle is an occupational therapist who charges an hourly rate of $35 on top of an initial charge of $50.
Construct a linear equation to represent Elle’s charge, C, for a period of t hours.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the constant change and the starting Constant change = 35
point. Starting point = 50
2. Construct the equation in terms of C by C = 50 + 35t
writing the value of the constant change as
the coefficient of the pronumeral (t) that affects
the change, and writing the starting point as the
y-intercept.

5.4.2 Interpreting a linear model

When we are interpreting a linear model, we look for the same key points as when we are constructing a linear
model. We look for the a value, the starting point, and the b value (the rate of change).

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Constructing and evaluating a linear model

tlvd-3853

A bike tyre with 500 cm3 of air in it is punctured by a nail. After the
puncture, the air in the tyre leaks at a rate of 5 cm3 /minute.
a. Construct an equation to represent the amount of air, A, in the
tyre t minutes after the puncture occurred.
b. State what the value of the gradient in the equation means.
c. Determine the amount of air in the tyre after 12 minutes.
d. By solving your equation from part a, determine how long, in minutes,
it will take before the tyre is completely flat (i.e. there is no air left).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Identify the constant change and the starting a. Constant change = −5
point. Starting point = 500
2. Construct the equation in terms of A by A = 500 − 5t
writing the value of the constant change as
the coefficient of the pronumeral that affects
the change, and writing the starting point as
the y-intercept.
b. 1. Identify the value of the gradient in the b. A = 500 − 5t
equation. The value of the gradient is −5.
2. Identify what this value means in terms of the The value of the gradient represents the rate at
problem. which the air is leaking from the tyre. In this
case it means that for every minute, the tyre
loses 5 cm3 of air.
c. 1. Using the equation found in part a, substitute c. A = 500 − 5t
t = 12 and evaluate. = 500 − 5 × 12
= 440

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 283

 2. Write the answer in a sentence. There is 440 cm3 of air in the tyre after
12 minutes.

d. 1. When the tyre is completely flat, A = 0. d. 0 = 500 − 5t

2. Solve the equation for t. 0 − 500 = 500 − 5t − 500

−500 = −5t
−500 −5t
=
−5 −5
100 = t
3. Write the answer as a sentence. The tyre will be flat after 100 minutes.

5.4.3 Domain of a linear model

If we were modelling the height of a child over time, we might
come to a growth rate of 10 cm per year. Can you think of how this
particular model might be improved?
We need to consider the domain of the linear model — that is, the
range of values that the linear model is valid for. If we used the
model of growth rate above to make a prediction about how tall a
person would be at 30, we would arrive at the prediction that the
height of this person will be 340 cm by that time. That’s more than
half a metre taller than the tallest human who has ever lived, Robert
Pershing Wadlow!
He was 2.72 m (8 ft 11.1 in) tall, when he was 22 years old.
From this we can conclude that these equations will only be valid for
a certain domain. Anything outside that domain is outside the scope
of the linear model. To determine the domain of a linear model,
identify all possible x-values.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Identifying domains of linear models

Express the following situations as linear models and give their domains.
a. A truck drives across the country for 6 hours at a constant speed of 80 km/h before reaching
its destination.
b. The temperature in an ice storage room starts at −20 °C and falls at a constant rate of
0.8 °C per minute for the next 22 minutes.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use pronumerals to represent the a. Let d = the distance travelled by the truck in km.
information given in the question. Let t = the time of the journey in hours.
2. Represent the given information as d = 80t
a linear model.
3. Determine the domain for which this The model is valid from 0 to 6 hours.
model is valid.

284 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 4. Express the domain with the model in d = 80t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 6
algebraic form.
b. 1. Use pronumerals to represent the b. Let i = the temperature of the ice room.
information given in the question. Let t = the time in minutes.
2. Represent the given information as a i = −20 − 0.8t
linear model.
3. Determine the domain for which this The model is valid from 0 to 22 minutes.
model is valid.
4. Express the domain with the model in i = −20 − 0.8t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 22
algebraic form.

5.4 Exercise

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1. WE8 An electrician charges a call-out fee of $90 plus an hourly rate of $65 per hour.
Construct an equation to determine the amount the electrician charges, C, for a
period of t hours.
2. An oil tanker is leaking oil at a rate of 250 litres per hour. Initially there was
125 000 litres of oil in the tanker. Construct an equation that represents the amount
of oil, A, in litres in the oil tanker t hours after the oil started leaking.
3. A children’s swimming pool is being filled with water. The amount of water in
the pool at any time can be found using the equation A = 5 + 20t, where A is the
amount of water in litres and t is the time in minutes.
a. Explain why this equation can be represented by a straight line.
b. State the value of the y-intercept and what it represents.
c. Sketch the graph of A = 5 + 20t on a set of axes.
d. The pool holds 500 litres. By solving an equation, determine how long it will take to fill the swimming
pool. Write your answer correct to the nearest minute.
4. WE9 A yoga ball is being pumped full of air at a rate of

40 cm3 /second. Initially there is 100 cm3 of air in the ball.

a. Construct an equation that represents the amount of air,
A, in the ball after t seconds.
b. Interpret what the value of the y-intercept in the equation
means.
c. Determine how much air, in cm3 , is in the ball after
2 minutes.
d. When fully inflated, the ball holds 100 000 cm3 of air.
Determine how long, in minutes, it takes to fully inflate
the ball. Write your answer to the nearest minute.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 285

 5. A long-distance runner can run at a rate of 12 km/h. The distance, d, in km they travel from the starting point
of a race can be represented by the equation d = −0.5 + at.
a. Write the value of a.
b. Write the y-intercept. In the context of this problem, explain what this value means.
c. Determine how far the runner is from the starting point after 30 minutes.
d. The finish point of this race is 21 km from the starting point. Determine how long, in hours and minutes,
it takes the runner to run the 21 km. Give your answer correct to the nearest minute.
6. A large fish tank is being filled with water. After 1 minute the height of the water is 2 cm and after 4 minutes
the height of the water is 6 cm. The height of the water in cm, h, after t minutes can be modelled by a linear
equation.
a. Determine the gradient of the graph of this equation.
b. In the context of this problem, state what the gradient represents.
c. Using the gradient found in part a, determine the value of the y-intercept. Write your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
d. State if the fish tank was empty of water before being filled. Justify your answer using calculations.

7. A family deposit $40 in their bank account each week. At the start of the year they have $120 in the account.
The amount in dollars, A, that they have in their account after t weeks can be found using the equation
A = a + bt.
a. State the values of a and b.
b. In the context of this problem, state what the y-intercept represents.
c. Determine the number of weeks it will take the family to save $3000.

8. WE10 Express the following situations as linear models and give the domains of the models.
a. Julie works at a department store and is paid $19.20 per hour. She has to work for a minimum of 10 hours
per week, but due to her study commitments she can work for no more than 20 hours per week.
b. The results in a driving test are marked out of 100, with 4 marks taken off for every error made on the
course. The lowest possible result is 40 marks.
9. Petrol is being pumped into an empty tank at a rate of 15 litres per minute.
a. Construct an equation to represent the amount of petrol in litres, P, in the tank after t minutes.
b. State what the value of the gradient in the equation represents.
c. If the tank holds 75 litres of petrol, determine the time taken, in minutes, to fill the tank.
d. The tank had 15 litres of petrol in it before being filled. Write another equation to represent the amount of
petrol, P, in the tank after t minutes.
e. State the domain of the equation formulated in part d.

