Course Code: CSC 422

Course Title: Database Designs

Course Unit: 3
Course Duration: 2

COURSE DETAILS
Course Writer/Developer: Dr. A.T. Akinwale
&
Miss A. J. Ikuomola
Department of Computer Science
College of Natural Science
University of AgricultureAbeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria

Emails: [email protected] &

[email protected]
Office Location: AMREC Building

COURSE CONTENT

Database Design, Database Approach, Database Models, Advanced Database Model,

Normalization, Algorithm deriving Candidate keys from FDS, Multivalued Dependencies,
Relational Algebra, SQL, PL/SQL

COURSE REQUIREMENTS

This is a compulsory course for all students in the Department of Computer Science. In
view of this, students are expected to participate in all the activities and have a
minimum of 75% attendance to be able to write the final examination.

READING LIST
Abiteboul S., Hull R and Viarin V. (1995). Foundation of Databases, Addison-Wesley .
Anderson R.G. (1990). Data Processing, Principle and Practise, Pitman Publishing,
Longman Group , 7th Edition , UK
Anthony H. (1996). Uncertainty in Information Systems, The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Cormen T., Leisserson C. and Rivest R. (1990). Introduction to Algorithms, MIT Press
Date, C. J. (2003). An Introduction to Database Systems. 8th edition, Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-321-19784-4

1
Date, C. J., Darwen, H. (2000). Foundation for Future Database Systems: The Third
Manifesto, 2nd edition, Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 0-201-70928-7.
Elmesri R. and Narather S.P. (1994). Fundamental of Database Systems

Garae-Morlina H., Ullman J.D. and Widom J.O. (2008). Database Systems, The complete
Book, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA

2
 UNIT ONE

DATABASE DESIGN
Designing a database is an art process similar to building a house. There are many techniques
professionals via design databases. Beforeproceeding forward on database, there is a need to
know the basic concepts of database.

WHAT IS DATABASE?

A database is a representation of facts, concepts or instruction in a formalized manner suitable

for communication, interpretation or processing by human or automatic means.

A database can be defined as central pool of data which is shared by various user of an
organization.

A database system can be defined as a representation of an information system in a computer. A

database system consists of the data structure, the suite of programs and the base used to put an
information system on a computer.

Database management: comprises prises of software, hardware and organizational techniques to

manage a database.

Data processing: is the execution of systematic sequence of operations performed upon data.

By Daniel Martin- He defines database as a collection of data that obeys three criteria:

· Exhaustively
· Non _redundancy
· Appropriate structure

v Exhaustively means that all the data about the subject are actually present in the database.
v Non_redundancy means that each individual piece of data exit only once in the database.
v Appropriate structure means that the data are stored in such a way as to minimized the cost of
the expected processing and storage.

Some author says that database is with an “open” structure such database that is open database
allow for easy change of field dimension (e.g. increasing a given field size from six to seven
digits)

v For easy addition of new fields

v For easy change in data linkage (for example, link a customer record to all transactions
performed on his account: invoices, payments e.t.c)

3
The problem with open database is that, it is very costly in terms of processing time, memory
space and disk storage.

Customer file payment_due_file

Name vendor number

Address vendor name

Credit balance vendor address

Cash payment invoice amount

Amount due date payment due

Current amount

Name Address Credit Cash Amount Current

Balance Payment Due Amount

Vendor no Vendorname Vend Invoice Date

or address amount payment
due

Exhaustively implies the presence within the database of all information pertaining to a given
customer or to a payment. Non_redundancyexclude the possibility that certain pieces of data
exist more than once within a database. For example, if the payment _due_ file of the database
contains the name and the address of each debtor. And this information is already stored in
“customer file”,it is therefore redundant.

Pointer:is an arrow to link one record to another in another file.

A database represent a system to be computerized .Whenever this system is referred to in

computerized form, it is called a database system. The concept of a database is to solve problem
of redundancy. This is so because data is stored only once, hence there is no waste of storage.
When data get updated, there is no question of it being in an in consistence state.

Another concept of a database is that it is in position of being stored by many users. For this to
happen, there is separation of data organization and access technique from application programs,
The user have a view of a database in conformity with the way they want to see them.

4
It follows therefore that the concept of a database is potentially capable of solving both
redundancy and the loss of flexibility problems executed in conventional programming.

The organ that can perform these task is software package and is called Database Management
System (DBMS).DBMS is a software that solves the problem of conventional programming.
Convention is the usual way of doing things.

THE CONCEPTUAL DATA BASE

Assuming that there is a change in colour of a car from red to black. This change must be
captured in the conceptual data base in a faithful manner. This means the colour of the car should
be correctly updated to reflect the current colour.The following operation in computer allow us
to make change in the conceptual data base.

· Insert information
· Delete information
· Update or modify information
· Retrieve information

Let us suppose that at a certain stage in the life of the university, the need for computerization is
felt. This is because it is found very difficult to keep track of the student in the university vis-à-
vis the department to which they are affiliated. Consequently, a student record is defined
containing the field of interest. Let these be the name of the student, the department to which he
is affiliated, hisage, the last qualifying exam ination passed by him, and specialization for which
he is enrolled in the department.

The Student Record

NAME DEPT AGE LAST EXAM SPECIALIZATION

After the record has been defined, a programming language like COBOL, PL/1 OR PASCAL
which support which supports the notion of a record selected and to program the two stages
outlined above selected and used to program the two stages outlined above. Later, the university
decides to computerize information regarding faculty numbers and theiraffiliation todepartments.
A new record is defined to capture this information and may look as in this figure II.

Faculty Member Record

5
 NAME DEPT AGE QUALIFICATION RESEARCH INTEREST

The university also tries to computerize the course offered by the various department and the
courses taught by the various faculty members respectively. These records are as follow:

The course_ offered record lll

COURSE_NO DEPT PRE_REQUSITES

The course_taught record lV

COURSE_NO MEMBER OF FACULTY ROOM NO IN WHICH LECTURES ARE

MEMBER HELD

The field course_no appears in the course_offered and course _taught records. This means that
all records which contain this field carry information about the course number; clearly, this
implies that there is a certain amount of information which in term results in a certain amount of
waste of storage.

Data base represent a new approach to storing data. In the data base of any firm, the problem in
company A may be different from the problem in company B; hence the implementation
procedure of their data base may vary with each factor. The data base is introduced a new way of
storing and accessing processed data. The data base represents consolidation of files. once files
are consolidated, it reduce input and output devices, the rate of update process, the rate of file
design, it eliminate the copies of backups and it gives cleaner operating environment.

OBJECTIVES OF DATA BASE

· Data base allow consolidating data entries among files.

· Data base manages shared files

e.g.Mar Daniel has his saving account and checking account at the lst Bank. Assuming, he
acquired a car loan from lstBank when he purchased his car. This means Mr. Daniel’s name and
other personal data appear in files belonging to saving account, checking account and loan

6
account any time, Mr Daniel makes deposit, it is certain that his name will appear in several
accounts.

Saving acc
This means Data base
file helps to share files.
Mr Daniel

Data base
Checking
acc file

Loan acc file

- Database allows fewer programs and simpler execution procedures

- Database occupies all the consequences of an incoming transaction at one time.
- Database reduces the rate of data redundancy.
- Database provides the integrity of data.

Operating System

SOFTWARE

Database System
Application

Database system is designed to handle data store in a database. This system is to update and
retrieve information stored in the database when request are issued. During database operation,
the operating system would load database system and application program. The application
program can execute any instruction until it wants data from database. At this point, the database
gains control and handle the database request s. The database system resides in storage with the
application program when there is a need to use a database.
7
Knowledge Know-how on Database system

DBS – Contains a series of system program

DBS – Manages its database

DBS – Interfaces with application program & operating system

Data Base Management – A database is a collection of carefully integrated files. The data in
these files must be managed. There is a special software packages available to manage a
database. This software packages is known as Data Base Management System.

A database management system is the software that manages the database and provides facilities
for storing, accessing, and maintaining the data. DBMS is developed by computer manufacturers
or software house. These software packages tend to be referred to by several names, among them
“data base system”, “data management system”, “DBMS”. The software is in effect an extension
to the operating system. It acts as an interface between the programs which need to access data in
the database and the database itself, allowing the data to be retrieved or updated.

HISTORY OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DBMS – have been in use for almost two decades. It was only about a decade ago that this field
has come to be recognized as a major discipline in computer science. It has been only recently
that DBMS have been studied systematically both from the user and the system points – of –
view. The beginning of DBMS development was marked by Database Task Group (DBTG)
which published a report in 1971, called CODA 71.

The report stated that

- Proposal for the development of Network model

Another group from IBM Research Laboratories at San Jose under the supervision of E.F
Codd published a report in 1970, called CODD 70.

The report stated that

- A proposal for the development of relational model for few years, a great debate raged
between the proponents of Database Task Group Report and CODD 70 report. Each side claimed
that their views were the better ones. During this period, the entire area of DBMS was in a state
of abject turmoil (miserable disorder). There were arguments and counter-arguments. What
CODA 71 claimed as advantages, the CODD 70 group claimed as disadvantages. The basic

8
tenets of each proposal were questioned, examined and re-examined over and over again.
Finally, one major fact stood out , that was,
- Network model was shown to be reasonably efficiently implementable because it could
handle large size of data base for over billion of bytes.
- Relational model could only support relatively small database.

The proposal of CODA 71 of Network model was the basis of the design and implementation of
Data Base Management System. All the experts began to arrive at a consensus. The great
database has served the purpose. A new discipline of computer science is born.

In 1976, a study group called ANSI 76 had a new concept on DBMS. This concept opened up a
new area of DBMS. It emphasized the role of a DBMS as a tool for representing in computer, a
model of real world. This ANSI 76 report considered DBMS as software to manage a large pool
of data, called data base. The earlier researcher working towards the view of DBMS before
ANSI 76 group put final approval.

- The future shape of DBMS had been decided.

- The structure of DBMS had been put up.

It is now remained for us to realize this structure not only in a neat and clean form but in
reasonably efficient manner.

The ANSI study group recognizes three functions that are necessary in order to support database
system:

- The enterprise manager function performed by the enterprise manager

- The database administrator function performed by database administrator.
- The application administrator function performed by application administrator.

That is,

The enterprise manager is responsible to ensure that a proper and adequate system analysis is
done which meet the need of the enterprise. The database administrator exercises control over
the data structure and the storage methods. He is concerned with overall efficiency of the
implementation.

The application administrator is responsible to split up the centralized pool of data among
various users in such a way that each user;

- Has access to all databases he or she needs.

- Has illusion that the logical structure of the data available to him or her is conformity with
the demand.

ANSI=American National Standard Committee on Computers and Information Processes

9
 SPARC=Standard Planning and Requirement Committee.

TYPES OF DATA BASE

There are four types of database:

- Bibliographic database
- Knowledge data base
- Graphics _ oriented data base
- Decision _making data base

- Bibliographic database: BDB have data which is free of a format. They display little or no
format. Such database are often used library information system .Data could be composed of
abstract of books. It could also compose of keywords and key phrases. It is possible using
these keywords and key phrases to select documents. Ifdesired, the source of the document
could before original document.

- Knowledge database: KDB are used in artificial intelligent applications. The data in these
KDB is discrete and formatted .in these KDB, there are many kinds of data with only a very
few occurrence of each kinds. Clearly, such data bases have the peculiarity that the size of the
data is almost as large as the definition of the data.

- Graphics database: GDB could possibly be used in computer_aided_design. The data in

GDB is characterized as being active. This means the data is capable of being executed. For
examples, we could have store a ‘’triangle’’ in the data base. Upon our retrieving the triangle,
the computer system could invoke a procedure to draw a triangle or a graphic screen. In
these scene, the data namely triangle is an active piece of data. Whereas in bibliography and
knowledge data base, data cannot be executed in a computer.

- Decision-making database: DMDB are used in corporate management and allied

administrative tasks. Using DMDB, it is possible to handle the problems like resource
planning, sales forecasting, profitability of business e.t.c. depending upon the kind of data
bases handled. Data base management system can be classified as example, bibliography data
base management system, knowledge data base management system, graphics_oriented data
base management system and decision-making data base management system.

HIERARCHY OF DATA

10
 Character Fact Record File Database

Character, fact, record, file and data base form a hierarchy of data.

The basic building block is a character. The character consist of upper and lower-case, numeric
digits or symbol. Upper or lower-case of letters are A,a B ,b,.........Z,z . Numeric digits are
0,1,2,3......9.Symbols involves commas, question mark, plus division e.t.c. upper and lower-case
letter are called alphabetic character. Numeric digit are called numeric symbol are character.
Symbols are called special character. A combination of the three is referred to as alphanumeric
characters (# 2B,À2.50K). A computer can accept both alphanumeric and number and store them
in memory. Character are put together to form a fact. A fact is also called a field. A fact or field
is a number, an item, a word, a name or a combination of characters.

TYPES OF FIELD IN DATA BASE

- Character /text
- Numeric
- Data
- Logical
- Memo

A field is an individual item of data within a record. Facts are put together to form a record. A
record is a related item of data in a file. An employee record in a company would be a collection
of facts about one employee. These facts would include the employee’s name, address,
department, phone, position, pay rate, earning made to date, and e.t.c

Record are combined together to make a file. A collection of related records is a file e.g.A
collection of all employee records for one company would be an employee file. What is an
inventory file? It is a collection of all inventory records for a particular company.

TWO TYPES OF FILE

- Permanent file or master file

- Transaction file or detail file

The file described as employee file is an example of permanent file. The data stored in a
permanent file or master file should be accurate and current. A permanent file of all the
customers who own money to a company is an account receivable master file. An account
payable master file containing all suppliers to which the organization owes money.

11
A transaction file is a temporary file which represents the transactions of the organization. The
data stored in transaction file can be re –adjusted.

File are combined together to make a database. The heart of most organization is data. A data
base is the collection of integrated and related master files. An organization uses data as raw
materials to be stored in database. Once the data have been processed, they are called
information.

TYPES OF DATA

- Numeric data
- Alphanumeric data

Numeric data is expressed in number e.g. age= 35, date of birth is 1970.
Numeric data contains only numeric character or numbers
Alphanumeric data is composed of combination of letters numbers, or special punctuation
characters such as: name –Abeokuta
Address-17, Ibadan road

Date -26th October, 1998

DATA STRUCTURE OR STRUCTURE OF DATA.

Structure of data is the composition of records into files generating information.

Let us take an example of long-distance telephone data. When you make a long distance
telephone call, the following item of data is recorded:

- Telephone number of the person to whom the call is to be billed

- Telephone number of the person receiving the call
- Duration of the call in minutes
- Time that call is placed
- Type of call e.g. person-to person or station –to station

These data need processing for generating bill information.

12
STRUCTURE OF THE DATA

DESCRIPTION –LONG-DISTANCE TELEPHONE CALL DATA

FIELD NAMES TYPE OF DATA NUMBER OF CHARACTER

Phone no to be billed Numeric 10

Phone no of call receiver Numeric 10

Duration of call Numeric 4

Time call is placed Numeric 4

Type of call Alphanumeric 1

TOTAL CHARACTER 29

In data base system, the structure will be like this:

Phone no to be billed 10 character

Phone no of calls received 10 character

Duration of call 4 character

Time call is placed 4 character

Type of call 1 character

#

Let assume that we have 5000 call for the month.

The problem will look as this:
Record Phone to be Phone no of Duration of Time call is Type of call
billed calls received call places
1 221 132 2 min 2 p.m P

2 - - - - -

.
.

5000 - - - - -

13
Each record has five fields of 29 characters. With 5000 record the file requires 5000*29
characters on external storage device. To process these long –distance telephone call date in a
bill, the record have to be identified through key record.

The record for this case is the telephone number of the person to whom the call is to be billed.

STRUCTURE OF CUSTOMER RECORD DATA

Field name Types of data No of character

Telephone no Numeric 10
Name Alphanumeric 20
Address ‘’ 20
City ‘’ 20
Balance Numeric 8
date Date 8

Total 66

Telephone 10

Name 20

Address 20

City 20

Balance 8

Date 8

Record Telephone Name Address City Balance Date

no
1 122 Ade Iford Lagos 22.00 2/10/98
2 -

Each record is 66 characters. With 200 customers, we need to keep 66X200 character of date.

14
 UNIT TWO

DATABASE APPROACH
The database is closely associated with Data Base Management System (DBMS) software. A
database management system (DBMS) is a series of computer programs used to create, store,
maintain and access a database. The features offered by a particular DBMS depend on its type
and level of sophistication. For example dBASE is a sophisticated DBMS for microcomputers.

CPU
ALU CU
MAIN MEMORY
DATA DBMS
BASE

Relationship of DBMS, database and application programs

As this figure indicates, an application program written in a high level language accesses the
database through the DBMS software. In other words, DBMS software serves as the gate keeper
for the database.

VC FILE
STUDENT FILE
DEAN FILE
STAFF FILE

MANUAL DATABASE

Here we have file management system on flat file environment

A flat file is a file or series of files that contain records and fields. These fields are called flat
because they have no repeating groups.