10. Gert rides to and from work on his bike. The distance and time taken for him to ride
home can be modelled using the equation d = 37 − 22t, where d is the distance from
home in km and t is the time in hours.
a. Determine the distance, in km, between Gert’s work and home.
b. Explain why the gradient of the line in the graph of the equation is negative.
c. Solve the equation to determine the time, in hours and minutes, Gert takes to ride
home. Write your answer correct to the nearest minute.
d. State the domain of the equation.
e. Sketch the graph of the equation.

11. A real estate agent receives a commission of 1.5% on house sales, plus a payment of
$800 each month. Their monthly wage can be modelled by the equation W = a + bx,
where W represents their total monthly wage and x represents the value of their house
sales in dollars.
a. State the values of a and b.
b. State if there is an upper limit to the domain of the model. Explain your answer.

286 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 c. In March the total value of their house sales was $452 000. Determine their monthly wage for March.
d. In September they earned $10 582.10. Determine the value of the house sales they made in September.

12. Monique is setting up a new business selling T-shirts through an online

auction site. Her supplier in China agrees to a deal whereby they will supply
each T-shirt for $3.50 providing she buys a minimum of 100 T-shirts. The
deal is valid for up to 1000 T-shirts.
a. Set up a linear model (including the domain) to represent this situation.
b. Explain what the domain represents in this model.
c. State why there is an upper limit to the domain.

13. A basic mobile phone plan designed for school students charges a flat fee
of $15 plus 13 cents per minute of a call. Text messaging is free.
a. Construct an equation that determines the cost, in dollars, for any time
spent on the phone, in minutes.
b. In the context of this problem, state what the gradient and y-intercept of
the graph of the equation represent.
c. Using CAS, complete the following table to determine the cost at any
time, in minutes.
Time (min) Cost ($) Time (min) Cost ($)
5 35
10 40
15 45
20 50
25 55
30 60

5.4 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCE 2018, Further Mathematics Exam 1, Section B, Module 4, Q2; © VCAA
MC Steven is a wedding photographer.
He charges his clients a fixed fee of $500, plus $250 per hour of photography.
The equation that represents the total amount, $C, Steven charges, for t hours of photography is
A. C = 250t B. C = 500t C. C = 750t
D. C = 500 + 250t E. C = 250 + 500t

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The height of a boy, h cm, is related to his age, a years, according to the equation h = 70.2 + 6.5a. How old

was the boy when he was 161.2 cm tall?

A. 9.8 B. 13 C. 14 D. −14 E. 15.2

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 287

Question 3 (1 mark)
MC According to my smart phone, a hire car was 15 km away when I called. Its driver undertook that she could
average 50 km/h when she drove to pick me up.
What equation can be used to model the distance the car is away from me, d km (0 ≤ d ≤ 15), after time t hours?
A. d = 50t B. d + 15 = 50t C. d + 50t + 15 = 0
D. 15 − d = 50t E. d = 50t − 15
More exam questions are available online.

5.5 Determining equations of straight lines

LEARNING INTENTION

By the end of this subtopic you should be able to:

• determine the equation of a straight line when the gradient and y-intercept are given
• determine the equation of a straight line when the gradient and one point are given
• determine the equation of a straight line when the gradient and two points are given.

5.5.1 Determining the equation of straight lines when given the

gradient and y-intercept
When we are given the gradient and y-intercept of a straight line, we can enter these values into the equation
y = a + bx to determine the equation of the straight line. Remember that b is equal to the value of the gradient
and a is equal to the value of the y-intercept.
For example, if we are given a gradient of 3 and a y-intercept of 6, then the equation of the straight line would be
y = 6 + 3x.
Sometimes a graph is given and we need to be able to work backwards to determine the equation, and thus work
out the initial state and the rate of change of the linear model.
The first strategy we will look at is how we determine the equation of a line when given the gradient of the linear
model (slope) and the y-intercept (initial value).

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Determining the equation of a straight line when the gradient and
y-intercept are given

Determine the equation of a straight line with a gradient of 2 and y-intercept of 1.

THINK WRITE
1. Write the gradient–intercept form of a straight y = a + bx
line.
2. Substitute the value of the gradient into the b=2
equation (in place of b). y = a + 2x

3. Substitute the value of the y-intercept into the a=1

equation (in place of a) and it will give you the y = 1 + 2x
answer.

288 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
5.5.2 Determining the equation of straight lines when a gradient and
one point are given
When we are given the gradient and one point of a straight line, we need to establish the value of the y-intercept
to determine the equation of the straight line. This can be done by substituting the coordinates of the given point
into the equation y = a + bx and then solving for a. Remember that b is equal to the value of the gradient, so this
can also be substituted into the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Determining the equation of a straight line when a gradient and
one point are given

Determine the equation of a straight line with a gradient of 2 and passing through point (3, 7).
THINK WRITE
1. Write the gradient–intercept form of a straight line. y = a + bx
2. Substitute the value of the gradient into the equation (in Gradient = b = 2
place of b). y = a + 2x
3. Substitute the values of the given point into the equation (3, 7)
and solve for a. 7 = a + 2(3)
7 = a+6
a=1
4. Substitute the value of a back into the equation and write The equation of the straight line is y = 1 + 2x.
the answer.

5.5.3 Determining the equation of straight lines when two points

are given
When we are given two points of a straight line, we can determine the value of the gradient of a straight line
y −y
between these points as discussed in Section 5.2.2 (by using b = 2 1 ). Once the gradient has been calculated,
x2 −x1
we can determine the y-intercept by substituting one of the points into the equation y = a + bx and then solving
for a.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Determining the equation of a straight line when given two points

Determine the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (1, 6) and (3, 0).
THINK WRITE
y2 − y1
1. Write the formula to find the gradient given b=
two points. x2 − x1
2. Let one of the given points be (x1 , y1 ) and let Let (1, 6) = (x1 , y1 ) and (3, 0) = (x2 , y2 ).
the other point be (x2 , y2 ).
0−6
3. Substitute the values into the equation to b=
determine the value of b. 3−1
−6
=
2
= −3

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 289

 4. Substitute the value of b into the equation y = y = a + bx
a + bx. y = a − 3x
5. Substitute the values of one of the points into (3, 0)
the equation and solve for a. 0 = a − 3(3)
Note: The point (1, 6) could also be used. 0 = a−9
a=9
6. Substitute the value of a back into the equation The equation of the straight line is y = 9 − 3x.
and write the answer.
Note: The equation of a line can also be determined by using CAS and following the instructions in Worked
example 5 and inputting the coordinates of the two points.

These three strategies for determining the equation of a straight line can help us to create a linear model when
we are given different information. It can also help us to work backwards to develop a linear model based on
things we observe and measure.

5.5 Exercise

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1. WE11 Determine the equation of each straight line given the gradient and y-intercept.
a. Gradient = 2; y-intercept = −3 b. Gradient = 1; y-intercept = 4
c. Gradient = −3; y-intercept = 1 d. Gradient = −2; y-intercept = −1

2. WE12 Determine the equation of each straight line given the gradient and the coordinates of a point.
a. Gradient = 1; point = (3, 7) b. Gradient = 3; point = (3, 3)
1
c. Gradient = −2; point = (−4, 10) d. Gradient = ; point = (8, 0)
2
3. WE13 For each of the following, determine the equation of the line that passes through the given points.
a. (–3, 4) and (1, 6) b. (–3, 7) and (0, 7)
c. (2, 8) and (5, 14) d. (1, −6) and (−3, 10)

4. MC Select which of the following equations represents the line that passes through the points (3, 8) and
(12, 35).
A. y = 1 + 3x B. y = 1 − 3x C. y = −1 + 3x
1 1
D. y = 1 + x E. y = −1 + x
3 3
5. Steve is looking at data comparing the size of different music venues across the country and the average
ticket price at these venues. He calculates the cost to be y = 15 + 0.04x, where y is the average ticket price
in dollars and x is the capacity of the venue.
a. Explain what the value of the gradient (b) represents in Steve’s equation.
b. Explain what the value of the y-intercept (a) represents in Steve’s equation.
c. Explain whether the y-intercept is a realistic value for this data.

290 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 6. A linear model has been created for the distance a person has walked over a period of time. The person was
at a distance of 5 m at 3 minutes and 9 m at 5 minutes. Determine the equation that represents this situation.
7. Abdul invested $50 000 into a term deposit. The investment makes $500 per year. Create a linear model to
represent how much the investment is worth, V, as time, t (years), passes.
8. Tommy hires a cinema and invites friends to watch a movie he made.
The theatre has a package where it costs $110 to hire the theatre and a
$15 ticket is charged per person.
a. Using C for the cost of hiring the venue and n for the number of
friends, write an equation to represent this scenario.
b. Use the equation to calculate how much it would cost in total for
Tommy to invite 12 friends.

9. Yamato, a tree enthusiast, wanted to create a linear model to predict the

height of a tree over time. Yamato measured the tree after one year and
found that it was 1.5 m tall. He measured the tree two years later and
found that it was 4 m tall.
a. Create a linear model to represent the tree’s growth, using H for the
tree’s height (m) and t for the number of years.
b. Use the equation to determine how tall the tree was when it was first
put into the ground.
c. Use the equation to predict how tall the tree would be at the start of
the fifth year.

10. Snoozy caught a cab and fell asleep while the cab was travelling to their destination. When they woke up,
Snoozy noticed the meter read $200. The cab charged a flat fee of $9.50, and 50 cents per km travelled.
a. Write an equation for the cost of the cab.
b. Solve to determine how far the cab had travelled before Snoozy woke up.

5.5 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCE 2018, Further Mathematics Exam 1, Module 4, Q1; © VCAA
MC The graph below shows a line intersecting the x-axis at (4, 0) and the y-axis at (0, 2).

(0, 2)

x
O (4, 0)

The gradient of this line is

1 1
A. −4 B. −2 C. − D. E. 4
2 2

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 291

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCE 2018, NH Further Mathematics Exam 1, Module 4, Q1; © VCAA
MC A straight line passes through the point (−2, 0) and (0, 2), as shown in the diagram below.

x
–2 O

The equation of this straight line is

A. y = 2x B. y = x + 2 C. y = 2x + 2 D. y = x − 2 E. y = 2x − 2

Question 3 (1 mark)
MC The amount needed to pay a taxi fare, $C, to travel a distance of x kilometres is given by the rule:

C = a + bx

To travel a distance of 10 kilometres, the taxi fare is $40.

To travel a distance of 15 kilometres, the taxi fare is $55.
The cost per kilometre, b, is
A. 2 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2.5 E. 3.5
More exam questions are available online.

5.6 Piecewise linear graphs and their application

LEARNING INTENTION

At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:

• evaluate and sketch piecewise linear graphs.

5.6.1 Piecewise linear graphs

A piecewise graph is a graph that is made up of two or more linear equations. Often these are used to represent
a situation that involves a transition or a change in a rate. The piecewise graph will be continuous, and the
equations of the lines will intersect at each transition point.

292 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
Step graphs are formed by two or more linear graphs that y
have zero gradients. Step graphs have breaks, as shown in the 6
diagram. The end points of each line depend on whether the 5
4
point is included in the interval.
3
For example, the interval −1 < x ≤ 5 will have an open end 2
point at x = −1, because x does not equal −1 in this case. The 1
same interval will have a closed end point at x = 5, because x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
is less than or equal to 5. –1
–2
A closed end point means that the x-value is also ‘equal to’ –3
the value. An open end point means that the x-value is not –4
equal to the value; that is, it is less than or greater than only. –5
–6

WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Constructing a step graph from the equations

Construct a step graph from the following equations, making sure to take note of the relevant end
points.
y = 1, −3 < x ≤ 2
y = 4, 2 < x ≤ 4
y = 6, 4 < x ≤ 6

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Construct a set of axes and draw each line y
within the stated x-intervals. 6
5
4
3
2
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1

2. Draw in the end points. For the line y = 1:

−3 < x ≤ 2
x > −3 is an open circle.
x ≤ 2 is a closed circle.
For the line y = 4:
2< x≤4
x > 2 is an open circle.
x ≤ 4 is a closed circle.
For the line y = 6:
4< x≤6
x > 4 is an open circle.
x ≤ 6 is a closed circle.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 293

 y
6
5 (4, 6) (6, 6)
4
3 (2, 4) (4, 4)
2
(–3, 1) 1 (2, 1)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1

WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Evaluating and sketching piecewise linear graph

tlvd-3854

A piecewise linear graph is constructed from the following linear graphs.

y = 1 + 2x, x ≤ a
y = −1 + 4x, x > a

a. By solving the equations simultaneously, determine the point of intersection and hence state the
value of a.
b. Sketch the piecewise linear graph.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Determine the intersection point of the a. y = 1 + 2x
two graphs by solving the equations y = −1 + 4x
simultaneously. Solve by substitution:
1 + 2x = −1 + 4x
1 + 2x − 2x = −1 + 4x − 2x
1 = −1 + 2x
1 + 1 = −1 + 2x + 1
2 = 2x
x=1
Substitute x = 1 to determine y:
y = 1 + 2(1)
=3
The point of intersection is (1, 3).
x = 1 and y = 3

2. The x-value of the point of intersection x = 1, therefore a = 1.

determines the x-intervals for where the linear
graphs meet.

294 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 b. 1. Using CAS, sketch the two graphs without b. y
y = 2x + 1
taking into account the intervals. 6
5
4
3 (1, 3)
2
1 y = 4x – 1
x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

2. Identify which graph exists within the stated y = 1 + 2x exists for x ≤ 1.

x-intervals to sketch the piecewise linear y = −1 + 4x exists for x > 1.
graph. Remove the sections of each graph that do not
exist for these values of x.
y
6
5
4
3 (1, 3)
2
1
x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

a 1. On a Calculator page, press a 1. On the Main screen, use the
MENU then select: template , which is found
3: Algebra in Math1 and complete the
1: Solve entry lines as:
Complete the entry line y = 1 + 2x
{ |x, y
as:solve (y = 1 + 2x and y = −1 + 4x
y = −1 + 4x), {x, y} Then press EXE.
then press ENTER.

2. The answer is shown on x = 1, hence a = 1. 2. The answer is shown on the x = 1, hence a = 1.

the screen. screen.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 295

b 1. On a Graphs page, b 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the entry complete the entry line for
line for function 1 as: equation 1 as:
1 + 2x|x ≤ 1 1 + 2x|x ≤ 1
f1(x) = { y1 = {
−1 + 4x|x > 1 −1 + 4x|x > 1
then press ENTER. Click the tick box and then
Note: The piecewise click the $ icon.
template can be found Note: The piecewise template
by pressing and then can be found in the Math3 tab
select one of them. in the Keyboard menu.

WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Evaluating and sketching a piecewise graph

The following two equations represent the distance travelled by

a group of students over 5 hours. Equation 1 represents the first
section of the hike, when the students are walking at a pace of
4 km/h. Equation 2 represents the second section of the hike,
when the students change their walking pace.