15
Advantage of Database

· Data and application programs are independent, so the same data can be used by several
application programs.
· More information can be generated from the same amount of data. In other words, a given set
of data can be manipulated in many ways.
· One-of-a kind requests can be fulfilled easily
· Data duplication is minimal. This is true because one occurrence of each data item is
maintained
· Data management is enhanced and improved. This is possible because there is only one set of
date for all users.
· More sophisticated security measures can be implemented.
· Data is readily shared between applications – this is eliminating duplication and the problems
of maintaining consistency between duplicate values.
· New requests or one-of-a kind requests can be more easily implemented, because the logical
interface with the DBMS is simpler than a set of physical interfaces.
· The applications programs are independent of the stored data. If the storage format changes,
there is no need to alter the applications programs since they communicate with the DBMS in
logical rather than physical terms.
· It can be argued that a single database management system for an integrated database allows
for better management of data, since it is effectively in one place under the control of one set
of people, namely those who implement the database.
· Finally, the integration or sharing of data between applications puts sophisticated
programming within reach of all users of the database.

Disadvantage of Database

· Both DBMS software and extra hardware which might be needed to support the system can
be expensive
· A DBMS is much more complex than a file processing system
· Organization puts all their data in a single basket – if anything happens to the basket that is
the end of the data in the database.

16
FILE PROCESSING APPROACH

MUSICIAN PAYROLL SALARY

DATA
SYSTEM CHEQUE
FILE

PERFORMANCE REHEARSAL REHEARSAL

DATA FILE
SCHEDULE TIMETABLE

MUSIC CATALOGUE CATALOGUE

DATA SYSTEM
FILE

We have there files

Ehas three application programs

Paying the musicians

Scheduling rehearsals

Cataloguing music

Sharing data between applications

It is possible to share data among the applications

· If the numbers of files increase and applications are generated which use data from one, two
or three files the number of interfaces increases rapidly, such situation might be termed as
interface explosion
· It should be apparent that allowing different application to share data in a traditional file
processing environment can cause considerable problems simply because of the number of
interfaces required

17
In file processing approach,

Musician data file

Performance data file are three separate physical files

Music data file

File Data

Many interfaces single interface

Share data is not possible share data is possible

Physical structure logical structure

DATABASE APPROACH

PAYROLL
SALARY
SYSTEM

MUSICIAN
DATABASE
DATA MANAGE REHEARSAL REHEARSAL
SCHEDULE TIMETABLE
PERFORMANCE MENT
DATA
SYSTEM
MUSIC CATALOGUE CATALOGUE
DATA SYSTEM

· One of the fundamental feature of the database approach is that it allows data to be shared
between different applications
· In database approach, all the data are integrated into one physical file or a set of related files

18
· The sets of data are separated only logically within the database
· All access to the data is performed through a database management system (DBMS) a piece
of software which understands and manipulates the logical data structures in the file.
· Since all the application programs interface only with the DBMS, they (application
programs) require only a single interface to data in database.
· Interface of application programs to data in database can be at a logical rather than a physical
level.
· It is not necessary for any application programs to know how a particular data item is stored
as long as the DBMS can provide the data in the form required by the application. For
example the data item is an integer, it matters nothing to the application if the value is
actively stored in binary or character format as long as it is supplied to the application in the
format it requires.
· The property of needing to know nothing about the physical storage of the data is termed as
data independence.

Data Independence

According to ANSI/SPARC, American National Standards Committee on Computer and

Information ProcessingStandard Planning and Requirements Committee

Every item of data which is used by any application must be present in database

The information which is stored should not change if some files are re-formatted.

A logical description of the data is in the database

University of Agriculture Student Record – Name Matric Number GPA

Faculty Record

Staff Record

Server Graphics files

Database file

Spreadsheet

Word Processing Documents

19
Server Types

File Servers File Transfer

Print Servers File Storage and data migration

Application Servers File update synchronization

Message Servers File archiving

Database Servers

File Transfer users can transfer files between clients and servers

Users can transfer files between multiple servers

File Security Password

Encryption

File Storage and Data Migration – online storage – consists of hard drive storage

Offline storage – removable hard disk

Nearline storage – tape is mouth to P/C

The process of moving data from ne line to offline or near-line storage is called data migration

File update ensuring that each user of a file has the latest version

File archiving the process of backing up files on offline storage devices such as tapes

DATA

· The analyst develops an input/output flow and designs data format

· The programmer/analyst writes a program to create a file. The same program is expanded or
a separate program is written to allow the file to be maintained.
· The programmer/analyst writes a program to print the report originally requested.
· The data are collected and formatted while the programs are tested
· The file is created and stored on tape or disk
· The production of the report is accomplished.

20
With a DBMS – the procedure becomes

· The analyst develops an input/output flow and design data format

· The data are collected and formatted
· The file is created and the report generated using the DBMS

Data collection

· Source document – originate in form of clerically prepared documents – transferring data

from secondary storage.
· Inputting data from machine readable source documents
· Direct entry (on-line) input via a keyboard
· Creating machine – readable media (off-line) for subsequent inputting to the computer

The process of capturing raw data for use within a DBMS involves getting the original data to
the processing centre, transcribing it, converting it from the one medium to another and finally
getting it into the computer.

· Getting the original data to the processing centre

· Transcribing it – data preparation
· Converting it from one medium to another
· Getting it into the computer.

Problems

· Source documents – a great deal of data still originate in the form of a clerically prepared
document
· Data transmission
· Data preparation – this is the term given to the transcription of data from the source
document to a machine – sensible medium
· Media conversion – data is prepared in a particular medium and converted to another
medium for faster input to the computer.

Capturing Raw Data

Database Server provide security

Database optimization

Data distribution

· Knowing the real data to be put into database

· Organization of raw data in file structure

21
· Physical loading of raw data. Once the raw data is loaded, it must be maintained and kept up-
to-date
· Duplicating raw data

The demand for data in database to be accurate is growing ever stronger

Classification of raw data into specific object type object types are described by listing their
characteristics:

· Specify the domain of values for the smallest units of logical data e.g. integer or real
· Specify the units of measurement for logical data e.g. dollars, pound or feet
· Specify keys for certain logical units of data e.g. record types or relations
· Specify integrity constraints on the data e.g. an allowable range of values
· Specify access rules for the data e.g. allow update only if a correct password is supplied

ORGANIZATION OF DATA

The physical organization of the data in a database is described by physical storage structures
such as volumes, files or bytes. Physical storage structures are defined by means of a storage
definition language.

The storage definition language provides the ability to

· Select the storage medium and perhaps a specific device

· Describe a mapping from logical data to a physical representation e.g. record types map to
files
· Specify indices for certain logical units of data e.g. data items or attributes
· Specify a physical ordering for the data
· Specify type conversion for data e.g. binary to decimal
· Specify the form of placement of a data selection e.g. buffers

Data security data editing

Data validation

Data protection or integrity

Data security

Logical data

DBMS

22
PHYSICAL DATA

The DBMS serves as the interface between the logical and physical data. Logical data entities
employed by DBA and the user (the Requestor) are:

- Data items
- Logical records
- And files

Note that a logical file may contain records of more than one type. The physical data units are
called

- Data element
- Store records
- Physical records
- And database

A physical record is defined as the data unit input from the hardware on a single access

23
 UNIT THREE

DATABASE MODELS
TYPES OF DATA MODELS (CALLED DATA STRUCTURES)
Computer based Information System (CBIS):
Design and implementation is done by Database Administrators (DBAs). The scope of
responsibilities of DBA depends on the complexity of the database. In small organizations, one
person may carry the entire responsibility of database design.

Responsibility of a Database Administrator (DBA)

1. Designing and implementing a database.
2. Establishing security measures.
3. Establishing recovery procedures.
4. Documenting the database.
5. Establishing database performance evaluations.
6. Adding new database functions.
7. Fine-tuning existing database functions.

Generating a database increases cost and creates more complexity in a CBIS operation.
Implementation of an effective CBIS requires an online and comprehensive database regardless
of its cost and complexity.
CBIS is designed to provide timely and relevant information by performing data analysis,
modeling analysis or both.
Data analysis includes various query operations on a database.

Modeling analysis applies some types of model to the data available in the database and provides
additional information that is not directly available within the data.

Types of file organization

1. Sequential: All records are stored and accessed one after the other. This method is similar
to a cassette tape and is slow. If you want to access the seventh song on the tape, you
must either listen to the first six songs or fast forward through them.
2. Random: Random organization enables you to access a record directly regardless of its
storage location.
3. Indexed Sequential: In this organization, you can access a file either sequentially or
randomly.

24
DATA MODEL
THE FLAT FILE MODEL:
This is a file or a series of files that contains records and fields. These files are called flat because
there are no relationships between them. They have no repeating groups. The model does not
allow sophisticated database operations.
Example:

NAME MAJOR AGE GPA

May MIS 25 3.00
Sue CS 21 3.60
Debra MGT 26 3.50
Bob MKT 22 3.40
George MIS 28 3.70

Basic data management operations such as: file creation, file deletion, file update, file single
data, query can be performed using this model.
This model is limited in its capacity to support complex CBIS requirements.

THE RELATIONAL MODEL:

It is a popular model. It uses a mathematical construct called a relation (table). This table is a
table of rows and columns of data.
Rows are records (tuples) and Columns are fields (attributes). Different relations can be linked
on the basis of a common field (key).
Example:
Table 3.4

CUSTOMER NUMBER NAME ADDRESS

2000 Adams 2020, Broadway
3000 Baker 119, Jefferson
9000 Clark 7521, Madison

25
Table 3.5

INVOICE CUSTOMER AMOUNT METHOD OF

NUMBER NUMBER PAYMENT
111 2000 2000 Cash
222 3000 4000 Credit
333 3000 1500 Cash
444 9000 6400 Cash
555 9000 7000 Credit

Relation model is flexible; the Network model is not flexible.

Customer relation using Customer Number

Table 3.6

INVOICE CUSTOMER AMOUNT METHOD NAME ADDRESS

NUMBER NUMBER OF
PAYMENT
111 2000 2000 Cash Adams 2020,
Broadway
222 3000 4000 Credit Baker 119, Jefferson
333 3000 1500 Cash Baker 119, Jefferson
444 9000 6400 Cash Clark 7521,
Madison
555 9000 7000 Credit Clark 7521,
Madison

To clarify this concept, look at the two relations in Table 3.4 and 3.5. As you can see the
common field in these two relations is the customer number.
A relational DBMS can use these two relations to generate a report like in Table 3.6.

· The relational model is straightforward.

· Creation and maintenance of this type of database is easy
· Relational models offer a great degree of flexibility.

Operations handled by a Relational model include the following:

· Creation of relation.
· Updating (insertion, deletion and modification).
· Selection of a relation or a sub-relation.
· Join operations (putting two relations side-by-side).
· Projection (Selection of a subset of a field or a subset of a series of fields).
· General query operations.
· Cross operation

26
 Shortcoming of Relational model:

· It cannot deal with complex database operations.

· Establishing many relations may use a great deal of disk space.
· Modification of many relations may be time consuming.

THE HIERARCHICAL MODEL:

Supplier

Productline Product line Product line

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U

Fig. 3.6

Like the relational model, a hierarchical data model is made up of records called nodes. Each of
these nodes can have several fields.

The presentation is similar to a one-dimensional array (a table with only one column or one row)
or tree structure.

The relationships between the records are called branches. The node at the top of the hierarchy is
called the root. Every node of the tree except the root node has a parent. The nodes with the same
parent are called twins or siblings. For example, P1 and P2 in fig. 3.6 are twins or siblings.

The hierarchical model is sometimes called an upside-down tree (a tree with its root up). Fig. 3.6
illustrates an example of a hierarchical model. It indicates that a supplier may supply three

27
 different families of products. In each family, there may be several different product categories.
As an example, supplier X may supply soap, shampoo and toothpaste.

Within each product category, there may be many brands of the same product – for example,
nine different shampoos or five different toothpastes. Such a relationship is called a one-to-many
data structure. This means a parent can have many children. Each child has only one parent.

In the hierarchical model, a search in the parent node can lead you to children nodes and vice-
versa. Any updating in a parent node should automatically update the children nodes.

The operations associated with the hierarchical model include file creation, file updating
(insertion, deletion, addition, and modification), file queries, retrieval of the next descendant
round, and retrieval of the parent record.

Data hierarchical model is flexible.

THE NETWORK MODEL

2000 3000 9000

111 222 333 444 555

Cash Credit

Figure 3.7

28
 A complex network

A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6

P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6

Fig 3.8

The network model is similar to the hierarchical model. The records and fields of a network are
organized differently. Fig 3.7 illustrates customer and invoice relations in a network model. In
place of related key fields, there is a connection between the invoice number, customer number
and the method of payment. In this case, the customer number no longer needs to remain in the
invoice record. As fig 3.7 illustrates, invoice numbers are connected to the customer number in
the same order in which they were connected in table 3.4.

Operations associated with a network model include:

· File creation.
· File updating (insertion, deletion, addition and modification).
· File queries.

The network model can be considered an enhanced version of hierarchical model.

In these data structure, the relationship can be:

· One-to-many (simple network) and

· Many-to-many (complex network)

One-to-many: Each child (invoice) has two parents (methods of payment and customer number)

Fig 3.8 illustrates a many-to-many relationship. In a real estate agency, each agent is selling
several properties. For example, agent A-1 sells properties P-1, P-2 and P-6, while property P-1
has been listed under agent A-1 and A-2. In a many-to-many relationship; the parent-child
relationship breaks down because any record can be the parent and any record can be the child.

Operations any Data model in a CBIS environment

1. Basic data management operations: The basic data management operations include database
creation, modification, deletion, addition, insertion, and maintenance. These operations are
supported even in a flat file management system.

29
2. Basic arithmetic operations: These include simple arithmetic operations performed on
different records and fields in a database including addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. These basic operations may be quite useful for simple query operations, such as
calculating the average salary for both male and female employees or finding the maximum
and minimum salary for each gender.
3. Projection operation: This function may be a special case of a general query operation that
generates a subset of the fields. For example, in a student database that includes each
student’s name, GPA, age, gender, address and nationality. A projection operation could
generate a listing of the names and GPA of all these students or a mailing list for mailing the
students’ transcripts.
4. Search (Query): This function may include different searches on a database for specific
conditions. As an example, a triple criteria search on our example student database is as
follows:
DISPLAY ALL STUDENTS FOR GPA >=3 AND MAJOR=”CS” AND
AGE<=22

Query operations can include as many criteria as the number of fields in the database. The
search can include an AND search (all criteria specified must be met) an OR search (only one
of the specified criteria must be met) and a NOT search (opposite criteria must be met or
supply an alternative)

AND, OR, NOT are referred to as Boolean operations.

5. Sort: Sort operations put the database in a specified order. Data can be sorted with one key or
multiple keys in ascending order.
6. Summary: The summary operation may be a special case of basic arithmetic operations and
basic query operations. For example, you could generate a sub-total of all MIS students and
all accounting students in the student database.
7. Union (Merge) operation: The union (merge) operation enables a user to combine two files,
tables or relations thereby generating a third file table or relation that includes all the
information from the first two file tables or relations. In other words, the union operation
does concatenation (joining) over the existing data.

Table 3.4

File 1

STUDENT MAJOR
Bob MIS
Barry CS
James MIS
Sue Accounting

30
File 2

STUDENT MAJOR
Mary Marketing
Sherry MIS
Suzy Math

File 3

STUDENT MAJOR
Bob MIS
Barry CS
James MIS
Sue Accounting
Mary Marketing
Sherry MIS
Suzy Math

Table 3.7 presents the operation on a student database. File 3 is the union of files 1 and 2.
Remember to perform the union operation; the two databases must be union compatible. This
means they must include the same number of fields and data types.

8. Join operation: This operation combines two or more files, tables or relations within a
database on a common field in order to generate a third file table or generation. Table 3.8
illustrates one example of this operation in which the common key is the customer name.

RELATION 1 RELATION 2
Purchase Number Customer Purchase amount
112 Barry 2000
118 James 5000
129 Susan 1000
135 Bob 1500

31
RELATION 3

Joining of RELATION 1 and 2

CUSTOMER PURCHASE PURCHASE

NUMBER AMOUNT
Barry 112 2000
James 118 5000
Susan 129 1000
Bob 135 1500

9. Intersection operation: The intersection generates the intersection of two relations in a third
relation containing a common tuple(s) (common rows). The result of the intersection of
relation 1 and 2 is relation 3which contains only one row (tuple), the one belonging to the
first two relations.

An intersection operation

MAJOR GPA STUDENT MAJOR GPA

CS 3.60 Tom ACC 2.90

MIS 3.80 Jerry CIS 3.70

ACC 2.90 Bob MGT 3.90

Relation 3

Intersection of Relations 1 and 2

STUDENT MAJOR GPA

Tom ACC 2.90

Union=Set1+Set2

Intersection=Set1*Set2

Difference=Set1-Set2

Difference operation is defined as the set of elements that are in Set A but not in Set B. For
example,

[1, 3, 4]- [1, 2, and 4] = [3]

32
DATA MODEL

Within a model, there is object type. Example of object type is house. House has characteristics
such as address (street number and street name), color (red, green etc.), style (bungalow, duplex),
price etc.

A set of characteristics that uniquely identifies an object of a house can be used to identify each
house within its object type is referred to as a key. For example, if the address of a house can be
used to each house, then the address characteristic is a key of the object type houses.