Equation 1: d = 4t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2
Equation 2: d = 4 + 2t, 2 ≤ t ≤ 5

The variable d is the distance in km from the campsite, and t is the time in hours.
a. Determine the time, in hours, for which the group travelled in the first section of the hike.
b. i. Determine their walking pace in the second section of their hike.
ii. Calculate for how long, in hours, they walked at this pace.
c. Sketch a piecewise linear graph to represent the distance travelled by the group of students over
the five-hour hike.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Determine which equation the question a. This question applies to equation 1.
applies to.
2. Look at the time interval for this equation. 0≤t≤2
3. Interpret the information. The group travelled for 2 hours.
b. i. 1. Determine which equation the question b. i. This question applies to equation 2.
applies to.
2. Interpret the equation. The walking pace d = 4 + 2t, 2 ≤ t ≤ 5
is found by the coefficient of t, as this The coefficient of t is 2.
represents the gradient.
3. Write the answer as a sentence. The walking pace is 2 km/h.
ii. 1. Look at the time interval shown. ii. 2 ≤ t ≤ 5
2. Interpret the information and answer the They walked at this pace for 3 hours.
question.
c. 1. Calculate the distance travelled before the c. Change after t = 2 hours:
change of pace. d = 4t
d = 4×2
d = 8 km

296 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 2. Using a calculator, spreadsheet or d
otherwise, sketch the graph d = 4t 14
between t = 0 and t = 2. 13
12
11
10
9
8 (2, 8)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
(0, 0)
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. Solve the simultaneous equations to 4t = 4 + 2t
determine the point of intersection. 4t − 2t = 4 + 2t − 2t
2t = 4
Substitute t = 2 into d = 4t:
d = 4×2
=8

4. Using CAS, sketch the graph of d = 4 + 2t d

between t = 2 and t = 5. 14 (5, 14)
13
12
11
10
9
8 (2, 8)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
(0, 0)
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5.6.2 Modelling with piecewise linear and step graphs

Consider the real-life situation of a leaking water tank. For the first 3 hours it leaks at a constant rate of
12 litres per minute; after 3 hours the rate of leakage slows down (decreases) to 9 litres per minute. The water
leaks at a constant rate in both situations and can therefore be represented as a linear graph. However, after
3 hours the slope of the line changes because the rate at which the water is leaking changes.
Because there will be multiple different linear equations representing different parts of the situation, we need to
be mindful to use the appropriate equation for what we want to find.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 297

A key thing to remember when solving problems with piecewise graphs is to calculate based on the correct
corresponding linear equation, because there will be a different equation for each section of the graph.
In Worked example 16, the equation is d = 4t between the start and 2 hours, and d = 4 + 2t between 2 hours and
5 hours. If we wanted to calculate the distance travelled after 4 hours, we would use the second equation, not the
first. This is because the first equation only applies up to the 2-hour mark and the second equation applies to all
times from 2 to 5 hours.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Constructing a step graph to represent the information

The following sign shows the car parking fees in a shopping carpark.

0−2 hours $1.00

2−4 hours $2.50
4−6 hours $5.00
6+ hours $6.00

Construct a step graph to represent this information.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw up a set of axes, labelling the axes in y
terms of the context of the problem, that 10
is, the time and cost. There is no change in 9
cost during the time intervals, so there is no 8
rate (i.e. the gradient is zero). This means 7
Cost ($)

we draw horizontal line segments during the 6

corresponding time intervals. 5
4
3
2
1

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (hours)
2. Draw segments to represent the different time y
intervals. 10
9
8
7
Cost ($)

6
5
4
3
2
1

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (hours)

298 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
Applying piecewise linear graphs to tax brackets
One application of piecewise linear graphs is in the construction of tax brackets. Depending on how much a
person earns, they will be required to pay differing rates of tax, calculated from a piecewise function.
The following table illustrates Australian income tax brackets in 2021–2022:

Taxable income Tax on this income

0 − $18 200 Nil
$18 201 − $45 000 19 cents for each $1 over $18 200
$45 001 − $120 000 $5 092 plus 32.5 cents for each $1 over $45 000
$120 001 − $180 000 $29 467 plus 37 cents for each $1 over $120 000
$180 001 and over $51 667 plus 45 cents for each $1 over $180 000

5.6 Exercise

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1. WE14 Construct a step graph from the following equations, making sure to take note of the relevant

end points.
y = 3, 1 < x ≤ 4
y = 1.5, 4 < x ≤ 6
y = −2, 6 < x ≤ 8

2. A step graph is shown below. Write the equations that make up the graph.

y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
–2
–3
–4

3. WE15 A piecewise linear graph is constructed from the following linear graphs.

y = −3 − 3x, x ≤ a
y = 1 + x, x ≥ a

a. By solving the equations simultaneously, find the point of intersection and hence state the value of a.
b. Sketch the piecewise linear graph.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 299

4. Consider the following linear graphs that make up a piecewise linear graph.

y = −3 + 2x, x ≤ a
y = −4 + 3x, a ≤ x ≤ b
y = −12 + 5x, x ≥ b

a. Using CAS, sketch the three linear graphs.

b. Determine the two points of intersection.
c. Using the points of intersection, find the values of a and b.
d. Sketch the piecewise linear graph.
5. WE16 The following two equations represent water being added to a water tank over 15 hours, where w is

the water in litres and t is the time in hours.

Equation 1: w = 25t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5
Equation 2: w = −25 + 30t, 5 ≤ t ≤ 15

a. Determine how many litres of water are in the tank after 5 hours.
b. i. State at what rate the water is being added to the tank after 5 hours.
ii. Determine for how long the water is added to the tank at this rate.
c. Sketch a piecewise graph to represent the water in the tank at any time, t, over the 15-hour period.

6. The following table shows the costs to hire a

plumber.
Time (minutes) Cost ($)
0–15 45
15–30 60
30–45 80
45–60 110

a. Represent this information on a step graph.

b. Anton hired the plumber for a job that took
23 minutes. Determine how much Anton can
expect to be charged for this job.

7. Airline passengers are charged an excess for any luggage that weighs 20 kg or over. The following graph
shows these charges for luggage weighing over 20 kg.
y
100
90
80
70
Charge ($)

60
50
40
30
20
10

0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Luggage weight (kg)

300 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 a. Determine how much excess a passenger will be charged for luggage that weighs 31 kg.
b. Nerada checks in her luggage and is charged $40. Determine the maximum excess luggage she could have
without having to pay any more.
c. Hilda and Hanz have two pieces of luggage between them. One piece weighs 32 kg and the other piece
weighs 25 kg. Explain how they could minimise their excess luggage charges.
8. A car hire company charges a flat rate of $50 plus 75 cents per kilometre up to and including 150 kilometres.
An equation to represent this cost, C, in dollars is given as C = 50 + ak, 0 ≤ k ≤ b, where k is the distance
travelled in kilometres.
a. Write the values of a and b.
b. Using CAS, sketch this equation on a set of axes,
using appropriate values.
The cost charged for distances over 150 kilometres is
given by the equation C = 87.50 + 0.5k.
c. Determine the charge in cents per kilometre for
distances over 150 kilometres.
d. By solving the two equations simultaneously,
determine the point of intersection and hence show
that the graph will be continuous.
e. Sketch the equation C = 87.50 + 0.5k for 150 ≤ k ≤
300 on the same set of axes as part b.