Characteristics (attribute)

For each entity set (house), its attributes have certain values. For example, the color attribute has
values such as red, green and blue. The set of possible values of an attribute is called the domain
of the attribute. A set of attribute that uniquely determines an instance of an entity is called a
key.

A data model is a pattern according to which data are logically organized.

Relationships:

House- Two values of houses; address and color.

Address Color

10, Ibadan road Red

21, Akin Street Blue

11, Abole way Green

House 10, Ibadan road is painted Red.

House 21, Akin street is painted Blue.

The two sets of values immediately carry some information. This information is available
because a relationship has been established between the values of address and color.

A relationship is a correspondence between the numbers of two sets.

Equality [1, 3] = [1, 3]

Inequality [1, 3] <> [2, 4]

Subset [1, 3] <= [1, 2, 3, 4]

Set A is a subset of Set B if

33
 every element of Set A is also

an element of Set B

Proper subset [1, 3] < [1, 2, 3, 4]

Set A is a proper subset of

Set B if A is a subset of B and

there is at least one element in

B that is not in A

Superset Set A is a superset of Set B if

every element of B is also an

element of A

Proper superset Set A is a proper superset of

Set B if A is a superset of B and

there is at least one element of

A that is not in B.

34
 UNIT FOUR

ADVANCED DATABASE MODEL

stars (name, address)
film (title, year, length, genre)
cinemas (name, address)

Movies
Title Year Length Genre
Gone with the wind 1939 231 Drama
Star wars 1977 124 Sci-fi

name address title year

stars Star-in film

name
length type

owns
cinema

address

35
Entity relationship diagram
Star_in: is a relationship connecting each film to the stars of that film.
Owns: each film is owned by at most one cinema.
Relationship = 1 : 1
m:1 1:m Cinema President
Owns
n:m

for a particular star and film, there is only one cinema with which the star has contracted for the
film.
A cinema may contract with several stars for a film and a star may contract with one cinema for
more than one film.

Star Film
Contract

Cinema

original

Sequel of film

sequel

Rules in relationship
Original = role
Sequel= role
· Film may have many sequels.
· Each sequel, there is only one original film.
Many – one
Sequel to original

36
 name address
title year
salary

stars
film
contract
s

cinema
length type

name address

A relationship with an attribute

Stars might get different salaries for different films. They may pay different salaries to different
stars. Different stars in a film may receive different salaries.

We connect an entity set to its subclasses using a relationship is a (an A is a B)

Notation is triangle
One side of triangle is attached to the subclass and the opposite point is connected to the super
class.
Every is a relationship is one-one
is a relates a subclass to its super class.

37
 length title year type

film

murder cartoons

weapon

Representing keys in the E/R model

name address title year

stars Stars_in film type

length

cinema owns

name address

· keys are indicated by underlines = we underline only primary key when we have different
types of keys.

38
Degree constraints

10
stars film
Star_in

· a film entity cannot be connected by relationship star-in to more than 10 star entities.

Weak Entity Sets

· It is possible for an entity set’s key to be composed of attributes, some or all of which belong
to another entity set. Such an entity set is called a weak entity set.
Causes of weak entity sets
· Entity sets fall into a hierarchy based on classifications unrelated to the “isa hierarchy”
If entities of set E are sub units of entities in set F, then it is possible that the names of E-
entities are not unique until we take into account the name of the F-entity to which the E
entity is subordinate.
e.g.
A film cinema might have several film crews.

number Crew chief name address

Crews Units_of cinema

The crew might be designed by a given cinema as crew1, crew2, and so on.

Double triangle indicate a weak entity

Indicate double diamond = a many-one relationships that helps provide

key for the weak entity set

39
Requirements for weak entity set
· Zero or more of its own attributes
· There many-one relationships are called supporting relationships for E, end the entity sets
reached from E are supporting entity sets.

name address title year

star film type

name address length

cinema

An association is a set of pairs of objects, one from each of the classes it connects.

Cinema Film
0..1
Name pic
0..∞
address owns Title pic

Year pic

Length
0..∞
Stars 0..∞ type
Star_in
Name pic

address

40
Two associations = owns, star_in
Every association has constraint on the number of objects from each of its classes.
Constraint as m....n
M.∞ stands for infinity = there is no upper limit
O.∞ no constraint at all on the number of objects.
1.1 = exactly one
* subclasses = UML permit four sub classes
* an aggregation is a line between two classes that ends in an open diamond at one end
0....1 = aggregation is a many-one association

UNIFIED MODELLING LANGUAGE (UML)

UML differs from E/R model with the exception of multi-way relationships.
UML offers the ability to treat entity set as true classes with methods as well as data.

E/R Model UML

Entity set Class
Binary relationship Associations
Attributes on a relationship Association class
isa hierarchy subclass
Many-one relationship Aggregation
Many-one relationship with referential Composition
integrity

- A class in UML is similar to an entity set in the E/R model.

It is divided into three parts
Film Name of the class

Title pic

Year pic Middle has the attributes which are

like instance variables of a class
Length

Type
Bottom is the method. Neither E/R
Place for methods nor relational model provides
41
methods.
A binary relationship between classes is called an association.

From UML diagram to Relations

Film (title, year, length, type)
Stars (name, address)
Cinema (name, address)

Star_in(filmTitle, filmYear, starName)

Own(filmTitle, filmYear, cinemaName)

Declaration of keys
Class film (key (title, year)) {
Attribute string title;
Attribute integer year;
Attribute integer length;
Attribute enumFilmType
{drama, horror, comedy}
Film_Type
};

Relationships in ODL
· Relationship is declared inside a class declaration by the keyword = relationship
= a type
= name of the relationship
Relationship set <star> stars
Inverse star:: starred in;
Inverse Relationship star film
To access the stars of a given film we might like to know Star_in
the film in which a given star acted.
Relationship set<film> starred in
Inverse film::stars

42
Object Definition Language ODL
Like UML, the class is the central concept in ODL.
A declaration of a class in ODL in its simplest form is
Class <name> {
<list of properties>
-attribute
-relationship
-method
ODL has structural type

43
APPLICATIONS THAT USES XML
· Cell phones
· File converter PDF to XML converter
· Voice XML

XML code
<?XML version = “1.0” encoding = “ISO-8859-15”?>
<class_list>
<student>
<name>Robert</name>
<grade>A+</grade>
</student>
<name>Leonard</name>
<grade>-A</grade>
</student>
</class_list>
XML declaration, version of XML, type of encoding you are using.
XML element = <student>

<?XML version =”1.0” is an XML document

Encoding = “utf-8” Unicode transformation format is a common choice of encoding for
characters in documents because it is compatible with ASCII and uses only one byte for the
ASCII characters.
Standalone = “yes”?> indicates that there is no document type definition for this document.

XPath
In XPath, there are seven kinds of nodes:
· Element
· Attribute
· Text
· Name space

44
 · Processing_instruction
· Comment
· Document
XML documents are treated as tress of nodes. The topmost element of the tee is called the root
element.
XML document.
<?XML version = “1.0” encoding = “ISO-8859-1”?>
<bookstore>
<book>
<title lang = “en”>Harry Potter </title>
<author>J.K. Rowling </author>
<year>2005</year>
<price>29.99 </price>
</book>
</bookstore>
Example of nodes in the XML document above
<bookstore> (root element node)
<author> J.K. Rowling </author> (element node)
Lang = “en” (attribute node)

Atomic values are nodes with no children or parent.

e.g. J.K. Rowling
“en”
<?xml version = “1.0” encoding = “ISO-8859-1”?>
<bookstore>
<book>
<title lang = “eng”> Harry Potter </title>
<price>29.99 </price>
</book>

45
 <book>
<title lang = “eng”>learning XML</title>
<price>39.99</price>
</book>
</bookstore>
The most useful path expressions are listed below:
Expression Description
Nodename Selects all child nodes of the named node
/ Selects from the root node
// Selects nodes in the documents from the current node that match the
selection no matter where they are
. Selects the current node
.. Selects the parent of the current node
@ Selects attributes

See listed path expression and the result of the expressions

Path expression Result
Bookstore Selects all the child nodes of the bookstore element
/bookstore Selects the root elements bookstore

NOTE: if the path starts with a slash (/) it always represents an absolute path to the element.

<?xml version = “1.0” encoding = “ISO-8859-1”?>

<bookstore>
<book category = “cooking”>
<title lang = “en”> Everyday Italian </title>
<author>Giada De Laurent </author>
<year> 2005 </year>
<price>30.00</price>
</book>
<book category = “children”>

46
 <title lang = “en”> Harry Potter </title>
<author> J.K. Rowling </author>
<year> 2005 </year>
<price>29.99</price>
</book>

<book category = “WEB”>

<title lang = “en”>Query kick start </title>
<author> James Mchovern</author>
<year> 2003 </year>
<price>39.95</price>
</book>
</bookstore>
1.
Everyday Italian
Harry Potter
Learning XML
2. Everyday Italian
3. 30.00, 29.99, 39.95
4. 39.95
5. Query Kick Start

Bookstore/book/title/ //price = selects all the title elements of the book element of the bookstore
element AND all the price element in the document.

C prog. lang != not equal

47
Query one = 1. Selects all the titles
/bookstore/book/title

2. Selects the title of the first book

/bookstore/book[1]/title

3. Selects all the prices

/bookstore/book/price/text()

4. Select price nodes with price >35

/bookstore/book[price>35]/price

5. Select title nodes with price > 35

/bookstore/book [price > 35]/title

Each step is evaluated against thue nodes in the current node-set.

A step consists of
· An axis (defines the tree_relationship between the selected nodes and the current node)
· A node_test (identifies a node within an axis)
· Zero or more predicates
The syntax for a location step is:
axisname: nodetext [predicate]
Example:
Example Result
child:book Selects all book nodes that are children of the current node
attribute:lang Selects the lang attribute of the current node
child:* Selects all children of the current node
attribute:* Selects all attributes of the current node
child:*/child:price Selects all price grandchildren of the current node
bookstore/book[price > Selects all the elements of the book elements of the bookstore
35.00]/title element that have a price element with a value greater than 35.00

48
Selecting unknown nodes
XPath wildcards can be used to select unknown XML elements.
Wildcards Description
* Matches any element node
@* Matches any attribute node
Node() Matches any node of any kind

Path expression Result

/bookstore/* Selects all the child nodes of the bookstore element
//* Selects all elements in the document
//title[@*] Selects all title elements which have any attributes

Selecting several paths

By using the | operator in an Xpath expression, you can select several paths.
Path expression Result
///book|title|//book|price Selects all the title and price elements of all book elements
bookstore|book Selects all book elements that are children of bookstore
//book Selects all book elements no matter where they are in the document
bookstore//book Selects all book elements that are descendant of the bookstore
element no matter where they are under the bookstore element.
//@lang Selects all attributes that are named lang.

Predicates
Predicates are used to find a specific node or a node that controls a specific value. Predicates are
always embedded in square brackets.
Path expression Result
/bookstore/book[1] Selects the first book element that is the child of the
bookstore element
/bookstore/book[last()] Selects the last book element that is the child of the bookstore
element

49
/bookstore/book[last() – 1] Selects the last but one book element that is the child of the
bookstore element
/bookstore/book[position() <3] Selects the first two book elements that are children of the
bookstore element
//title[@lang] Selects all the title elements that have an attribute named lang
//title[@lang=”eng” Selects all the title elements that have an attribute named lang
with a value of “eng”
//bookstore/book[price > 35.00] Selects all the book elements of the bookstore element that
have a price element with a value greater than 35.00

XSLT, XQuery
XPath Axis
An axis defines a node-set relative to the current node

Axis Name Result

ancestor = Selects all ancestors (parent, grandparent, etc) of the current node
Attribute = Selects all attributes of the current node
Child = Selects all children of the current node
Descendant = Selects all descendants (children, grandchildren, etc) of current node
Following = Selects everything in the document after the closing tag of the current node
Parent = Selects the parent of the current node
Self = Selects the current node

Location Path Expression

A location path can be absolute or relative.
· An absolute location path starts with a slash (/) and a relative location path does not
· An absolute location path
/step/step/...
· A relative location path
step/step/...

50
 UNIT FIVE

DATABASE NORMALIZATION
There are many relationships
-A relationship may be a 1:1, 1: N, n: m
1:1 relationship, for example, is the relationship between an employee’s personnel number and
social insurance number.

· Each employee has only one personnel number

· Each employee has only social insurance number

1: N is the relationship between an employee’s personnel number and salary

· An employee has one personnel number

· An employee has or may have different salaries

N: m relationship is the relationship between house color and house price

· Houses with certain colour may sell at various prices

· Houses at the same price may have various colours

NORMALIZATION
Suppose that the value of the attribute BUILDER determines values for the attribute STYLE and
PRICE and that the value for the attribute STYLE determines the values for the PRICE.
Grouping these attributes together in the relation HOMES1 (BUILDER, STYLE, PRICE) has
several undesirable properties.
First, the relationship between style and price is repeated in the relationship for each builder who
builds a particular style of home. This repetition creates difficulties. If a builder who happens to
be the last builder of a certain style, home is deleted from the relationship, then the relationship
between the style and its price also disappears from the relation. This is called a deletion
anomaly.

· Similarly, if a new builder who happens to be the first builder of a certain style home is
added, then the relationship between a style of home and its price will also be added,
even though this was not the purpose of the insertion. This is called an insertion anomaly.
Such insertions and deletions are anomalous because most such operations will not
produce these side effects on the style-price relationship. These anomalies are undesirable
since the user is not likely to realize the consequences of the insertion or deletion.
· A second problem with the grouping is the effect of updates of the consistency of the
relation. Suppose that the relationship between a style and its price is changed e.g. the

51
 price is increased. To maintain the consistency of the relation, the new style-price
relationship should be included for every builder of the style.
· If the relationship HOMES1 (BUILDER, STYLE, PRICE) is normalized, then the
consistency and anomaly problems disappear.
Normalization is a step-by-step reversible process of replacing a given collection of relations by
successive collections in which the relations have a progressively simpler and more regular
structure. The reversibility guarantees that the original collection of relations can be recovered
and therefore no information has been lost.
The objectives of normalization are
1. To make it feasible to represent any relation in the database.
2. To obtain powerful retrieval algorithms based on a simpler collection relational
operations that would otherwise be necessary.
3. To free relations from undesirable insertion update and deletion dependencies.
4. To reduce the need for restructuring the relations as new types of data are introduced.
5. To make the collection of relations neutral to the query statistics which these statistics are
liable to change as time goes.
· The first two objectives apply only to the first step (conversion to first normal form).
· The last three objectives apply to all normalization steps.

THE NORMALIZATION PROCESS

· Unnormalized form:
Eliminate attributes that have relations as elements

· 1NF

Eliminate partial dependence of non-prime attributes on keys

· 2NF

Eliminate transitive dependence of non-prime attributes on key

· 3NF

Eliminate redundancy in keys

· BCNF

1NF: FIRST NORMAL FORM

i. Relates to the structure of the relation.
ii. It requires that every attribute of a relation be based on a simple domain i.e. a domain
consisting of single, simple values.
A relation is in 1NF if every attribute in the relation is based on a simple domain.

52
Consider the relation;
HOMES (BUILDER, MODEL) 1NF
HOMES1 (BUILDER, STYLE, PRICE) 2NF
HOMES2 (BUILDER, STYLE) COST (STYLE, PRICE) 3NF

HOUSE3 (BUILDER, SUBDIV, PRICE, STYLE)

BUILDER, SUBDIV STYLE
BUILDER, SUBDIV PRICE
PRICE SUBDIV

2NF: SECOND NORMAL FORM

If MODEL is the relation MODEL (STYLE, PRICE) and a builder builds several model homes,
then the HOMES relation violates 1NF, the relation can be represented as the 1NF relation
HOMES1 (BUILDER, STYLE, PRICE).
Any relation can be put into 2NF by replacing a non-simple domain by its constituent simple
domains. The problems in choosing relations from MODEL are strongly tied to the fact that the
values of some attributes completely determine the values of other attributes in a relation. This
fact will be formalized as the concept of functional dependency.
HOUSES (STYLE, BUILDER)

HOUSES (ID, ADDRESS, LOT, SUBDIV, STYLE, BUILDER)

HOUSES1 (ID, ADDRESS, LOT, SUBDIV, STYLE)
CONTRACTOR (SUBDIV, BUILDER)

· Let A and B be attribute of a relation

· Let DOMAIN (A) be the domain of A

Let DOMAIN (B) be the domain of B

Let f be a time-varying function
f: DOMAIN (A) DOMAIN (B)
In the mathematical sense, f is not a function because it is allowed to change over time in the
same sense that database relations are allowed to change over time.
We can say f: A B
àf is a functional dependency

53
à B is said to be dependent (functional dependent) on A
à A is said to be determine (functional determine) on B
A B = means that there is no functional dependency between A and B
If both AàB and BàA hold then at all times A and B are 1:1 correspondence and the
notation AßàB is used.
Let f: A1 A2 A3…AnàB
g: A1 A2 A3…AmàB where m<n
Assume f (a1 a2 a3...an) = g (a1 a2 a3…am) for all ai in Ai, 1 ≤ I ≤ n

That is the attributes Am+1, Am+2, Am+3…An are extremely in f.

In this case, B is said to be partially dependent on A1 A2 A3…An.
If there is no g with the above property, then B is fully dependent on A1 A2 A3…An.