9. For the following piecewise graph, identify the equations used.

y
3
2
1

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

__________, 0 ≤ x < 3
__________, 3 ≤ x < 9
10. An N700 series bullet train was running express from
Kyoto to Osaka. Its speed is given by the following
equations, where v is velocity (km/h) and t is time in
minutes.

v = 90t, 0 ≤ t < 3
v = 270, 3 ≤ t < 11
v = 1260 − 90t, 11 ≤ t < 15

Determine the train’s speed at:

a. t = 1 b. t = 4 c. t = 8 d. t = 12

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 301

11. The speed of a model race car along a racetrack is given by the following graph.
Determine the speed at t = 1, t = 2, t = 5 and t = 7.
v
10

Velocity (m/s)
6

0 t
2 4 6 8
Time (s)
12. Giorno monitored the growth of a tomato plant over the course of a year. The growth over the first year
followed two equations, but Giorno forgot what order they were in and where they intersected.
H = 5 + 3t
H = 4t
He remembers that the plant grew fastest in the first 6 months. Determine when the growth of the plant
started slowing down. (Hint: When did the gradient in the piecewise function change?)
13. The temperature of a wood-fired oven, T °C, steadily increases until it reaches 200 °C. Initially the oven has
a temperature of 18 °C and it reaches the temperature of 200 °C in 10 minutes.

a. Construct an equation to be used to determine the temperature of the oven during the first 10 minutes.
Include the time interval, t, in your answer.
Once the oven has heated up for 10 minutes, a loaf of bread is placed in the oven to cook for 20 minutes. An
equation that represents the temperature of the oven during the cooking of the bread is T = 200, a ≤ t ≤ b.
b. i. Write the values of a and b.
ii. In the context of this problem, state what a and b represent.
After the 20 minutes of cooking, the oven’s temperature is lowered. The temperature decreases steadily,
and after 30 minutes reaches 60 °C. An equation that determines the temperature of the oven during the last
30 minutes is T = mt + 340, d ≤ t ≤ e.

302 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 c. Determine the values of m, d and e.
d. State what m represents in this equation.
e. Using your values from the previous parts, sketch the graph that shows the changing temperature of the
wood-fired oven during the 60-minute interval.
14. The amount of money in a savings account over 12 months is shown in the following piecewise graph, where
A is the amount of money in dollars and t is the time in months.

A
2000
1750
1500
A ($)

1250
1000
750
500
250

0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
t (months)

One of the linear graphs that make up the piecewise linear graph is A = 2000 − 150t, 0 ≤ t ≤ a.
a. Determine the value of a.
b. The equation that intersects with A = 2000 − 150t is given by A = b − 50t. If the two equations intersect
at the point (4, 1400), show that b = 1600.
c. The third equation is given by the rule A = 4100 − 300t. By solving a pair of simultaneous equations,
determine the time interval for this equation.
d. Using an appropriate equation, determine the amount of money in the account at the end of the
12 months.
15. The following linear equations represent the distance sailed by a yacht from the yacht club during a race,
where d is the distance in kilometres from the yacht club and t is the time in hours from the start of the race.
Equation 1: d = 20t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.75
Equation 2: d = 3.75 + 15t, 0.75 ≤ t ≤ 1.25
Equation 3: d = 37.5 − 12t, 1.25 ≤ t ≤ b
a. Using CAS, determine the points of intersection.
b. In the context of this problem, explain why
equation 3 has a negative gradient.
c. Calculate how far the yacht is from the starting
point before it turns and heads back to the
yacht club.
d. Determine the duration, to the nearest minute,
of the yacht’s sailing time for this race. Hence,
determine the value of b.
Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 303

16. A small inflatable swimming pool that holds 1500 litres of water is being filled using a hose. The amount of
water, A, in litres in the pool after t minutes is shown in the following graph.
A
2500
2250
2000
1750
A (L)

1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
(0, 1)
0 t
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
t (mins)

a. Estimate the amount of water, in litres, in the pool after 45 minutes.

b. Determine the amount of water being added to the pool each minute during the first 45 minutes.
After 45 minutes the children become impatient and turn the hose up. The equation A = −359 + 20t
determines the amount of water, A, in the pool t minutes after 45 minutes.
c. Using this equation, determine the time taken, in minutes, to fill the pool. Give your answer to the nearest
whole minute.
17. Consider the following tax bracket equations.
T = 0 {0 ≤ x ≤ 18 200}
T = 0.19 (x − 18 200) {18 200 < x ≤ 45 000}
T = 5092 + 0.325 (x − 45 000) {45 000 < x ≤ 120 000}
where x = income, and T = income tax to be paid.
Determine the income tax to be paid for a person who has earned:
a. $16 000
b. $40 000
c. $82 000
d. $65 000
18. WE17 The costs to hire a paddle boat are listed in

the table.
Time (minutes) Hire cost ($)
0–20 15
20–30 20
30–40 25

Construct a step graph to represent the cost of hiring

a paddle boat for up to 40 minutes.

304 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
19. The postage costs to send parcels from the Northern
Territory to Sydney are shown in the following table:
Weight of parcel (kg) Cost ($)
0–0.5 6.60
0.5–1 16.15
1–2 21.35
2–3 26.55
3–4 31.75
4–5 36.95

a. Represent this information in a step graph.

b. Pammie has two parcels to post to Sydney from the
Northern Territory. One parcel weighs 450 g and the other
weighs 525 g. Is it cheaper to send the parcels individually
or together? Justify your answer using calculations.

5.6 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCE 2015, Further Mathematics Exam 1, Section B, Module 3, Q7; © VCAA.
MC The graph below shows the cost, C, of printing n wedding invitations.
C

600

500

400
(200, 350)
300

200

100

n
0
100 200 300 400 500
A function that can be used to model this is

n + 150 0 ≤ n < 200

C={
0.6n + p 200 ≤ n ≤ 500

The value of p is
A. 30
B. 150
C. 230
D. 380
E. 470

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 305

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The graph for the relationship described below is
2x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
y = {x + 2 if 2 ≤ x ≤ 8
10 if 8 ≤ x ≤ 10
A. y B. y

10 10

5 5

0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C. y D. y

10 10

5 5

0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E. y

10

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Question 3 (1 mark)
MC The relationship for this graph is
y
15
10
5

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

15 − 5x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.5
A. y = {
−2.5 + 3x if 2.5 ≤ x ≤ 8
15 − 5x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.5
B. y = {
−2.5 + 2x if 2.5 ≤ x ≤ 8
15 − 5x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
C. y = {
−2.5 + 2x if 3 ≤ x ≤ 8
15 − 5x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
D. y = {
−2.5 + 2x if 2 ≤ x ≤ 8
2x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
E. y = {x + 2 if 2 ≤ x ≤ 8
10 if 8 ≤ x ≤ 10
More exam questions are available online.

306 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 5.7 Review
5.7.1 Summary
doc-37615

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5.7 Exercise
Multiple choice
1. MC The gradient of the line passing through the points (4, 6) and (−2, −6) is:
A. −2
B. −0.5
C. 0
D. 0.5
E. 2
2. MC The x- and y-intercepts of the linear graph with equation 3x − y = 6 are:
A. (2, 6)
B. (0, 2) and (−6, 0)
C. (0, 2) and (6, 0)
D. (2, 0) and (0, −6)
E. (2, 0) and (0, 6)
3. MC The gradient of the graph shown in the following diagram is:
y
4
3
2
1

0 x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4

A. −2
B. −1
1
C. −
2
D. 1
1
E.
2

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 307

4. MC Select the sketch of the graph with equation y = 2 + 4x.
A. y B. y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4

C. y D. y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4

E. y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4

5. MC This step graph shows the parking fees for a multilevel carpark in a major city.
y
6
5
Cost ($)

4
3
2
1

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (hours)
Roberta parked in the carpark and was charged $4.00. If she arrived in the carpark at 9.30 am, the time at
which she most likely drove out was:
A. 10.30 am B. 11.00 pm C. 12.30 pm D. 1.30 pm E. 3.00 pm

308 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
6. MC This piecewise graph shows the cost of renting a ski equipment package over a period of days.
y
200
150

Cost ($)
150
100
50

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (days)
Archibald decides to get the ski equipment package for 3 days. Select which of the following is closest to the
amount he would pay for equipment hire.
A. 145 B. 150 C. 163 D. 187 E. 125

7. MC A piecewise linear graph is constructed from the following linear equations:

y = −5 + 3x, x ≤ a
y = −4 + 4x, a ≤ x ≥ b
y = −5 + 6x, x ≥ b
The values of a and b are respectively:
1 1 1
A. −1 and . B. and −1. C. − and 1.
2 2 2
D. 0 and 1. E. −4 and −5.

The following information relates to questions 8 and 9.

An inflated party balloon has a small hole and is slowly deflating. The initial volume of the balloon is 1000 cm3
and the balloon loses 5 cm3 of air every minute.
8. MC If V represents the volume of the balloon in cm3 and t represents the time in minutes, the equation that
represents the volume of the balloon after t minutes is:
1000 1000 − 5t
A. V = B. V = C. V = 1000 + 5t
5t 60
D. V = 1000 − 5t E. V = 200 − t

9. MC The time needed for the balloon to lose 650 cm3 of air is:
A. 70 minutes. B. 130 minutes. C. 270 minutes. D. 330 minutes. E. 930 minutes.

10. MCThe equation of a straight line passing through the points (−2, 3) and (5, 1) is:
3 2 2 3 3 2
A. y = 2 − x B. y = − + 2 x C. y = 2 + x
7 7 7 7 7 7
3 2 3 2
D. y = −2 + x E. y = 2 + x
7 7 7 7
Short answer
11. Sketch the following graphs by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
a. 2x + y = 5 b. y − 4x = 8 c. 4(x + 3y) = 16 d. 3x + 4y − 10 = 0

12. Determine the gradients of the lines passing through the following pairs of points.
a. (3, −2) and (0, 4) b. (5, 11) and (−2, 18)
( ) ( )
2 1 1 3
c. (0.3, 4.1) and (1.2, 5.3) d. , and − ,
5 4 4 5

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 309

 3
13. A line has a gradient of − . If the line passes through the points (−a, 3) and (−2, 6), determine the
4
value of a.

14. Complete the following table.

Equation Gradient y-intercept x-intercept

a y = −3 + 5x 5
b y = 1 + 3x
c 6x − 3y = 9
d 2y + 4x = 8
e 5 −5
f 2 2

15. The following two linear equations make a piecewise linear graph.

y = 1 − 2x, x ≤ a
y = 2 − 3x, x ≥ a
a. Solve the equations simultaneously, and hence determine the value of a.
b. Sketch the piecewise linear graph.

Extended response
16. The recommended maximum heart rate during exercise is given by the equation

H = 0.85(220 − A)
where H is the person’s heart rate in beats per minute and A is their age in years.
a. Explain why the maximum heart rate is given by a linear equation.
b. Determine the recommended maximum heart rate for a 25-year-old person. Write your answer correct to
the nearest whole number.
c. Determine the gradient and y-intercept of the linear equation.
d. Using your answers from part c, sketch the graph that shows the recommended maximum heart rate for
persons aged 20 to 70 years.
e. Charlie is working out at the recommended maximum heart rate. His measured heart rate is 162 beats per
minute. By solving a linear equation, determine Charlie’s age.
f. In the context of this problem, explain why determining the x-intercept would be meaningless.

17. Jerri and Samantha have both entered a 10-km fun run for charity. The distance travelled by Jerri can be
modelled by the linear equation
d = −0.1 + 6t

where d is the distance in km from the starting point and t is time in hours.
a. Determine the time taken for Jerri to run the 10 kilometres. Give your
answer correct to the nearest minute.
b. In the context of this problem, explain the meaning of the d-intercept
(y-intercept).

310 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 The distance Samantha is from the starting point at any time, t hours, can be modelled by the piecewise
linear graph

1
d = 4t, 0 ≤ t ≤
2
1
d = −2 + 8t, ≤t≤b
2

c. Calculate how far, in kilometres, Samantha travelled in the first 30 minutes.

d. Determine the speed at which Samantha was travelling in the first 30 minutes .
e. Explain how Samantha’s run changed after 30 minutes.
f. i. Determine the value of b.
ii. Hence, show that Samantha crossed the finishing line ahead of Jerri by 11 minutes.
g. By solving a pair of simultaneous equations, determine:
i. the time at which Samantha passed Jerri on the run
ii. the distance from the starting point at which Samantha passed Jerri.
h. Construct two graphs on the same set of axes to represent the distances travelled by Jerri and Samantha in
the 10-km race.
18. Trudy is unaware that there is a small hole in the petrol tank of her car. Petrol is leaking out of the tank at
a constant rate of 5 mL/min. Trudy has parked her car in a long-term carpark at the airport and gone on a
holiday. Initially there are 45 litres of petrol in the tank.
a. In terms of linear graphs, state what the leaking rate and the
initial amount of petrol determine.
b. Determine how many litres of petrol leak out of the tank each
hour. Explain what assumption is being made about the rate
of petrol leaking each hour.
c. Determine how many litres of petrol are lost after
four hours.
d. Determine after how many hours there will be 39.75 litres of
petrol in the tank.
e. An equation is used to represent the amount of petrol left in
the tank, l, after t hours.
i. Explain why the amount of petrol in the tank would be best modelled by a linear equation.
ii. Explain why the linear equation will have a negative gradient.
iii. Write an equation to determine the amount of petrol left in the tank, l, after t hours.
f. Use CAS to aid in sketching the graph of the equation found in part e iii. Clearly label the x- and
y-intercepts.
g. Determine how many hours it will take for the petrol tank to become empty.

5.7 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
MC A carpet steam-cleaning company charges $25 to clean one room and $75 to clean six rooms. Which of the

given equations is a possible linear model for this steam-cleaning charge (C) if r = number of rooms?
A. C = 75 + 25r B. C = 25 + 75r C. C = 15 + 10r
D. C = 10 + r E. C = 10 + 15r

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 311

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The gradient of the line shown is

y
4
3
2
1

0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4

A. undefined.
B. 1
C. −1
D. −4
E. 0
Question 3 (1 mark)
MC A local taxi company uses the following graph to calculate the cost of a taxi trip. Determine the linear
model which represents this scenario. Using this linear model, it can be determined that the cost of a 25-km trip
will be

17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Cost ($)

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Distance travelled (km)

A. $17.00
B. $4.50
C. $25.00
D. $12.50
E. $112.50

312 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
Question 4 (5 marks)
In her new job, Josie is paid $20 per hour up to 35 hours in a week and then $30 per hour for any extra hours she
works in that week.
a. How much will Josie be paid if she works 35 hours a week? (1 mark)
b. How much will Josie be paid if she works 36 hours a week? (1 mark)
c. Write an equation relating Josie’s income in a week, I, and the number of hours she works, n. (1 mark)
d. Draw a graph of I against n. (1 mark)
e. How many hours did Josie work if she got paid $1000? (1 mark)
Question 5 (4 marks)
When his light globes stopped working, Alex changed to halogen globes. His records showed that it cost him
0.7 cents per hour for the 800 hours his original light globes had lasted. Then, the halogen globes cost him
0.5 cents per hour and they lasted 2400 hours.
The relationship showing the total amount he paid per globe, P cents, after h hours from the beginning, is:

0.7h if 0 ≤ h ≤ 800
P={
160 + 0.5h if 800 ≤ h ≤ 3200

a. Plot the graph of P against h. (1 mark)

b. How much did running the original globes cost altogether? (1 mark)
c. How much did running both globes cost altogether? (1 mark)
d. After how many hours had he spent $10 on running the globes? (1 mark)
More exam questions are available online.