· Partial dependencies can cause insertion/deletion anomalies and consistency problems.

The second normalization (2NF) removes partial dependencies of non-prime attributes on keys.
Second Normal Form (2NF): A relation R is in 2NF if R is in 1NF, and each non-prime attribute
in R is fully dependent upon every key.
Given the relation (keys are underlined)
HOUSES (ID, ADDRESS, SUBDIV, STYLE, BUILDER).
In the HOUSES relation, the keys are ID, ADDRESS and SUBDIV.
The non-prime attributes are STYLE and BUILDER. The relation is therefore not in 2NF. To
place the HOUSES relation into 2NF, it is split into two relations:
HOUSES1 (ID, ADDRESS, SUBDIV, STYLE)
CONTRACTOR (SUBDIV, BUILDER)

· Access to the builder information is still possible from the HOUSES1 relation through
the SUBDIV attribute common to both relations.
For example, to determine the builder of a certain house, the SUBDIV attribute value is obtained
from the appropriate tuple in the HOUSES1relation.This value is then used to search the
CONTRACTOR relation and determine the corresponding builder.

Notice that it is possible to keep information about a builder for a sub-division independent of
the HOUSE1 relation. This capability eliminates one of the insertion anomalies discussed earlier.

54
The next normalization step converts relations to Third Normal Form or 3NF by eliminating
transitive dependence of non-prime attributes on keys.

Suppose that A, B and C are three subsets of a relation R. Suppose that the following time-
independent conditions hold:
A B

B A
B C
A C
C A
A
B

C
Transitive dependence of C on A
NOTE: C B is neither prohibited nor required
If the above conditions hold, then C is transitively dependent on A under R
Price is transitively dependent on Builder under HOME1.
In the special case where CàB also holds, both B and C are transitively dependent on A under
R.
Transitive dependencies also lead to the insertion/deletion anomalies and consistency problems.

Builder

Style

Price
Transitive dependence

55
Consider now the problem of changing the style of house that is built by a builder. In this case,
the value of the price attribute also has to be changed. If it is not, then the database will show an
inconsistency.
Consider also the problem of inserting and deleting tuples. If a new HOMES1 tuple is inserted
for a new style home, then the relationship between style and price is also created.
Similarly, if a builder is deleted from the HOMES1 relation, and if this is the last or only builder
of a particular style, then all information about the particular style-price relationship is also
deleted.
The transitive dependency of BUILDER on PRICE can be eliminated by splitting the HOMES1
relation into the two relations.

HOMES2 (BUILDER, STYLE), COST (STYLE, PRICE)

HOMES1 (BUILDER STYLE PRICE)
CADILLAC DUPLEX 65000
DELZOTO DUPLEX 65000
HOWLETT BUNGALLOW 45000
JOINT RANCH 50000

METRO BUNGALOW 45000

MONZA DUPLEX 65000
TEREX RANCH 50000
WIMREY RANCH 50000

· These two relations cannot contain any transitive dependencies since they are each only of
order two.
· The price now appears only once for each style.
· No information has been lost since the price of a style of house can be obtained by using the
style values from the HOMES2 relation to access the COST relation.
Both the HOMES2 and COST relations are in 3NF

HOMES2 (BUILDER STYLE)

CADILLAC DUPLEX
DELZOTO DUPLEX
HOWLETT BUNGALOW

56
 JOINT RANCH
METRO BUNGALOW
MONZA DUPLEX
TEREX RANCH

WIMREY RANCH

COST (STYLE PRICE)

BUNGALOW 45000
DUPLEX 65000
RANCH 50000

WEEK – SIX
NORMALIZATION / DECOMPOSITION

RELATIONS IN THIRD NORMAL FORM

Third Normal Form (3NF) – A relation is in 3NF if R is in 2NFand no non-prime attribute of R is
transitively dependent on any key of R.
Any relation in 3NF has the property that every non-prime attribute of the relation is neither
partially dependent nor transitively dependent on any key. This means that the non-prime
attributes are independent of each other.
Third Normal Form or 3NF does not exclude prime attributes from exhibiting partial and
transitive dependencies. It has been found that partial and transitive dependencies among prime
attributes can also lead to consistency and update problems.
To eliminate these problems, the statement of 3NF has been reformulated to avoid reference to
the concepts of prime attribute, full dependency and transitive dependency.

BOYCE CODD NORMAL FORM (BCNF)

A relation R is in BCNF if it is in 1NFand for every set of attributes C of R, if any attribute not in
C is functionally dependent on C, then each and every attribute in R is functionally dependent on
C.
If a relation is in BCNF, it immediately follows that it is in 3NF. There are examples of relations
in 3NF, but not in BCNF (Bernstein, 1975).

57
For example, consider a modified set of functional dependencies describing part of the
HOUSES2 model shown below.

HOUSES2 (BUILDER, SUBDIV, PRICE, STYLE)

Suppose that contracts are awarded to builders in various subdivisions. Within any subdivision, a
builder’s contract specifies that only one style of house be built by the builder. Suppose further
that for each subdivision in which a builder has a contract, the builder charges a fixed price per
house. Also, the price charged determines the subdivision. That is, a builder charges different
prices for the same style house for each subdivision in which the builder has a contract.
The attribute SUBDIV is now transively dependent on the key BUILDER. This transitive
dependency does not create certain problems.

Suppose the price a builder charged in an old subdivision is also to be charged in a new
subdivision i.e. the PRICEàSUBDIV dependency is modified.
In a BCNF relation R, every functional dependency in R must be of the form KàA where K is a
key and A is any attribute. The following can be asserted:
1. All non-prime attributes must be fully dependent on each key.
2. All prime attributes must be fully dependent on all keys of which they are not a part.
3. No attribute (prime or not) can be fully dependent on any set of attributes that is not a
key.

Factors – To link relationship of network data mobile, object types, characteristics, and
relationships.
Value of the attribute BUILDER determines values for the attribute STYLE and PRICE.
Value of the attribute STYLE determines the value for PRICE.

Unlike mathematical relations, database relations are time-varying since tuples may be inserted,
deleted or updated.
An index implies a selection mechanism or a pointer structure to desired data.

DESIGN OF RELATIONAL DATABASE SCHEME

Conversion from ODL or E/R to relational database cause redundancy (mean where a fact is
repeated in more than one tuple)
Decomposition = breaking a relation schema (set of attributes) into two smaller schema
INF = a relation is in INF if every attribute in the relation is based on a simple domain
= relational model requires that each component of each tuple be atomic
Atomic means = data type should be integer or storing not struct or record that can reasonably
have its value broken into smaller components
House (Builder model) House (Builder, style, price)

58
2NF = the second normalization removes partial dependencies of non prime attribute on key.
Houses (ID, Address, Sub-div, Style, Builder)
- The keys are ID , Address, Sub-div
- the non prime attributes are style and builder
House 1 (ID, Address, Sub-div, Style)
Constructor (sub-div, Builder)

3NF = eliminating transitive dependences of non prime attributes on keys.

A relation R is in 3NF if and only for every nontrivial FD X→ A
1. X is a super key r
2. A is prime = member of at least one key.

Suppose that A, B, C are those subsets of attributes of a relation R

A→B B↛ A

B→C C↛A

A→C

C is transitively dependent on A under R; price is transitively dependent on builder under home

1.

Transitive dependences lead to the insertion and deletion anomalies and consistency problems.

The transitive dependency of builder on price can be eliminated by splitting the Home 1relation
into the two relations.

Home 1 (Builder, style, Price)

Cad duplex 65,000

Del duplex 65,000

How bungalow 45,000

Joint story building 50,000

Metro bungalow 45,000

Moon duplex 65,000

Tear story building 50,000

Wimp story building 50,000

59
Home 2 (Builder, style) cost (style, price)

Cad duplex duplex 65,000

Del duplex bungalow 45,000

How bungalow story building 50,000

Joint story building

Metro bungalow

Moon duplex

Tear story building

Wimp story building

Boyce coddy norm form

- eliminate redundancy

- eliminate anomalies

Kind of anomalies

Redundancy = occurrence of tuples

Insertion anomalies

Deletion anomalies

Update anomalies

Decomposition Relations

Given a relation R with schema {A1, A2, …., An} we may decompose R into two relations S
and T with schema {B1,B2,…, Bm } and {C1, C2,…..,Ck}

R (A1,A2,…..,An) = S (B1, B2,…..Bm) ∪ T (C1, C2,……,Ck)

S∪ are projection form

R = {title, year, length, filmtype, studio name, star name}

S = {title, year, length, filmtype, studio name}

60
T = {title, year, Star name}

S = movie 1

Title year Length Film type Studio name

Star wars 1997 124 Colour Fox
Might 1991 104 Colour Disney
Ways 1992 95 Colour Paramount

T = movie 2

Title Year Star name

Star wars 1997 Carrie
Star wars 1997 Mark
Star wars 1997 Ford
Might 1991 Ester
Ways 1992 Dana
Ways 1992 Mike

There is redundancy for film type

T – Movie 2 = title and year appear several times

Despite decomposition, anomaly will not occur in BCNF

BCNF = A relation is in BCNF if and only if whenever there is a nontrivial dependency A1

A2….. An → B for R, it is the case that {A1, A2,….,An} is a super key for R

That is the left side of every nontrivial functional dependency must be a super key.

Thus, an equivalent statement of the BCNF condition is that the left side of every nontrivial
functional dependency must contain a key

Decomposition into BCNF

Title year Film type Studio name Length Studio

Address
Star 1997 Color Fox 124 Hollywood
Might 1991 Color Disney 104 Vick
Way 1992 Color Paramount 95 Hollywood
Add 2001 Color Paramount 102 Hollywood

R → S ∪T

61
Title year Film type Studio name Length
Star 1997 Color Fox 124
Might 1991 Color Disney 104
Way 1992 Color Paramount 95
Add 2001 color Paramount 102

Studio name Studio address

Fox Hollywood
Disney Vick
Paramount Hollywood

R is not in BCNF

S is in BCNF

T is in BCNF

3RD Normal form

It is relaxation of BCNF requirement

A relation R is in 3rd NF if:

Whenever A1, A2,…..,An → B is a non trivial dependency either

1. {A1, A2, ……, An} is a super key or

2. B is a member of some key

Note that the different between this 3NF and BCNF condition is the clause or B is a member of
some key.

3rd NF allows the right hand side attribute as a member of the key.

When these relations are not in BCNF, there will be some redundancy left in the schema.

Projecting functional dependencies

When we decompose a relation schema, we need to check that the resulting schemas are in
BCNF.

Suppose we have a relation R, which is decomposed into relation S and some other relation

Let F be the set of functional dependencies known to hold for R.

To compute the functional dependencies that holds in S d the following:

62
R (S1, S2, S3)

Consider each set of attribute X that is contained in the set of attributes of S

Compute X+

Then for each attribute B such that

1. B is an attribute of S
2. B is in X+
3. B is not in X

The functional dependency X→ B holds in S

E.g. R (A, B, C, D)

A→B

B→C are given for R

Let S (A, C) be one of the relations on a decomposition of R

We shall complete the dependencies that hold in S

We must compute the closure of each subset of [A, C] which is a set of attributes of S

A+ = A → B AB

B→C ABC

A+ = {A, B, C} A→B B is not in S [A, C]

A→C C is in S [A, C]

We do not claim that A → B is a dependency for S

C is the schema for S

We assert dependency A → C for S

C+ = A → B

B→C

=C

AC + = ABC for A → B

B → C = ABC

63
 AC → B B is not in S [A, C] there is no new dependency

R (A B C D E)

S (A, B, C)

A→D

B→E

DE → C

A+ =

A → D = AD A→D

B → E = AD

DE → C = AD

B+ =

A→D=

B → E = BE B→E

DE → C =

C+

A→D=

B →E =

DE → C = C

AB+ the only dependency we need for S is AB → C

A → D = ABD AB → D

B → E = ABDE AB → E

DE → C = ABCDE AB → C

AC+ = C is in the schema of S so we get dependency for S

A → D = ACD AC→ D

B→E=

64
DE → C =

BC+

A→D=

B → E = BCE BC → E

DE → C =

ABC+

A → D = ABCD ABC → D

B → E = ABCDE ABC → E

DE → C = ABCDE

Find the implied FD’s

Suppose we have a relation ABCD with some FD’s F. If we decide to decompose ABCD into
ABC and AD, what are the FD’s for ABC and AD

F = AB → C

C→ D

D→A

{A, B, C}

A+ = C→A

B+ = AB → C

C+ = CD C→D BC → A

CDA` C→A

AB+ = ABC AB → C

ABCD AB → D

AC+ = ACD AC → D

BC+ = BCD BC → D

ABCD BC → A

65
{A, D}

A+ =

D+ = AD = D → A

In ABC with FD’s

A→B

B→C

Project at AC

1. A+ = ABC yields A→ B, A→ C
2. B+ = BC yields B → C
3. C+ = C
4. AB+ = ABC yields AB → C
5. AC+ = ABC yields AC→ B
6. BC+ = BC
7. ABC = ABC

Resulting FD’s

A→B

A→C

B→C

Consider the resolution R(A, B, C, D, E, F)

FD’s are AC → B

BD → F

F → CE

Find all the key of R

Find non trivial dependence key

Computing the closure of attribute

1. Let X be a set of attribute that eventually will become the closure

-first we initialize X to be {A1, A2, ….., An}

2. We repeatedly search for some functional dependency B1, B2, ….., Bn → C

66
 Such that all B1, B2, …..,Bn are in the set of attribute X but cc is not .We add C to the set X.

3. Repeat 2 as many times as necessary until no more attributes can be added to X.

4. The set X after no more attributes can be added to it is the correct value of {A1, A2,…, An}+

Algorithm for decomposition

Input; relation schema R and set of FD’s for R

1. Complete keys for R based on FD

2. Repeat until no more BCNF violations
a. Pass any R’ with AA → BB that violates BCNF
b. Decompose R’ unto R1 (AA, BB) and R2 (AA, CC) where CC is all attribute in R’ except
(AA, BB)
c. Compute FD for R1 and R2
d. Compute key for R1 and R2 based on FD

67
 UNIT SIX

ALGORITHM DERIVING CANDIDATE KEYS

FROM FDS
Input: a set S of FDS that contain only subsets of a header H

Output: the set C of super keys that hold as candidate keys in all relation universes over H in

which all FDS in S hold

begin

C := ∅ // found candidate keys

Q :={H} // super keys that contain candidate keys

while Q <>∅ do

let K be some element from Q;Type equation here.

Q := Q – {K};

minimal := true;

for each X→Y in S do

K := (K−Y) ∪X ;

if Kʹ in K then

minimal := false ;

Q := Q ∪ { Kʹ } ;

end if.

end for

if minimal and there is not a subset of K in C then remove all super keys of K from C ;

C := C ∪{ K }

end if

68
 end while

end.

Lossless join property:

· Can recover any instance of the decomposed relation from corresponding instance of the
smaller relations.
· It is required to be reversible.
· It wants no information loss in the process.

The decomposition is lossless since it does not lose any information contained in the original
relation.

· It does not generate any spurious tuples which leads to false or misleading information
· It is called non – additive join since it does not add any new tuples
· It allows to get back exactly what we started with before decomposing.

Remember we decompose to do away with redundancy and all of the problems associated with
the duplication data.

Supplier Parts Project Supplier Part Part projects

Bello 2 bks Bello 2 2 bks

John 2 ruler John 2 2 ruler

Project supplier Supplier part project

Bks Bello Bello 2 Books

Ruler John Bello 2 Rulers

John 2 Books

John 2 Rulers

Supplier Part projects

Bello 2 bks

John 2 rulers
69
The question is: What conditions must be satisfied in other to guarantee that joining R1 and R2
back together takes back to original R?

A decomposition D = {R1, R2} of R has the lossless join property with respect to the set of FD’s
f if

· FD(R1 ∩ R2) → (R1 – R2) is in f+ or

· FD(R1∩ R2) → (R2 – R1) isin f+

MULTIVALUE DEPENDENCIES

4NF

- A relation R is in 4NF if for every nontrivial MVD X─>─>Y in R, X is a super key.

- That is all FD’s and MVD’s follow from key ─>other attributes(i.e. no MVD’s and no
FD’s besides key functional dependencies).
- 4NF is stronger than BCNF.
- Because every FD is also a MVD.

Multivalued Dependencies

A multivalued dependency (MVD) has the form X─>─>Y where X and Y are sets of attributes
in a relation R.

X─>─>Ymeans whenever two rows in R agree on all the attributes of X then we can swap their
Y components and get new rows that are also in R.

X Y Z

a b1 c1

a b2 c2
a b1 c2 must be in R too
a b2 c1
- - -
- - -

70
MVD student(s1d, c1d, club)
sid ─>─>cid
Given: Relation R and set of MVD’s for R
Definition: R is in 4NF with respect to its MVD’s if every nontrivial MVD AA─>─>BB, AA
contains a key.
Note: Since every FD is also in MVD, 4NF implies BCNF

Trivial M VD
A trivial MVD is when the RHS is a subset of its LHS. AA─>─>BB where BB is a subset of AA
or (AA U BB) does not contain all the attributes of R.

Nontrivial MVD
AA─>─>BB where BB is not a subset of AA and (AA U BB) does not contain all attributes of
R.

MVD
Definition:

AA ─>─>BB is an MVD for relation R if:

For all tuples t, u in R,
If t [AA] = u [AA] then there exists a V in R such that:
1. v[AA] = t[AA]
2. v[BB] = t[BB]
3. v[CC] = u[CC]
where CC is all attributes in R except (AA U BB).
MVD is when there are 2 independent 1 : N relationships, A : B and A : C are mixed in the same
relation. You represent an MVD by X─>─>Y
1. Y is a subset of X
2. X U Y = R both attributes together equals the relation.

Complete MVD + FD rules

- FD is reflexivity
augumentation
transitivity

71
 - MVD is complementation
If X─>─>Y then
X ─>─> attributes (R) - X – Y

- MVD is augumentation
If X─>─>Y and
V Í W then
XW─>─>YV

- MVD is transitivity
If X─>─>Y and
Y─>─>Z then
X─>─>Z – Y

- Replication (FD is MVD)

If X─>─>Y then
X─>─>Y
- Coalescence
If X─>─>Y and
ZÍY and there is W is disjoint
from Y such that
w─>z then
x─>z.

Algorithm for Decomposing a relation into 4NF relation (same ideas as BCNF)

Input: Relation schema R and set of FD’s and MVD’s for R

-1- Compute keys for R based on FD’s

-2- Repeat until no more 4NF violations

-2a- Pick any R′ with AA─>─>BB that violates 4NF

72
 -2b- Decompose R′ into R1(AA, BB) and

R2(AA,CC) where is all attributes in R′ except(AA U BB)

-2c- Compute FD’s and MVD’s for R1 and R2

-2d- Compute keys for R1 and R2 based on FD’s

Algorithm for decomposing a relation into BCNF

Input: Relation schema R and set of FD’s for R

-1- Compute keys for R based on FD’s

-2- Repeat until no more BCNF violations;

-2a- pick any R′ with AA ─> BB that violates BCNF

-2b- decompose R′ into R1(AA,BB) and

R2 (AA,CC) where

CC is all attributes in R′ except (AA U BB).

-2c- compute FD’s for R1 and R2

-2d- compute keys for R1 and R2 based on FD’s

5NF

L has no join dependency

If a relation is already in 3NF and each of its keys consists of a single attribute, it is also in 5NF.

5NF is also called project-join normal form.

L it is the highest normal form.

L there may be some relations that are in 4NF, but still have some redundant information.
However, there are no violating MVD’s and/or FD’s so we cannot use either of these
dependencies to decompose the relation.

- Consider each of the following proposed rules regarding dependencies

- For each, if it is false give a counter example

73
 If it is true, give a brief argument.
- Why it is true e.g. by applying the closure to desire FD’s.
- You may assume the relation to which they apply is R(A, B, C, D)
a) If A─>─>B then A─>B
If A─>B then A─>─>B false. A─>B
A─>─>B
BC─> D

b) If A─>B and BC─>D then AC─>D true

Applying closure to AC+ = ABCD
ABCD = contains D

The transitive rule also works.

Note that you can’t reduce ABC─> BD to AC─>D by receiving B from both sides.

c) If A─>B and
B─>─>C then
A─>─>BD
Applying the transitive rule to A─>B and B─>C yields A─>C
Applying the promotion rule to A─>C the yields A─>─>C
Applying complementation rule to A─>─>C then yields A─>─>BD

Algorithm Testing for the Lossless Join Property

1) Create a matrix S with one row i for each relation Ri in the decomposition D, and one column
j, for each attribute Aj in R.
2) Set S(i, j ) i=bij for all matrix entries
(* each bijis a distinct symbol associated with indices (i, j) * ) .
3) For each row i representing relation schema Ri for each column j representing attribute Aj.
If Ri includes attributes Aj then set S (i, j) i=aj
(* each aj is a distinct symbol associated with index j *)
4) Repeat the following until a loop execution results in no changes to S.

74
 For each functional dependency X─>Y in f, for all rows in S which have the same symbol
in the columns corresponding to attributes in X

Make the symbols in each column that correspond to an attribute inY be the same in all these
rows as follows:

If any of the rows has an “a” symbol for the column, set the other rows to that same “a”
symbol in the column. If no “a” symbol exist for the attribute in any of the rows, choose one
of the “b” symbols that appear in one of the rows for the attribute and set the other rows to
that “b” symbol in the column.

5) If a row is made up entirely of “a” symbol then the decomposition has the lossless join
property – otherwise, it does not.

Decomposition and Lossless (non additive) Joins

A decomposition D= (R1, R2,...,Rm) of R has the lossless (non additive) join property with
respect to set of dependencies F on R if for every relation instance r of R that satisfies f,

the following holds (* is the natural join operation)

*(∏<R1>(r), …,∏<Rm>(r)) = r

Lossless join refers to loss of information not loss of tuples.

Additional tuples represent erroneous information and hence add more information.

Properties of Lossless Join Decomposition.

1) A decomposition D = {R1, R2} of R has the lossless join property with respect to a set of
functional dependencies f on R if and only if either
· The FD ((R1 ∩ R2) ─> (R1 - R2)) is in f+or
· The FD ((R1 ∩ R2) ─> (R2 – R1)) is in f+
2) If a decomposition D = {R1,R2, …, Rm} of R has the lossless join property with respect to a
set of functional dependencies f on R and if a decomposition D1 = {Q1, Q 2,…, Qk} of R1 has
the lossless join property with respect to the projection of f on R1, then the decomposition

75
 D2 = {R1, R2,…, Ri-1, Q1, Q2,…,Qk, Ri+1,…, Rm } of R has the lossless join property with
respect to f.

Decomposition to have Lossless join Operation and Preserve Dependencies

1) Find a minimal cover G for F

F* is the set of functional dependencies specified in R*)
2) For each left- hand side X that appears in G
Create a relation schema {X U A1 U A2UAm} where X A1, X A2,X A3,…,X
Am,are all dependencies in G with X as left hand side.
3) Place all the remaining (unplaced) attributes in a single relation schema
4) If none of the relation schemas contains a key of R, create one or more relation schema
that contains a key of R, create one more relation schema that contains attributes that form a
key for R
R= {SSN, EName, Pnumber, PName , Plocation, Hours }
R1== {EName, Plocation}
R2={SSN, PNumber, Hours, PName, Plocation }
FD SSN EName,
PNumber PName, PLocation.
SSN, PNumber Hours

SSN ENamePNumber PName Plocation `Hours

R1 b11 a2 b13 b14 a5 b16

R2 a1 b22 a3 a4 a5 a6

Employee( ENoeNameMgrDept Salary)

R = {SSN, EName, Pnumber, Pname, Plocation, Hours}

R1 = {SSN, EName}

R2 = {PNumber, PName, PLocation}

76
R3 = {SSN, PNumber, Hours}

FD = SSN EName

PNumber PName, PLocation

SSN, Pnumber Hours

SSN EName PNumber PName PLocation Hours

R1 a1 a2 b13 b14 b15 b16

R2 b21 b22 a3 a4a5 b26

R3 a1 b32 a3 b34 b35 a6

Original matrix S at start of algorithm

SSN EName PNumber PName PLocation Hours

R1 a1 a2 b13 b14 b15

b16

R2 b21 b22 a3 a4 a5
b26
b32 b34 b35
R3 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5a6

Matrix S after applying the first two functional dependencies = last row is all “a” symbols

So we stop.

77
 UNITSEVEN

MULTIVALUED DEPENDENCIES
· 4th = fourth normal form
· Join dependencies
· 5th = fifth normal form
· Inclusion dependencies
· Template dependencies
· Domain key norm form

Multivalue dependencies and Fourth Normal form

Multivalued dependencies are a consequence of first normal form which disallowed an attribute
in a tuple from having a set of values or a list of values or a combination of both.

· Whenever two independent 1: N relationship A : B and A:C are mixed in the same
relation by representing all possible combination an MVD may arise.

Definition:

A multivalued dependency (MVD) X Y specify on relation schema R, where X and Y are

both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation instance r of R: if two tuples
t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X], then two tuples t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the
following properties.

· t3[X] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]

· t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2 [Y]
· t3[R-X-Y] = t2[R-X-Y] and
t4[R-X-Y] = t1[R-X-Y]

whenever X Y holds, we say X multi determines Y.

Note that because of the symmetry in the definition whenever X Y holds in R, so does

X (R-X-Y)

Note also that (R-X-Y) is the same as R – (X U Y) = Z

Hence X─>─>Y implies X─>─>Z and therefore it is sometimes written as X─>─>Y/Z

78
EName─>─>DName

EName─>─>DName or

EName─>─>DName/ DName

EMP

EName DName DName

Smith X John

Smith Y Anna

Smith X Anna

Smith Y John

Emp-Projects emp-Dependents

EName DName EName DName

Smith X Smith John

Smith Y Smith Anna

Smith works on project with PName X, Y. Has two dependent with DName John and Anna

· If we stored only the first two tuples in Emp

<Smith X, John>
<Smith Y, Anna>
We would incorrectly show association between project X and John and between project
Y and Anna

We must store the other two tuples

<Smith X, Anna>
<Smith Y, John>
to show that {X, Y} and {John, Anna} are associated only with Smith that is, there is no
association between PName and DName in Emp.

79
An MVD X─>─> Y in R is called a trivial MVD if

a) Y is a subset of X or
b) X U Y = R

Enp-Project has the trivial MVD EName─>─>PName

An MVD that satisfies neither a) or b) is called a nontrivial MVD

Emp = is a nontrivial MVD

the values of X, Y of PName are repeated with each value of DName.

This redundancy is clearly undesirable.

Emp is in BCNF because no FD holds in Emp. We need to define a fourth normal form that is
stronger than BCNF.
Properties of MVD

Assume that all attribute are included in universal relation schema

R = { A1, A2,…….An} and that

X, Y, Z and W are subset of R

1. Reflexive rule for FD if X ≥ Y, then X ─>Y.

2. Augmentation rule for FD X─> Y ╞ XZ ─> YZ
3. Transitive rule for FD { X ─>Y, Y ─> Z} ╞ X─>Z
4. Complementation rule for MVD X ─>─>Y ╞

X─>─>{R – ( X U Y)}

5. Augmentation rue for MVD if X─>─> Y and

W ≥ Z then

WX ─>─>YZ

6. Transitive rule for MVD { X─>─>Y, Y─>─>Z}╞ X ─>─>Z – Y

7. Replication rule (FD to MVD) X─>Y = X─>─>Y
8. Coalescence rule for FD as MVDs

If X ─>─>Y and there exist W with the properties that

(a) W ∩ Y is empty
(b) W ─> Z

80
 (c) Y≥ Z then X ─>─>Z

Fourth Normal Form

A relation schema R is in 4NF with respect to a set to dependencies f if for every non trivial
multivalued dependency X ─>─>Y in f+, X is a super key for R.

EMP relation is not in 4NF because in the non trivial MVDs EName ─>─>PName and EName
─>─>Dname

EName is not a super key of EMP

We decompose EMP into EMP-Project and EMP – dependent

Both EMP – project and EMP – dependent are in 4th NF. Because Ename ─>─>Pname is a
trivial MVD in EMP – project.

In fact no non trivial MVDs hold in either EMP – project or EMP – dependent

Emp

EName PName DName emp - project

Smith X John EName PName

Smith Y Anna Smith X

Smith x Anna Smith Y

Smith y John Brown W

Brown w Jim Brown X

Brown X Jim Brown Y

Brown y Jim Brown Z

Brown z Jim

Brown w Joan emp – project

Brown x Joan EName DName

Brown y Joan Smith John

Brown z Joan Smith Anna

Brown w Bob Brown Jim

81
Brown x bob Brown Joan

Brown y bob Brown Bob

Brown z bob

Bigger in size smaller in size

16 tuples 11 tuples

48 facts 22 facts

Update anomalies is avoided

Input another project into Brown

We need to insert into three columns

EMP is not in 4NF

PROJECTING MVDs

R (A B C D E) S (A B C)

MVDA ─>─> CD

Chain

A ─>─> C holds in S

A ─>─> B by complementation

Let us verify that A ─>─>C holds in S

A B C D E

a b1 c d1 e1

a b c2 d e

A─>─> CD

82
A B C D E

a b1 C d1 e1

a b c2 d e

a b1 c2 d e1

a b C d1 e

The last row has un-subscripted symbols in all the attributes of S, that is A, B and C. This is
enough to conclude that A─>─>C holds in S

We street city title year

C. fish 123 Maple str. Holly Star wars 1977

C. Fish 5 locust st. Malibu Star wars 1977

C. fish 123 maple st. Holly Empire back 1980

C. Fish 5 locust st. Malibu empire back 1980

C. Fish 123 maple st Holly Return Mecca 1983

C. Fish 5 locust st. Malibu Return Mecca 1983

name ─>─> street city

Reasoning about multi valued dependencies

- Trivial MVD
A1, A2, A3….. An─>─> B1 B2 B3……Bm

Holds in relation if {B1 B2………Bm}Í { A1 A2 ;…..An}

- Transitive rule A1 A2………An─>─>B1 B2……….Bm and

B1 B2………Bm─>─>C1 C2……….CK

then

A1 A2……..An ─>─>C1 C2,……, CK

- FD promotion every FD is an MVD = That is, if

83
 A1, A2, A3….. An─>B1 B2……Bm then

A1, A2, A3….. An─>─> B1 B2……Bm

- Complementation rule

If A1, A2, A3….. An─>─> B1 B2 B3……Bm is an MVD for R then R also satisfies A1,
A2….. An─>─> C1 C2……CK where the C’s are all attributes of R not among the A’s and
B’s

name ─>─> street city compliment for

name─>─> title year

Fourth Normal form

Relation R is in fourth normal form 4NF if whenever

A1, A2, A3….. An─>─>B1 B2……Bm is a non trivial MVD,

{ A1 A2 A3,…..An} is a super key.

name street, city

name year title

R1 ( name, street, city) R2 (name, year, title)

Multivalue dependency

X─>─>Y tells us that it we find two rows of the tableau that agree in X, then we can form two
new tuples by swapping all their component in the attributes of Y

R(A B C D)

A─>B

B ─>─>C

Prove that B─>─> C, A─>─>Cholds in R

84
A B C D A B C D

a b1 c d1 A─> B a b c d1

a b c2 d a b c2 d

A B C D

a b c d1

a b c2 d

a b c2 d1

a b c d

A─>─> C

Given two tuples of R that agree on A, they must also agree in B, A ─>B

MVD

X ─>─>Y and any FD whose right side is a (not necessarily proper) subset of Y, say Z then X
─>Z

R (A B C D) A B C D

MVD A ─>─>BC a b1 c1 d1 A─>─>BC

a b2 c2 d2

FD D ─>C

We claim that A ──>──> C

A B C D

a b1 c1 d1

a b2 c2 d2

a b2 c2 d1 D ─>C

a b1 c1 d2

85
A B C D

a b1 c1 d1

a b2 c2 d2

a b2 c2 d1 We have proved A──>C

a b1 c1 d2

Computing the closure of a set of Attributes

Input: A set of Attributes {Aı,A2, A3,...,An} and a set of FDʹs .

Output : The closure {Aı, A2,A3,…, An}⁺

1. If necessary split the FD’s of S so each FD in S has a single attribute on the right
2. Let X be a set of attributes that eventually will become the closure
Initialize X to be {Aı ,A2, A3,…,An}
3. Repeatedly search for some FD
Bı B2 B3…, Bm → C
Such that all of Bı, B2,….,Bm are in the set of attributes X, but C is not. Add C to the set X
and repeat the search. Since X can only grow and the number of attributes of any relation
scheme must be finite, eventually nothing more can be added to X, and this step ends.
4. The set X after no more attributes can be added to it, is the correct value
{Aı, A2, A3, …,An}⁺

86
Algorithm for projecting a set of functional Dependencies

Input: A relation R and a second relation Rı computed by the projection Rı = ∏2 ( R ).

Also a set of FDʹs S that hold in R .

Output : The set of FDʹs that hold in Rı

method

1. Let T be the eventual output set of FDʹs.Initially, T is empty .

2. For each set of attributes X that is a subset of the attributes of Rı , compute X⁺. This
computation is performed with respect to the set of FDʹs S and may involve attributes that are
in the schema of R but not Rı. Add to T all nontrivial FDʹs X →A such that A is both in X⁺
and an attribute of Rı.
3. Now, T is a basis for the FDʹs that hold in Rı, but may not be a minimal basis. We may
construct a minimal basis by modifying T as follows:
a) If there is an FD F in T that follows from the other FDʹs in T, remove F from T.
b) Let Y → B be an FD in T with at least two attributes in Y ,and let Z be Y with one of its
attributes removed. If Z → B follows from the FDʹs in T (including Y → B) ,then replace
Y → B by Z → B.

Repeat the above steps in all possible ways until no more changes to T can be made.

Decomposition Algorithm

Input: A relation R˳ with a set of functional dependencies S˳.

Output: A decomposition of R˳ into a collection of relations, all of which are in BCNF

Method: The following steps can be applied recursively to any relation R and set off FDʹs S.
Initially, apply them with R = R˳ and S = S˳.

1. Check whether R is in BCNF. if so nothing more needs to be done. Reduction {R} as the
answer.
2. If there are BCNF violations, let one be X → Y.use algorithm closure X⁺.
Choose Rı = X⁺as one relation schema and let R2 have attributes of X and those attributes of
R that are not in X⁺.