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TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 313

Answers 5.3 Sketching linear graphs
5.3 Exercise
Topic 5 Linear functions, graphs 1.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
and models y 6 3 0 −3 −6 −9
5.2 Linear functions and their features
y
5.2 Exercise 8
1. a. Gradient = 2; y-intercept = 1 6 (0, 6)
4 (1, 3)
Gradient = −1; y-intercept = 3
b.
2
1 (2, 0)
c. Gradient = ; y-intercept = 4 0 x
2 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–2 (3, –3)
1 –4
d. Gradient = 1; y-intercept = (4, –6)
4 –6
3 –8 (5, –9)
e. Gradient = − ; y-intercept = 3 –10
2
3 1 –12
2. a. Gradient = ; y-intercept = −
5 5
2.
b. Gradient = 10; y-intercept = −5 x 0 1 2 3 4
1 3 y 6 4 2 0 −2
c. Gradient = − ; y-intercept =
2 2 y
3. a. 1 b. −2 6 (0, 6)

4. a. Gradient = 3; y-intercept = −6 4 (1, 4)

3 6
b. Gradient = − ; y-intercept = −
5 5 2 (2, 2)
5. D
4 2 (3, 0)
6. a. 3 b. c. 0 x
3 7 2 4 6
–2 (4, –2)
7. −1
8. a. y = 7 + 2x b. y = −3 + 4x c. y=2−x
3. a. (1, 7)
d. y = −1 + 3x y
9. a. −3 10
3 9
b. 8
5
7 (1, 7)
12
c. − 6
11 5
17 4
d.
18 3 (0, 3)
8 2
e.
3 1
f. −11
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
4 –1
10. a. y = 4 − x b. y = 9 − 3x –2
3
3
c. y=2+x d. y = −3 − x
5

5.2 Exam questions

Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. E
2. E
3. A

314 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 b. (1, −2) 6. a=1
y y
5 8
4 7 (3, 7)
3 6
2 5 (2, 5)
1 (0, 1) 4
3
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 2
–1
–2 (1, –2) 1 (0, 1)
–3
–4 –2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–5 –2 (–1, –1)
–6
7. a=1
4. a. (4, 5) y
y 12
8 (–1, 11) 11
7 10
6 9 (0, 9)
5 8
4 (4, 5) 7
(0, 4)
3 6
2 5 (2, 5)
1 4
3
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 2
–1
–2 1 (4, 1)
–3
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
b. (5, −4)
y
8. b=2
5
4 9. a. (1, 7)
y
3
8
2
7 (1, 7)
1
6
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 5 (0, 5)
–1 (0, –2) 4
–2
3
–3 (5, –4) 2
–4
1
–5
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
5. a, b. y
10
9 (4, 9) b. (1, −3)
8 y
7 5
6 4
5 (2, 5) 3
4 2
3 1
(0, 0)
2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
1 (0, 1) –1
–2
0 x –3 (1, –3)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–4
–5

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 315

 ( )
1 11. a. (3, 0) and (0, 6)
c. 1, 3
2 y
y 8
5 7
4
3
(0, 3)
(1, 3–21 ) 6
5
(0, 6)

2 4
1 3
2
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1 1 (0, 3)
–2
–3 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–4 –2
–5 –3

10. a. (10, 0) and (0, 4)

b. (−3, 0) and (0, 9)
y
5 y
4 (0, 4) 10
3 9 (0, 9)
2 8
1 7
(10, 0)
6
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 5
–1
–2 4
–3 3
–4 2
–5 (–3, 0) 1

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
b. (−2, 0) and (0, 4) –1
–2
y
8 ( )
4
7 c. − ,0 and (0, 2)
6 3
5 y
4 (0, 4) 8
3 7
2 6
1 5
(–2, 0)
4
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 3
–1
–2 2 (0, 2)
4
–3 (– –
3 , 0) 1

( ) ( ) –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
5 5 –1
c. − ,0 and 0, –2
3 4
–3
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
5, 0) 1 (0, 1.25)
(– –
3
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3

316 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 ( ) ( )
4 4 c.
d. − ,0 and 0, A
5 3 500
y A = 5 + 20t
450

Water in pool (litres)

8 400
7 350
6 300
5 250
4 200
3 150
2 100
4 4
(– – , 0) 1 (0, –
3) 50
5
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 0 t
–1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
–2 Time (minutes)
–3
d. 25 minutes
4. a. A = 100 + 40t
12. a. The y-intercept is the number separate from x (the
−y-intercept b. How much air was initially in the ball
constant), and the x-intercept is equal to . c. 4900 cm
3
gradient
This method only works when the equation is in the form d. 41 minutes 38 seconds
y = a + bx. 5. a. 12
−a b. y-intercept = −0.5. This means that the runner starts
b. y-intercept = a, x-intercept =
b 0.5 km before the starting point of the race.
c. y = 4 + 5x c. 5.5 km
d. 1 hour, 48 minutes
5.3 Exam questions 4
6. a.
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 3
solutions online. b. The increase in the height of the water each minute
1. D
2
2. D c. 0.67 or
1 3
3. a. gradient = or 0.5 d. No, the y-intercept calculated in part c is not 0, so there
2
y-intercept = 4 was water in the tank to start with.
7. a. a = 120, b = 40
b. x-intercept = −8
y b. The amount of money in the family’s account at the start
c.
4 of the year
c. 72 weeks
2 8. a. P = 19.2t, 10 ≤ t ≤ 20
b. R = 100 − 4e, 0 ≤ e ≤ 15

–8 –6 –4 –2
0
2
x 9. a. P = 15t
b. The additional amount of petrol in the tank each minute
c. 5 minutes
5.4 Linear modelling
d. P = 15 + 15t
5.4 Exercise e. 0≤t≤5
1. C = 90 + 65t 10. a. 37 km
2. A = 125 000 − 250t b. The distance to Gert’s home is reducing as time passes.
3. a. Both variables in the equation have a power of 1. c. 1 hour, 41 minutes
b. y-intercept = 5. This represents the amount of water d. 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.682
initially in the pool.

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 317

 e. d 5.5 Linear equations and predictions
60
55 5.5 Exercise
50 1. a. y = −3 + 2x b. y=4+x
45 c. y = 1 − 3x d. y = −1 − 2x
Distance from

40
home (km)

2. a. y=4+x b. y = −6 + 3x
35
1
30 c. y = 2 − 2x d. y = −4 + x
25 2
20 11 1
3. a. y= + x b. y=7
15 2 2
10 c. y = 4 + 2x d. y = 18 − 4x
5 4. C
0 t 5. a. The increase in price of 4 cents for every additional
25
5
75
1
25
5
75
2
25
5
75
3
person the venue holds
0.

1.

2.
0.

0.

1.

1.

2.