87
3. Use algorithm for projecting a set of functional dependencies to compute the set of FDʹs for
Rı and R2: let these be Sı and S2 respectively.
4. Recursively decompose Rı and R2 using this algorithm. Return the union of the results of
these decompositions.

In database design, to test for lossless decomposition, one may use the following algorithm

1. Create a matrix S such that

§ a row for each Ri in D and
§ a column for each Aj in R
2. Each S (i , j) = bij for all i ,j
3. for i =1 to n
for j =1 to m
if Aj an element of Ri , set bij = aj
4. repeat for each X→Y in f for all rows where they correspond in X.if there is an a in Y set all
Yʹs to a
else
pick some bij and set all of the Yʹs that bij
until
no change in S.
5. If there exists a row with all aʹs, then it’s a lossless decomposition

3NF Decomposition algorithm

Let Fc be a canonical cover for F,Type equation here.
i = 0;
for each functional dependency
→ in Fc do
if none of the schemas Rj i≤ ≤
contains .then
begin

88
 i = i + 1;
Ri =
end
if none of the schemas Rj 1≤ ≤
contains a candidate key for R then
begin
i = i + 1;
Ri = any candidate key for R,
end
return ( Rı, R2,R3,…, Ri )

Canonical Cover algorithm

Fc computation algorithm
Fc = F
repeat
apply union rule (right side of fd)
find fd with extraneous attributes ( left | right side)
and delete these
until Fc does not change.

BCNF Decomposition algorithm

result := {R}
done := false;
compute F⁺
while (not done) do
if (there is a schema Ri in result that is most in BCNF) then
Begin
let → be a nontrivial functional dependency that holds on Ri such that
→ is not in F⁺ and ∩ =ø ;

89
 result := (result – Ri ) ∪ (Ri − ) ∪ ( , ),
end
else
done:= true

When we decompose a relation, we have to use natural joins or Cartesian products to put the
pieces back together .This takes computational time.

Comparison of BCNF and 3NF

It is always possible to obtain a 3NF without sacrificing lossless join on dependency
preservation.
· If we do not eliminate all transitive dependencies, we may need to use null values to
represent some of the meaningful relationships.
· Repetition of information occurs.
· If we must choose between BCNF and dependency preservation, it is generally better to opt
for 3NF.
· If we cannot check for dependency preservation efficiently, we either pay a high price in
system performance or risk the data.
· The limited amount of redundancy in 3NF is then a lesser evil.
· BCNF
· Loss-less join
· Dependency preservation
Are goals of relational design.

Algorithm : 3rd NF with a lossless join and dependency preservation

Input: A relation R and a set of FD that holds in R .
Output: A decomposition of R into a collection of relations, each of which is in 3NF.
The decomposition has the lossless join and dependency preservation properties.
Method: perform the following steps
1. Find a minimal basis for F, say G
2. For each functional dependencies X → A in G,use XA as the schema of one of the
relations in the decomposition.

90
 3. If none of the sets of relations from step 2 is a super key for R, add another relation
whose schema is a key for R.
R (A B C D E)
FDs
AB → C
C→B
A→D
Use closure AB for C → B, A→D
A B D = D is included but not C
We conclude that the first FD AB → C is not implied by the second and third FDʹs. we get a
similar conclusion if we try to drop the second or third FD.
· We must also verify that we cannot eliminate any attributes from a left side.
· We start the 3NF synthesis by taking the attributes of each FD as a relation schema.
{A,B,C}
{C, B}
{A, D}
It is never necessary to use a relation whose schema is a proper subset of another relations
schema, so we can drop S2 {A, B,C} and {A,D}.
R has two keys = {A,B,E} {A,C,E}.Neither of the keys is a subset of the schema chosen so far.
We must add one of them R4 {A, B, E} = Final decomposition is Rı {A, B, C} R2 {A,D} R3
{A, B, E}

Relation (Town, street, code)

FD; town ,street

Professor (SSN, name, age, rank, specialty)

Compute canonical cover

Attribute and Dependency Preservation

R = {Aı, A2, …, An} is to be decomposed into a set D of relation schemas,

91
D = {Rı, R2,…,Rn}.The decomposition is said to satisfy the attribute preservation condition if

R = {Aı,A2, …, An} = Rı∪ R2 ∪ …∪Rn.

If a decomposition is not dependency preserving, some dependency is lost in the decomposition.

Decomposition and lossless (nonadditive) joins.

A decomposition is called lossless (nonadditive) when natural joins applied to the relations in the
decomposition do not generate spurious tuples. Loss is lossless refers to the loss of information
and not the loss of tuples. Actually the loss of information occurs because of added (spurious)
tuples in the joins. A decomposition which is not lossless is called lossy.

92
 UNIT EIGHT

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
In the relational data model, attribute relationships are represented by relations. Relational data
model, unlike, network model, does not provide links to represent associations. Instead, another
relation is used to represent an association.

Relations that represent associations can be existing relations in the database or they can be
generated (created) from existing relations by using relational operators.

The relational operators can be described using either the relational algebra or relational calculus.

Relational algebra is a set of operators that constructs the required relation from given relations.

The relational calculus gives a definition of the desired relation

Some terminology and definitions

∃ there exists

∀ for all

˄ and

˅ or

- not complement

∈ belongs to member of

⊆ subset

∅ empty

: such that

[,] ( , and ) delimiters

Definitions that will be needed

Given the tuples r = <r1, ……,rm> and

S = <s1, ……,sn>

the concatenation of r with s is the

(m+n) tuple defined by

93
 = <r1,…., rm,s1,….,sn >

for example, if r = <1, 2, x> and

s = <a, 2, 3> then

= <1, 2, x, a, 2, 3 >

2 Let R be an n-array relation, r∈ a tuple of R, and {D1, …., Dn} the domains of R; then

1 r [Di] designate the ith component (value of Di) of r.

2 If A ⊆ {D1, ….., Dn}, then

(a) r [A] is a tuple containing only those components specified by A

e.g if r = <a, 2, f> and
R is R (D1, D2 , D3) then
r [D1, D3] = <a, f>
(b) R [A] = {r[A]: r∈R}, e.g. if R (D1, D2, D3) is
R[D3, D2] = f 2 R (D1, D2, D3) then R[D1] = a
g 1 a 2 f b
f 3 b 1 g c
g 3 c 3 f d
f 2 d 3 g e
e 2 f

Let T (x, y) be a binary relation. The image set of x under T is defined by

gT(x) = {yi<x, y>∈ }

For example, if R is
R (D1, D2)
1 a
1 b
2 c
1 d
then
gR(D1 = 1) = { <a>, <b>, <d>}
gR(D1 =2)= {<a>}
gR(D1= 3) = {∅}
4. Given an n-array relation R over a set f domains {D1,….., Dn} and a k-tuple (k≤ ) of
domains A (A ⊆ {D1, …….,Dn} ) then
1 ̅ = {D1,…., Dn} – A ( ̅ ℎ ).
2 If r is an n-tuple of R, then
gR (r [ ̅]) = {s:s ∈ ˄< ̅ ,s > [ ̅ , A]}
94
 if the relation R is
R (D1 D2 D3 D4 D5)
1 a x f 2
2 a y g 3
1 b x f 2
2 c y b 3
3 a x f 1
1 b y f 2
2 a x b 3
̅
And A ={D3, D2, D4}, then = {D1, D5}
Let r = <1, a, x, f, 2>;
Then r [A] = <x, a, f>
And r [ ̅] = <1, 2>
And
gR(r [ ̅] =gR (<1, 2>)]) = {<x, a, f>, <x, b, f>, <y, b, f>}

5. Two sets of attributes A and B are compatible if they are of the same degree and the
corresponding domain are of the same data type.

BUYER ( NAME, ITEM) PRODUCT (CODE COST PRICE)

SMITH A A 5 8
JONES B B 4 4
ADAMS A C 6 9
SMITH B
JONES A
SMITH C

The relations deposit the products manufactured by a company (their code, production costs, and
selling price), and the buyers of those products (their names and the products they buy).
For each operator, the expression on the left-hand side of the equality sign is the relational
algebra expression for the operator. The expression on the right-hand side is the relational
calculus definition of the operator.
The first three relational operators are required to obtain any subset of a given relation. For
example, suppose that a user waits those tuples in the PRODUCT relation where the PRICE
attribute value is less than or equal to 8.
Restriction operator can express this requirement as
PRODUCT [PRICE ≤ 8] = (code, cost, price)
A 5 8
B 4 4
More finally, restriction is defined as

95
 R [A V] = {r:r ∈R ˄ (r[A]=v)}
Where A is an attribute of R
(theta) is one of the conditional operators < , ≤ , > , ≥ , = , ≠
V is a literal value
The restriction operator is equivalent to a qualification, containing a single condition, on a single
relation. It requires a specific data value (8 in the preceding example) in the condition involving
two attributes of the same relation. For example, suppose that one would like to know which
products are being sold at cost. The selection operator can specify this data selection as
PRODUCT [PRICE = COST] = (CODE, COST, PRICE)
B 4 4
In this case, the qualification specifies a condition involving the two attributes PRICE and COST
in the relation PRODUCT. The two attributes must be compatible. That is, they must be of the
same data type. The result relation contains only those tuples of PRODUCT where the COST
attribute value is equal to the PRICE attribute value. More formally, selection is defined as
R [A ] = {r:r ∈ ˄( [ ])}.
Projection operator can be used to perform this selection. For example, if a user wants to know
names of all buyers of products, this data selection specified as
BUYER [NAME] = (NAME)
Smith
Jones
Adams
In addition, any duplicate tuples are also eliminated. More formally, projection is defined as
R [A] = {r [A] : r ∈ }
The cross-product operator forms all possible combination of the tuples of two relations.
For example, the cross product of BUYER and PRODUCT is
BUYER ⊗ PRODUCT = (NAME, ITEM, CODE, COST, PRICE)
1. Smith A A 5 8
2. Jones B A 5 8
3. Adams A A 5 8
4. Smith B A 5 8
5. Jones A A 5 8
6. Smith C A 5 8
7. Smith A B 4 4
8. Jones B B 4 4
9. Adams A B 4 4
10. Smith B B 4 4
11. Jones A B 4 4
12. Smith C B 4 4
13. Smith A C 6 9
14. Jones B C 6 9

96
 15. Adams A C 6 9
16. Smith B C 6 9
17. Jones A C 6 9
18. Smith C C 6 9

More formally, cross product is defined as

R ⊗ S = {( ) : r ∈ ˄ ∈ }

Suppose that a user wants a list of buyer names, the products they buy and the cost and price of
each product. The answer to this query is contained in two relations, BUYER and PRODUCT. A
new relation containing the answer to the query can be constructed by taking the join of BUYER
and PRODUCT according to a join condition.

The join condition is expressed on two compatible attributes, one from each of the original
relations.

BUYER [ITEM = CODE] PRODUCT = (NAME ITEM CODE COST

PRICE)

Smith A A 5 8

Jones B B 4 4

Adams A A 5
8

Smith B B 4 4

Jones A A 5 8

Smith C C 6 9

More formally, join is defined as

R [A ] S = {( ): r ∈ ˄ ∈ ˄( [ ])}

Where again is one of < ≤ > ≥ = ≠

The attribute A and B must be compatible.

Join

(1) Generalize join forms a new tuple from a BUYER and PRODUCT tuple whenever the
join condition is satisfied.
(2) A natural join is a join where the conditional operator is equality.

97
“Find the buyers who buy each type of product”

Data selection can be represented by a division operator as

BUYER [ITEM÷ ] product

= (Name)

Smith

More formally, division is defined as

R[A÷ ] S = {r [ ̅]: r ∈ ˄ s [B]⊆gR (r [ ̅])} where the attribute A and B are compatible.

The result relation consists of the projection of the tuples in the dividend relation on those
attributes (NAME) not in the dividend attribute that satisfy the division.

Finally, the projection of PRODUCT on CODE is

PRDUCT [CODE] = (CODE)

Operation of mathematical sets ∪ =Union

∩ = intersection

− = difference

Find those buyers who purchase products whose price is greater than 5 but less than 9 would be
expressed as

(BUYER [ITEM = CODE] (PRODUCT [PRICE > 5]))

PRODUCT [PRICE < 9] [NAME]

Operation of any Data model

· Basic data managemet operations

· Basic arithmetic operations
· Sort
· Summary
· Union =set1+ set2 ∪

98
 · Intersection = set1 *set2 ∩
· Difference = set1-set2 - =[1, 3, 4]- [1, 2, 4] = [3]
· Division = set1/set2
· Equality = [1, 3] = [1,3] = true
· Inequality = [1, 3] <> [2, 4]
· Subset =⊆ = [1, 3]<= [1, 2, 3, 4]
· Proper subset= [1,3]< [1, 2, 3, 4]
· Super set = [1, 2, 3,4]>= [1, 3]
· Proper superset =[1, 2, 3, 4] > [1,3]

Query =search

Relational operation.operates

Concatenation of

R (D1 D2 D3 ) r2 <a, 2, f> r [D1 D3] = <a, f>= r [A]

R (D1 D2 D3) R(D1 D3)= R[A]

Binary relation = gR(D1 =1) = {<a>, <b>, <c>}

Many relation = gR r [ ̅]

99
 UNIT NINE

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
Four broad classes

Set operations = union, intersection, difference

R∪ = the union of R and S

Is the set of element appears in R and S or both. An element appears only once in the
union even if it is present in both R and S.

R∩ = the intersection of R and S is the set of elements that in both R and S

R – S = the difference of R and S is the set of element that are in R but not in S. Note that R-S is
difference from S-R. The letter is the set of element that are in S but not in R.

2. Operations that remove part of relation

Selection = eliminate some row tuples

Projection = eliminate some column

R [D1 D2 D3] R [D1] R [D3 D2]

a 2 f a f 2

b 1 g b g 1

c 3 f c f 3

R [D1 D2] gR (D1 = 1) = {<a>, <b>, <d>}

1 A
gR(D1 = 2) ={<c>}
1 B

2 C gR (D1 = 3) = {∅}
1 d

R (D1 D2 D3 D4 D4) r = <1, a, x, f, 2>

100
 1 a x f 2 R [A] = {x, f, a}

2 a y g 3 R [A] = {1,2}

1 b x f

2 c y b 2

A = {D3 D2 D4} ̅ = {D1 D5}

Projection = a new relation that has only some of R column

A1, A2,……, An (R) is a relation that has only the columns attributes A1, A2, ….., An of R.

Movie

title year length In column Studio Name Producer

Star war 1977 124 True fox 12345
Might ducks 1991 104 True Disney 07890
Wayous 1992 95 true Paramount 99999
world

title, year, length (movie)

Title year Length

Star wars 1977 124
Might ducks 1991 104
Wagnus world 1992 95

in color (movie) =

Incolor
true

Selection = operator applied to a relation R provides a new relation with a subset of R’s tuples.
The tuples in the resulting relation are those satisfy some condition C that involves the attributes
of R. We denote this operation

б ∁ (R) or бf (R) f is formula

б length ≥ 100 (movie)

101
Title Year length Incolor Studio name Producer
Star wars 1977 124 True Fox 12345
Might ducks 1991 104 True disney 67890

б length ≥ 100 AND studio name = “fox” (movie)

Title year length incolor Studio name Producer

Star war 1977 124 true fox 12345

Operations that combine the tuples of two relation including Cartesian product or cross product

Join operation = selecting pair tuples from two relations

Cartesian product, cross product or product of two set R and S is the set of pairs that can be
formed by choosing the first element of the pair to be any element of R and the second on
element of S. This product is denoted by R ⊗ S

The components from R precede the components from S in this order.

A B
1 2
3 4

B C D
2 5 6
4 7 8
9 10 11

B is an attribute of both schemes

We have used R.B and S.B in the schema for R × S

A R.B S.B C D
1 2 2 5 6
1 2 4 7 8
1 2 9 10 11
3 4 2 5 6
3 4 4 7 8
3 4 9 10 11
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Natural join

We find a need to join two relations by pairing only those tuples that match in some way. The
simplest sort of match is the natural join of two relations R and S.

Natural join is denoted by R ⋈ S

Let A1, A2, …., An be attribute in both the schema of R and the schema of S then a tuple r
from R and a tuple s from S are successfully paired if and only if r and s agree on each of the
attribute A1, A2, …., An

A B C D
1 2 5 6
3 4 7 8

B C D
9 10 11

A tuple that fails to pair with any tuple of other relation in join is sometimes said to be a dangling
tuple.

A B C
1 2 3
6 7 8
9 7 8

B C D
2 3 4
2 3 5
7 8 10

U⋈ V

A B C D
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 5
6 7 8 10
9 7 8 10

103
Theta- joins
The natural join forces us to pair tuples using one specific condition.
Theta join refers to an arbitrary condition which we shall represent by ∁
R ⋈ ∁S

1. Take the product of R and S

2. Select from the product only those tuples that satisfy the condition ∁

U ⋈A< D V

A U.B U.C V.B V.C D

1 2 3 2 3 4
1 2 3 2 3 5
1 2 3 7 8 10
6 7 8 7 8 10
9 7 8 7 8 10

U ⋈A < D AND U.B ≠ V.B V

A U.B U.C V.B V.C D

1 2 3 7 8 10

Combining operations to form queries

What are the title and years of movies made by fax that are at least 100 minute long ?

To compute

1. Select those movies tuples that have length ≥ 100

2. Select those movies tuples that have studio name = “fox”
3. Compute the intersection of 1 and 2
4. Project the relation 3 onto attributes title and year.

title, year

↙↘

б length ≥ 100 б studio name = “fox”

↓↓
Movie movie

104
 title, year (б length ≥ (movie) ∩ б studio name = “fox” (movie) )
Movie1 (title, year, length, filmType, studioName)
Movie2 (title, year, starName)
Find the stars of movie that at least 100 minute long
title, year (б length ≥ 100 (movie1⋈ movie2)
Renaming
= Ps (R) = change the name to S
Payo (bell) = change the name to ayo from bell
Ps (x, c, d) (S) is a relation named S but its first column has attribute X instead of B

Uncle (x, y) P
↙ ↘
U S
Grandparent (p, y) mother (P, X)
Sister (S, X)

G. parent X grandchild (y, x) is parent (x, z)

↓ parent (z, y)
Parent Z sister (x, y) = parent (p, x) parent (p, y)
↓
Chid Y brother (x, y) = parent (z, x)
Parent (z, y)
Male (x) x≠ y

Male = {Adam, Bill}

Female = {Anne, Beth}
Person = male ∪ female = {Adam, Bill, Anne, Beth}

Male × person {Adam, Bill} {Adam, Bill, Anne, Beth}

Adam adam bill adam
Adam bill bill bill
Adam anne bill anne
Adam beth bill beth

Father mother parent

C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Adam bill anne bill adam bill
Adam beth anne beth adam beth
Anne bill
Anne beth

105
As a collection of tuples of feets
Father <adam, bill>
Father <adam, beth>
Mother <anne, bill>
Mother <anne, beth>
Parent <adam, bill>
Parent <adam, beth>
Parent <anne, bill>
Parent <anne, beth>

A and B are isomorphic

Deductive database
Parent (X, Y) ← father (X, Y)
Parent (X, Y) ← mother (X, Y)
Father (adam, bill)
Father (adam, beth)
Mother (anne, bill)
Mother (anne, beth)
Grandparent (X, Z) ← parent (X, Y), parent (Y, Z)
Parent (X, Y) ← father (X, Y)
Parent (X, Y) ← mother (X, Y)

Father
X Y
adam Bill
Bill cathy
a

Parent
Y Z
Adam Bill
Bill Cathy
Cathy dove
b

X F.Y P.Y Z
Adam Bill adam Bill
Adam Bill Bill cathy
Adam Bill Cathy Dove

106
Bill Cathy Adam Bill
Bill Cathy Bill Cathy
Bill cathy Cathy dove

X F.Y P.Y Z
Adam Bill bill Cathy
Bill cathy Cathy dove

X F.Y Z
Adam Bill Cathy
Bill Cathy Dove

Natural join
Taking the Cartesian product of the two relations
Selecting those tuples which have identical attribute on the columns with the same attribute
Filtering out the super flows columns

F (X, Y) ⋈ P (Y, Z)
F (X, Y) ⋈ P (Y, Z) is defined as
, . , б . = . ( ( , )× ( , ))
1. Cartesianproduct F (X, Y) × P (Y, Z)
2. Selected the same tuple of the same value F.Y and P.y

Projection X, F.Y, Z on X and Z

, ( ( , )⋈ ( , ))

Or

Grandfather (X, Y, Z) ← father (X, Y) , parent (Y, Z)

Or

Grandfather (X, Z) ← father (X, Y), parent (Y, Z)

Consider the domain

{Sarah, Diane, Pamela, Simon, David, Peter }

r (X, Z) ← r (X, Y), r (Y, Z)

r (a, c)∈ P for which there exist no b (b ≠ a and b ≠ c) such that r (a, b) ∈ P and r (b, c) ∈ P

107
a
b
c
d

The relation is position over

Over (a, b) over (a, b)

Over (a, d) over (b, c)

Over (b, d) over (c, d)

Deductive database

Over (X, Z) ← over (X, Y), over (Y, Z)

Over (a, b)

Over (b, c)

Over (c, d)

Or

Over (X, Y) ← on (X, Y)

Over (X, Z) ← on (X, Y), over (Y,Z)

On (a, b)

On (b, c)

On (c, d)

(b) (d) (f)

(a)Type equation here.

(C) (e) (g)

Edge (a, b) edge (c, e)

Edge (a, c) edge (d, f)

Edge (b, d) edge (e, f)

Edge (b, e) edge (e, g)

108
Path (X, X)

Path (X, Z) ← edge (X, Y) path (Y, Z).

109
 UNIT TEN

SQL
Table column1 column2 column n
Tuples or records

· A query issued against a DBS also results in a table

· Column has data type
· This data type describes the attribute of the tuples/records

SQL table row column

Relation tuples attributes

· A table can have up to 254 columns with the same or different data types
· A set of values (domain)

ORACLE BASIC DATA TYPES

Þ Char (n) = fixed_length character data n long

= maximum size for n is 255 bytes
= e.g. char (40)

Þ Varchar 2(n) = variable_length character data string

= maximum size for n is 2000
= e.g. varchar (80)

Þ Number (o, d) = numeric data type for integers and reals

o= overall number of digits
d= number of digits to the right of the decimal point
o= maximum number is 36

d= maximum value = -84 to +127

e.g. number(8)
Number (5, 2) = this cannot contain any thing larger than 999.99 without resulting in an error.

110
Data type derived from number are integer = int
Decimal = dec
Smallint

Real

· Date – for storing date and time.

Date format = DD-MMM-YY
23-OCT-94
07-JAN-07

· Long = character up to length 2GB

In Oracle SQL = no data type ‘Boolean’. It can be simulated by using char (1) or number (1).
It may have value null. Null is different from empty string ‘’ or 0.

Example database
EMP (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, MGR, HIREDATE, SAL, DEPT. NO.)
7369 Smith clerk 7902 17-Dec-80 800 20

Data type = EMPNO: number (4), ENAME: varchar2 (30);

JOB: char (10), MGR: number (4), HIREDATE: date,
SAL: number (7,2), DEPTNO: number(2)

DEPT ( DEPTNO DNAME LOC )

10 store Chicago

20 research Dallas

111
 SALGRADE ( GRADE LOWSA HIGHSAL )
1 700 1200

2 1201 1400
3 1401 2000

QUERIES
SQL is used to retrieve information from database.
Form:
Select distinct <columns>

From <table>
Where<condition>
Order by<column>asc/desc
Select is also called projection
Select loc, DEPTNO
From DEPT;

Select* (asterisk symbol * is used to denote all attributes)

From DEPT;
Select may contain arithmetic expression
Select ENAME, DEPTNO, SAL* 1.55
From EMP;

Operators
a) for numbers: abs, cos, sin, exp, log, power, mod, sqrt, +,-,*,/
b) for strings: char, concat (string1, string2),
lower, upper,
replace (string, search_ string, replacement_string)
` substr(string, m, n)
length, to_date, translate

112
 c) for date: add.month
month.between
next.day
to.char
· Distinct = after the keyword select, forces the elimination of duplicates from the query
result.
· Order by = works with column.

Select ENAME, DEPTNO, HIREDATE

From EMP
Order by DEPTNO asc, HIREDATE desc

ENAME DEPTNO HIREDATE

Ford 10 03-DEC-81
Smith 20 17-DEC-80
Blake 30 01-MAY-81
Ward 30 21-FEB-81
Allen 30 20-FEB-81

SELECTION OF TUPLES/RECORDS
Where = for records retrieval
= simple operator = and, or, not
= condition may be pattern matching
List the job title and the salary of those employees whose manager has the number 7698 or 7566
and who earn more than 1500
Select JOB SAL
From EMP
Where (MGR = 7698 or MGR = 7566)
And SAL > 1500;

1. Comparison operator =, /= or <>,<= are allowed

113
 Further comparison operators are
2. Set condition <column> not, in <list of values>
select *
from DEPT

where DEPTNO in (20, 30)

3. NULL value <column> is, not, null
Select *
From EMP
Where MGR is not null
4. Domain conditions <column> not between <lower bound > and <upper bound>

select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL

from EMP
where SAL between 1500 and 2500,
select ENAME
from EMP
where HIREDATE between ’02-APR-81’ and ’08-SEP-81’

String Operations
Like = uses two operators %, _ (percentage, and underline)
Percentage = wild card
Underline = position marker
If one is interested in all tuples of the table DEPT that contain two C in the name of the
department, the condition would be
Where DNAME like %C%C%.
% sign means that any sub(string) is allowed there even the empty string. Underline stands for
exactly one character where DNAME like %C_C% would require that exactly one character
appears between the two Cs.

114
 1. upper (string)
DNAME = UPPER (DNAME)
2. lower (<string>) converts letters to lower case
3. initcap(<string>) converts initial letter to upper case
4. length (<string >) returns the letter of the string
5. substr(<string>n, m )
6. substr(‘DATABASE SYSTEMS’, 10, 7) returns ‘SYSTEMS’

Aggregate function
1. count = count rows
How many tuples are stored in the relation EMP?
select count (*)
from EMMP
How many different job titles are stored in the relation EMP?
select count (distinct JOB)
from EMP

2. MAX
3. MIN
List the minimum and maximum salary
Select min (SAL), max(SAL)
From EMP
4. SUM = sum of all salaries of employees working in the department 30
Select sum (SAL)
From EMP
Where DEPTNO = 30

QUERIES
Join tuples
Select distinct [<alias ak>.]<column i>, …

[<alias al>.]<column j>

from<table 1>[<alias a1>], …., <table n >[<alias an>]
where [<condition>]
For each salesman, we now want to retrieve the name as well as the number and the name of the
department where he is working.

115
select ENAME , E.DEPTNO, DNAME select ENAME , DEPTNO, DNAME
From EMP E, DEPT D from EMP, DEPT
Where E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO Where EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO
And JOB = ‘SALESMAN’; And JOB = ‘SALESMAN’;

E and D are table aliases for EMP and DEPT respectively.

PROJECT (PNO, PNAME, PMGR, PERSONS, BUDGET, PSTART, PEND)

EMP (EMPNO, EName, JOB, MGR, HIREDATE, SAL, DEPTNO)
DEPT (DEPTNO, DNAME, LOCATION)
SALARYGRADE (GRADE, LOWSAL, HIGHSAL)

e.g. for each project, retrieve its name, the name of its manager, and the name of the department
where the manager is working.
selectEName, DName, PName
from EMP E, DEPT D, PROJECT P

where E.EMONO = P.MGR

and D.DEPTNO = E. DEPTNO;
It is even possible to join a table with itself:
e.g list the names of all the employees together with the name of their managers
select E1.Ename, E2.Ename
from EMP E1, EMP E2

where E1.MGR = E2.EMPNO

The join columns are MGR for table E1 and EMPNO for table E2

116
SUBQUERIES
A respective condition in the where clause can have one of the following forms;
1. set-valued subqueries
expression [not] in <subquery>
expression<comparison operator> any/all <subquery>
An expression can either be a column or a computed value.
2. test for (non) existence
[not] exists <subquery>
In where clause condition, using subqueries can be combined arbitrarily by using the logical
connectives and, or

e.g. list the name and salary of employee of department 20 who are leading a project that started
before December 31, 190
selecteName, salary
from EMP in

(select PMGR
from PROJECT
where PSTART <’31-OCT-90’)
and DEPTNO = 20;
The subquery retrieves the set of those employees who manage a project that started before
December 31, 1990. If the employee working in department 20 is contained in this set (in
operator), this tuple belongs to the query result set.
List all employees who are working in a department located in BOSTON

select *
from EMP
where DEPTNO in
(select DEPTNO
from DEPT
where LOC = ‘BOSTON’);

117
A subquery may rise again in a subquery in its where clause
List all those employees who are working in the same department as their manager
Select *
From EMP E1

Where DEPTNO in
(select DEPTNO
from EMP [E]
where [E.]EMPNO = E1. MGR);
The subquery in this example is related to its surrounding query since it refers to the column
E1.MGR. For Each tuple in the table E1, the subquery is evaluated individually.
Condition of the form <expression><comparison operator> [any/all] <subquery> are used to
compare a given <expression> with each value selected by <subquery>.

Retrieve all employees who are working in department 10 and who earn at least much as any (i.e.
at least one) employee working in department 30
Select *
fromEMP

where SAL>= any

(select SAL
from EMP
where DEPTNO = 30)
List all employees who are not working in department 30 and who earn more than all employees
working in department 30
Select *
From EMP
where SAL> all
(select SAL

from EMP
where DEPTNO = 30)
and DEPT NO <> 30;

118
For all and any, the following equivalences hold:
In ó = any
Not in ó<> all or != all

Often a query result depends on whether certain rows do (not) exit in (other) tables. Such type of
queries is formulated using the exits operator.
List all the departments that have no employees
Select *

from DEPT
where not exits
(select * from EMP
where DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO)

Operations on result sets

SQL supports three set operators which have the pattern

<Query 1><set operator><query 2>

union
intersect
minus
Assuming that we have a table EMP2 that has the same structure and columns as the table EMP,

· all employee numbers and names from both tables

select EMPNO, ENAME

from EMP
union
select EMPNO, ENAME
from.EMP2

119
 · Employees who are listed in both EMP and EMP2
select *
from EMP
intersect

select *
from EMP2

· Employees who are only listed in EMP

select *
from EMP
minus
select *

from EMP2
Each operator requires that both tables have the same data type for the columns to which the
operator is applied.

Grouping
Group by<column(s)>
This clause appears after the where clause and must refer to columns of tables listed in the from
clause e.g. for each department, we must retrieve the minimum and maximum salary
Select DEPTNO, min (SAL), max (SAL)

From EMP
Group by DEPTNO
Result
DEPTNO min (SAL) max(SAL)
10 1300 5000
20 800 3000

30 900 2850
If a group contains less than three rows, this type of condition is specified using the having
clause. As for the select clause also in a having clause only<group_column(s)> and aggregation
can be used

120
e.g. retrieve the minimum and maximum salary of clerks for each department having more than
three clerks

select DEPTNO,Min(SAL), max (SAL)

from EMP
where JOB=’CLERK’
group by DEPTNO
having count(*)>3;
1. Select all rows that satisfy the condition specified in the where clause
2. From these rows form groups according to the group by clause
3. Discard all groups that do not satisfy the condition in the having clause
4. Apply aggregate functions to each group
5. Retrieve values for the columns and aggregations listed in the select clause

Some comments on tables

Accessing tables of other users
Select* from <user><table>,

Adding comments to definitions

· Comment on table

Comment on table<table> is ‘<text>’,

· Comment on column

Comment on column<table>.<column> is ‘<text>’

Comments on tables and columns are stored in the data dictionary. They can be accessed using
the data dictionary views USER.TAB.COMMENTS and USER. COL. COMMENTS.

Modifying table and column definition

A column can be added using the alter table comment
Alter table<table>
Add <column><datatype>[default<value>]

[<column constraint>]
If more than only one column should be added at one time respectively add clause needs to be
separated from by colons

121
A table constraint can be added to a table using
Alter table<table>
Add (<table constraints>)
When the size of strings that can be stored needs to be increased

Alter table<table>
Modify <column><datatype>
Default <value><column constraints>
It is now possible to rename a table, column and constraint

Deleting a table
A table and its row can be deleted by using the commend

Drop table<table>[cascade contraint]

View
To create a view (virtual table) has the form
Create [or replace]view<view name>[<column(s)>] as<select statement>[with check option
[constraint<name>]]
Replace recreates the view if it already exists.
The following view contain the name, job title and annual salary of employees working in
department 20

Create view DEPT20 as

Select EName, JOB, sal* 12 ANNUAL_SALARY
From EMP
Where DEPTNO = 20
ANNUAL SALARY is specified for the expression SAL*12 and this alias is taken by the view
Alternative

Create view DEPT20(E name, job, ANNUAL_SALARY) as

Select ename, JOB, SAL*12
From EMP
Where DEPTNO = 20;

122
A view can be used in the same as a table, that is row can be retrieved from a view or rows can
be modified.

In Oracle, SQL, no insert, update, or delete modification on views are allowed that use one of
the following constraints in the view definition

· Join
· Aggregate functions such as sum, min, max, out etc
· Set-valued subqueries (in, any, all) or test for existence (exits)
· Group by clause or distinct clause
A view can be deleted using the command
Delete <view_name>

DATA DEFINITION IN SQL

Creating tables
The SQL command for creating an empty table has the following form:
Create table<table> (
<Column 1><data type> [not null] [unique] [<column constraint>],

----------------
----------------
<Column n ><data type> [not null] [unique] [<column constraint>],
[<Table constraint(s)>]
);

§ For each column, a name and a data type must be specified

§ The column name must be unique within the table definition
§ Column definitions are separated by comma
§ There is no difference between names in lower case letters and names in upper case
letters
§ In fact the only place where upper and lower case matter are strings comparison
§ A not null constraint is directly specified after the data type of the column and the
constraint requires defined attribute values for that column different from null.
§ The keyword unique specifies that no two tuples can have the same attribute .value for
this column
e.g. the create table statement for our EMP table has the form:

123
 create table EMP(
empno number(4) not null,
empName varchar2(30) not null,
job varchar2(10)

mgr number (4)

hiredate date
salary number(7,2)
deptNo number(2)
);
Note: Except for the columns, empNo and empName null values are allowed.