2. Time (hours) b. The price of a ticket if a venue has no capacity

11. a. a = 800, b = 0.015 c. No, as the smallest venues would still have some capacity
b. No, there is no limit to how much the real estate agent 6. y = 0.5 + 0.5x
can earn in a month. 7. V = 50 000 + 500t
c. $7580 8. a. C = 110 + 15n
d. $652 140 b. It would cost $290 for Tommy to invite 12 friends.
12. a. C = 3.5t, 100 ≤ t ≤ 1000 9. a. H = 0.25 + 1.25t
b. The domain represents the number of T-shirts Monique b. The tree was 25 cm tall when it was first planted.
can buy. c. The tree is predicted to be 6.5 m tall at the start of the
c. There is an upper limit as the deal is valid only up to fifth year.
1000 T-shirts. 10. a. C = 9.5 + 0.5x
13. a. C = 15 + 0.13t b. The cab had travelled 381 km before Snoozy woke up.
b. The gradient represents the call cost per minute and the
y-intercept represents the flat fee.
c. 5.5 Exam questions
Time Cost ($)
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
5 15.65 solutions online.
10 16.30 1. C
15 16.95 2. B

20 17.60 3. C

25 18.25
5.6 Piecewise linear graphs and their
30 18.90 application
35 19.55
5.6 Exercise
40 20.20
1. y
45 20.85 3
50 21.50
2
55 22.15
60 22.80 1

5.4 Exam questions –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked –1
solutions online.
1. D –2

2. C
2. y = 1, 1 ≤ x ≤ 1; y = 2.5, 1 < x < 2; y = 3, 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
3. D

318 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
3. a. Point of intersection = (−1, 0) , a = −1 6. a. y
120
b. y
9 110
8 100
7 90
6 80

Cost ($)
5 70
4 60
3 50
2 40
1 30
20
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 10
–1
0 x
4. a. y 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
10 Time (min)
8
6 $ 60
b.
4 7. a. $ 65
2 b. 10 kg
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x c. Place 2 to 3 kg from the 32-kg bag into the 25-kg bag and
–2
–4 pay $ 80 rather than $105.
–6 8. a. a = 0.75, b = 150
–8
b. C ($)
–10
220
(1, −1) and (4, 8) 200
b.
180
c. a = 1 and b = 4
160
d. y 140
14
120
12
100
10
8 80
6 60
4 40
2 20

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 40 80 120 160 200 k (km)

–2
–4
–6 c. 50 cents/km
d. k = 150, c = 162.50. This means that the point of
5. a. 125 L intersection (150, 162.5) is the point where the charges
b. i. 30 L/h ii. 10 h change. At this point both equations will have the same
c. w value, so the graph will be continuous.
450 e. C ($)
400 240
350 220
300 200
250 180
200 160
150 140
100 120
50 100
80
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 60
40
20

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 k (km)

9. y = x, 0 ≤ x < 3
y = 4.5 + 0.5x, 3 ≤ x < 9
10. a. 90 km/h b. 270 km/h
c. 270 km/h d. 180 km/h

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 319

11. At t = 1, v = 2.5 m/s 19. a. y
At t = 2, v = 5 m/s 40
At t = 5, v = 10 m/s
35
At t = 7, v = 5 m/s
12. The growth of the plant will slow down at the 5-month 30
mark.
13. a. T = 18 + 18.2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 25

Cost ($)
b. i. a = 10, b = 30 20
ii. a is the time the oven first reaches 200 °C and b is the
time at which the bread stops being cooked. 15
−14
c. m = , d = 30, e = 60 10
3
d. The change in temperature for each minute in the oven 5
e. T
200 0 x
1 2 3 4 5
180
Weight (kg)
Temperature (°C)

160
140 b. It is cheaper to post them together ($16.15 together
120 versus $22.75 individually).
100
80 5.6 Exam questions
60 Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
(60, 60)
40 solutions online.
20 1. C
0 t 2. D
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (min) 3. B
14. a. a=4
b. b − 50(4) = 1400 5.7 Review
b = 1600
5.7 Exercise
c. 10 ≤ t ≤ 12
Multiple choice
d. $500
1. E
15. a. (0.75, 15) and (1.25, 22.5)
2. D
The yacht is returning to the yacht club during this time
b.
3. C
period.
4. A
c. 22.5 km
5. D
d. 3 hours, 8 minutes; b = 3.13
6. C
16. a. 540 L b. 12 L/min c. 93 min
7. A
17. a. $0 b. $4142
8. D
c. $17 117 d. $11 592
9. B
18. y
30 10. A
Short answer
25
11. a. x-intercept: (2.5, 0)
Hire cost ($)

20 y-intercept: (0, 5)
y
15 6
10 5

5 4

3
0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 2
Time (min)
1

0 x
1 2 3 4
–1

320 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition
 b. x-intercept: (−2, 0) 14.
Equation Gradient y-intercept x-intercept
y-intercept: (0, 8)
y a y = −3 + 5x 5 −3 0.6
9
1
b y = 1 + 3x 3 1 −
8 3
7 c 6x − 3y = 9 2 −3 1.5
6
d 2y + 4x = 8 −2 4 2
5

4 e y=5+x 1 5 −5
3
f y = −4 + 2x 2 −4 2
2

1 15. a. 1
b. y
0 x 5
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2
–1 4
3
x-intercept: (4, 2
c. ( 0) )
4 1
y-intercept: 0,
3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
x
y –1
–2
3 –3
2 –4
–5
1 –6
–7
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1 Extended response
–2 16. a. The power of both variables in the equation (H and A)
is 1.
–3
b. 166
( ) c. Gradient = −0.85; y-intercept = 187
10
d. x-intercept: , 0 d.
3 H
y-intercept: (0, 2.5) 175
170 (20, 170)
y
165
4
160
155
Heart rate

3
150
2 145
140
1 135
130
0 x 125 (70, 127.5)
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 120
–2 0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 A
Age (in years)
12. a. −2 b. −1 e. 29
4 7 f. At the x-intercept, heart rate = 0; therefore, the person
c. d. −
3 13 would no longer be alive.
13. −2

TOPIC 5 Linear functions, graphs and models 321

17. a. 1 hour, 41 minutes 3. A
b. Jerri started 0.1 km (100 metres) behind the starting line. 4. a. $700
c. 2 km b. $730
d. The gradient of the equation equals the speed; therefore, c. I = 20n, 0 ≤ n < 35
Samantha was travelling at 4 km/h. I = −350 + 30n, n > 35
e. After 30 minutes, Samantha increased her speed from d. I
4 km/h to 8 km/h. 1400
f. i. 1.5 1200

Income ($)
1000
ii. Samantha took 1 hour, 30 minutes to run 10 km; Jerri
800
took 1 hour, 41 minutes. (35, 700)
600
Difference: 41 − 30 minutes = 11 minutes
400
g. i. 0.95 hours (57 minutes) 200
ii. 5.6 km
0 n
h. 10 20 30 40 50 60
d
10 Number of hours working (hours)
9 e. She worked 45 hours.
Distance (kilometres)

8
5. a. p
7
2000
6 (3200, 1760)
(0.95, 5.6)
5
1500

Price (cents)
4
3
1000
2
1
500 (800, 560)
0 t
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
0
Time (hours) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 h
18. a. Leaking rate = gradient; initial petrol = y-intercept Time (hours)
b. 0.3 L/h. It is assumed that the petrol is leaking at a b. $5.60
constant rate. c. $17.60
c. 1.2 L d. 1680 hours
d. 17.5 hours
e. i. Petrol is leaking at a constant rate (the gradient).
ii. Petrol is leaking from the tank; therefore, the amount
of petrol is decreasing.
iii. l = 45 − 0.3t
f. See the graph at the foot of the page.*
g. 150 hours

5.7 Exam questions

Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. C
2. E

*18. f. l
60
Amount of petrol

50
(litres)

40
30
20
10

0 t
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (hours)

322 Jacaranda Maths Quest 11 General Mathematics VCE Units 1 & 2 Third Edition