Checklist for creating tables

§ What are the attributes of the tuples to be stored?
§ What are the data types of the attributes?
§ Should varchar2 be used instead of char?
§ Which columns build the primary key?
§ Which columns do (not) allow null values?
§ Which columns do (not) allow duplicates?
§ Are there default values for certain columns that allow null values?

DATA MODIFICATIONS IN SQL

After a table has been created using the create table command, tuples can be inserted into the
table or tuples can be deleted or modified.
Insertions
i. Insert statement
Form;
Insert into <table> [(column i,…, column j>]
Values(<value i, ….,value j>);
For each of the columns, a corresponding (matching) value must be specified.If a column is
omitted, the value null is inserted instead.
e.g. a)Insert into PROJECT(PNO, PNAME, PERSONS, BUDGET, PSTART)values(313.’DBS’,
7411, NULL, 1500.42,’10-OCT-94’);

or

124
b)Insert into PROJECTvalues (313, ’DBS’, 7411, NULL, 1500.42, ’10-OCT-94’, null);
If there are already some data in other table; these data can be used for insertions into a new table
Insert into <table>[(<column i,…,column j>)]<query>
Create table OLDEMP (

ENO number (4) not null,

HDATE date
We can now use the table EMP to insert tuples into this new relation:
Insert into OLDEMP (ENO, HDATE)
Select EMPNO, HIREDATE
From EMP

Where HIREDATE<’31-DEC-60’;

Updates
For modifying attribute values of (some) tuples in a table, we use the update statement;
Update<table> set
<column i> =<expression i>,….

<column j> =<expression j>,….

Where<condition>

Note
§ That the new value to assign to <column i> must be matching the data type.
§ An update statement without a where clause results in changing respective attributes of
all tuples in the specified table.
e.g. a) the employee JONES is transferred to the department 20 as a manager and his salary is
increased by 1000
update EMP set,
JOB = ‘MANAGER’, DEPTNO = 20, SAL = SAL+1000

Where ENAME = ‘JONES’;

b)All employees working in the departments 10 and 30 get a 15% salary increase:
Update EMP set

125
 SAL = SAL * 1.5
Where DEPTNO IN (10,30);
We can use query instead of expression:
e.g. all salesmen working in department 20 get the same salary as the manager who has the
lowest salary among all managers
update EMP set
SAL = (select min(SAL) from EMP
Where JOB = ‘MANAGER’)

Where JOB = ‘SALESMAN’ and

DEPTNO = 20;

The query retrieves the minimum salary form all managers. This value is assigned to all
salesmen working in the department 20.

Deletions

Delete from<table>
[where<condition>],

Note if the where clause is omitted, all tuples are deleted from the table.
e.g. delete all projects (tuples) that have been furnished before the actual date(system date):
delete from PROJECT
where PEND<sysdate;
Note sysdate is a function in SQL that return the system date.Another SQL function is user
which returns the name of the user logged into the current oracle session.

126
Commit and rollback

Þ A sequence of database modifications i.e. a sequence of insert, update, delete statements

is called a transaction. Modifications of tuples are temporarily stored in the database
system. They become permanent only after the statement commit has been issued.
Þ As long as the user has not issued the commit statement, it is possible to undo all
modifications since the last commit. To undo modifications, one has to issue the
statement rollback.
Þ Note that any data definition command such as create table results in an internal commit.
Þ A commit is also implicitly executed when the user terminates an oracle session.
Select

from
where
group by
order by
inner join merge rows
insert rows

update - rows
delete - rows

Constraints
In creating table, two types of constraints are provided:

Þ column constraints
Þ table constraint.

Column constraints are associated with a single column.Table constraints are associated with
more that one column.
Constraint <name> primary key unique not null

· Constraint can be named in case of violation due to insertion. Two constraints here are
unique and not null
· The most important type of integrity constraints in a database are primary key constraints.
· A primary key constraint enables a unique identification of each tuple in the table. Based
on the primary key, the database system ensures that no duplicates appear in a table.
e.g
create table EMP(
127
 EMPNO number (4) constraint pk_emp
Primary key;
)

· Defines the attribute EMPNO as the primary key for the table.
· Each value for the attribute EMPNO must appear only once in the table EMP.
e.g. we want to create a table called PROJECT to store information about projects. For each
project, we want to store the
i. number of the project
ii. name of the project
iii. the employee number of the project’s manager
iv. the budget
v. the number of persons working on the project
vi. The start date
vii. The end date of the project
We have the following conditions
a. A project is identified by its project number
b. The name of a project must be unique
c. The manager and the budget must be defined

Create table PROJECT (

PNonumber(3) constraint prj-pk primary key,
PNamevarchar 2(60) unique
PMgr number (4) not null,
Persons number (5)
Budget number (8.2) not null

Pstart date
Pend date
);

A unique constraint can include more than one attribute:

unique(<column i>,…,<column j> ) is used.

If it is required that no two projects have the same start and end date, we have to add the table
constraint.

128
Constraint no-same-dates unique (PEnd, PStart).This constraint has to be defined in the create
table command after both columns PEnd and PStart have been defined.

Three types of constraints:

· not null
· primary key
· unique
Check constraint = to restrict possible attribute values
Foreign key constraint = to specify interdependences between relations

Check constraint
syntax
Constraint<name> check <condition>
Columns in a table must have values that are within a certain range or that satisfy certain
conditions. If a check constraint is specified as a column constraint, the condition can only refer
that column
e.g
o The name of employees must consist of upper case letters only
o The minimum salary of an employee is 500
o The numbers must range between 10 and 100

Create table EMP

(
eName varchar2(30) constraint check_name
Check (eName = upper(eName)),

SAL number (5,2) constraint check_sal

Check (SAL>= 500)
Deptno NUMBER (3) constraint check_deptno
Check (DEPTNO betwen10 and 100);

Condition can refer to all columns of the table. Not only simple conditions are allowed.

A check condition can include a not null constraint

129
SAL number(5.2) constraint check_sal
Check (SAL is not null and SAL>=500)
It is allowed to use and, or, not are allowed in the condition.
e.g. at least two persons must participate in a project and project’s start date must be before the
project’s end date.
Create table PROJECT(
-----
Persons number (5)constraint check_person

check(person>2)
-----
Constraint dates_ok check (PEND >PSTART),
In this task definition, check_person is a column constraint and date_ok is a table constraint.
The database system automatically checks the specified conditions each time a database
modification is performed on this relation.

Foreign Key Constraints

EMP
Child_table parent_table
DEPTNO DEPTNO
10 10
10 20
20 30
20 40
30

Foreign key primary key

Constraint<name> foreign key <columns>

References<table> [(<columns>)]
On delete cascade
ü A foreign key constraint or referential integrity constraint can be specified as a column
constraint or as a table constraint

130
 ü This constraint specifies a columns or a list of columns as a foreign key of the referencing
table
ü The referencing table is called the child_table and the referenced table is called the parent
_table
ü The clause foreign key has to be used in addition to the clause references if the foreign
key includes more than one column
ü The clause references defines which columns of the parent_table are referenced.
e.g. each employee in the table EMP must work in a department that is contained in the table
DEPT
create table EMP(
EMPNO number (4) constraint pk_emp primary key;
-----

DEPTNO number (3) constraint fk_deptno

References DEPT (DEPTNO));

ü Since in this table definition, the referential integrity constraintincludesonlyone column,

the clause foreign key is not used.
ü It is very important that a foreign key must refer to the complete primary key of a
parent_key, not only a subset of the attributes that build the primary key.
ü In order to satisfy a foreign key constraint, each rows in the child_table has to satisfy on
of the following two conditions
1. The attribute value (list of attribute values ) of the foreign key must appear as a
primary key value in the parent_table or
2. The attribute value of the foreign key is null

According to the above definition for the tableEMP, an employee must not necessarily work in a
department.
e.g. each project manager must be an employee

create table PROJECT(

PNO number (3) constraint prj_pkpimary key;
PMGR number(8) not null
Constraint fk_pmgr reference EMP,
);
A constraint can be disabled using the command

Alter table<table_name> disable

131
 Constraint <name>| primary key |unique <columns>
Cascade
To disable a primary key, one must disable all foreign key constraints that depend on this
primary key. The clause cascade automatically disables foreign key constraints that depend on
the (disabled) primary key.

Triggers

Þ Is a procedure
Þ Such a procedure is associated with a table and is automatically called by the database
system whenever a certain modification (event) occurs on that table.Modificationson a
table may include:
i. Insert
ii. Delete
iii. Update operations

Structure of triggers
A trigger definition consists of the following components:
i. Trigger name
Create or replace trigger<trigger name>
ii. Trigger time point
Before/after
iii. Trigger event(s)
Insert or update of <columns>
Or delete on <table>
iv. Trigger type (optional)
For each row

v. Trigger restrictions (only for each row trigger!)

When <condition>
vi. Trigger body
<PL/SQL block>
v The clause replace re-creates a previous trigger definition having the same <trigger
name>
v A trigger can be invoked before or after the triggering event
v A single event is an insert, an update or a delete. Events can be combined using logical
connective or
v In order to program triggers effectively, it is essential to understand the difference
between a row level trigger and a statement level trigger.A row level trigger is defined

132
 using the clause for each row.A row trigger executes once for each row after (before) the
event.A statement trigger is executed once after (before) the event.If the update affects 20
tuples, the trigger is executed 20 times for each row at a time. A statement trigger is only
executed once.

When combining the different types of triggers, there are twelve possible trigger configurations:

Event Trigger before Time point Trigger Type row

after statement
Insert

Update

delete

Only with a row trigger it is possible to access the attribut.values of a tuple before and after the
modification.
v For an update trigger, the old attribute value can be accessed using :old<column>
And the new attribute value can be accessed using: new<column>
v For an insert trigger only: new<column> can be used
v For a delete trigger only: old<column> can be used

In these cases:
:new<column> refers to the attribute values of <column> of the inserted tuple
:new<column> refers to the attribute value of <column> of the deleted tuple
In a row trigger thus it is possible to specify comparisons between old and new attribute values
in the PL/SQL blocks e.g.
if :old.sal<:new. Sal then
<Sequence of statement>
o When clause can be used in combination with a for each row trigger.
The trigger body consists of a PL/SQL block. Rollbackand commit can be used in this block.
Three constructs = If inserting
If updating exit
If deleting
e.g.

133
create or replace trigger emp.check
after insert or delete or update on EMP for each row
begin
if inserting then

<PL/SQL block>
end if
if updating then
<PL/SQL block>
end if
if deleting then

<PL/SQL block>
end if
end;

In the PL/SQL blocks of a trigger, an exception can be raised using the statement:

raise_application_error(
Raise_application_error can refer to old/ new values of modified rows:
raise_application_error(-20010,’salary increase form’
|| to_char (:Lold.sal)||`to’
to_char (: new.sal)||’ is for high’)
raise_application_error(-20030,’employee id’||

to_char(:new.EMPNO)||’ does not exit’);

e.g triggers
Suppose we have to maintain the following integrity constraint:
i. The salary of an employee different from the president cannot be decreased and must also
be increased more than 10%
ii. Depending on the job title, each salary must lie within a certain salary range

134
We assume a table SALGRADE that stores the minimum (MINSAL) and maximum (MAXSAL)
salary for each job title (JOB).

Since the above condition can be checked for each employee individually, we define the
following row trigger:
Create or replace trigger check_salary_EMP
After insert or update of SAL, JOB on EMP for each row

When (new.job|= ‘PRESIDENT’)------ trigger restriction

declare
minsal, maxsal SALGRADE.MAXSAL%TYPE;
begin
------ retrieve minimum and maximum salary for job
select MINSAL, MAXSAL into minsal, maxsal

from SALGRADE
where JOB = :new. JOB;
----- if the new salary has been decreased or does not lie within the salary range raise an
exception.

if (:new.SAL<minsal or
:new. SAL>maxsal) then
raise_application_error(-20230, ‘salary range exceeded’)

else if (:new. SAL<:old. SAL) then

raise_application_error(-20225, ‘salary has been decreased’)

else if (:new. SAL> 1.1 *:old.SAL) then

raise_application_error(-20235, ‘more than 10% increase’);
end if
end:

135
 UNIT ELEVEN
PL/SQL
Procedure language SQL allows users and designers to develop complex database applications
that require the usage of control structures and procedural elements such as

· Procedures
· Functions
· Modules
The basic construct in PL/SQL is a block statement in a PL/SQL block include

· SQL statements
· Control structures (loops)
· Condition statement (if-then-else)
· Exception handling
· Calls of other PL/SQL blocks

PL/SQL blocks that specify procedures and functions can be grouped into packages. A package
is similar to a module and has an interface and an implementation part.

PL/SQL offers a mechanism to process query results in a tuple-oriented way, that is, one tuple at
a time. For this, cursors are used. A cursor is a pointer to a query result and used to read attribute
values of selected tuples into variables. A cursor is used in combination with a loop construct
such that each tuple read by the cursor can be processed individually.

STRUCTURES OF A PL/SQL BLOCKS

1. [ <block header> ] – it specifies whether PL/SQL block is a procedure, function and a

package.

2. [declare

<constants>

<variables>

<cursors>

136
 <user defined exceptions> ]

Begin

3. <PL/SQL statements>
4. [ exception
<exception handle> ]

End;

Declarations constants, variables cursors and exceptions must be declared in the decision section
of that block.

<variable name> [constant] <data type> [not null] [:= <expression>];

Boolean type may be true, false, null.

The notnull clause requires that declared variable must always have a value different from null.
Expression is used to initialize a variable.

Constant mean once a value has been assigned to the variable, the value cannot be changed.

Declare

hire_date date;

job_title varchar2(80) := ‘salesman’;

emp_found Boolean;

salary_incr constant number (3,2) :=1.5;

….

Begin

…..

End;

Two allowed data type

₋ column

- many columns

137
 a. Emp.empno%TYPE: refers to the data type of a column EMPNO in the relation EMP.
b. DEPT%ROW TYPE: specifies a record suitable to store all attribute values of a complete
row from the table DEPT.
Such records are typically used in combination with a cursor. A field in a record can be accessed
using

<record name><column name>

e.g DEPT, deptno

A cursor declaration specifies a set of tuples (as a query result) such that the tuples can be
processed in a tuple-oriented way (i.e one tuple at a time) using the fetch statement.

Format or syntax for cursor

Cursor <cursor name> [ <list of parameters>] is <select statement>;

Cursor name should not be any PL/SQL variable.

List of parameters = <parameter name><parameter type>

Examples of a parameter type are char, varchar2, number, date, Boolean, integer.

Parameters are used to assign values to the variables that are given in the select statement.

e.g we want to retrieve the following attribute values from the table EMP in a tuple-
oriented way: the job title and name of those employees who have been hired after a
given date, and who have a manager working in a given department.

Cursor employee_cur (start_date date

Dno number) is

Select JOB, ENAME

138
 From EMP

Where HIREDATE >start_date

And exit.

(Select * from EMP where E.MGR = EMPNO and DEPTNO = DNO)

Before a declared cursor can be used in PL/SQL statements, the cursor must be opened and after
processing the selected tuples, the cursor must be closed. We use open statement to open a
cursor.

Open <currsor_name> [<list of parameter>]

Close statement is used to disable a cursor

Close <cursor name>

Open

· Select statement is processed.

· The cursor references the first selected tuple
· Selected tuples can be processed one tuple at a time using the fetch command
Close

Fetch <cursor_name>

Into <list of variables>;

· Fetch command assigns the selected attribute values of the current tuple to the list of
variables.
· After the fetch command, the cursor advances to the next tuple in the result set.

Note that the variables in the list must have the same datatypes as the selected values.

After all the tuples have been processed, the close command is used to disable the cursor.

139
 · PL/SQL does not permit the use of createtable statement way to assign a value to a
variable.
1. Declare
Counter integer := 0;

Begin

Counter = counter + 1;

End

2. Select statement
Select <columns>

Into <metching list of variables>

From <tables>

Where <condition>

Here, select retrieves one tuple/record, two records pls use cursor.

Instead of a list of single variables, a record can be given after the keyword into. Also, in this
case, select statement must retrieve atmost one tuple.

Declare

Employee_rec EMP%ROW TYPE;

Max_sal EMP.SAL%TYPE;

Begin

Select EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, MGR, SAL, COMM, HIREDATE,

DEPTNO

Into employee_rec

From EMP

140
 Where EMPNO = 5698;

Select max(SAL)

Into max_sal

From EMP;

End;

Loops

1. While loops
2. Two types of for loops
3. Continous loops: continous loop are used in combination with cursors.

1. Label name: name is used incase of nested loop.

inner loops are completed unconditionally using the exit.

Label name

While <condition> loop

<sequence of statements>

End loop [label name]

2. Label name
For <index> in [reverse] lower bound..upper bound loop

<sequence of statement>

End loop [label name]

· Index is declared implicitly

· Index can be constant or expression
· Reverse causes the iteration to proceed downwards from the higher bound to the lower
bound.

141
Cursor for loops can be used to simplify the usage of a cursor;

Label name

For <record_name>

In <cursor name>

<list of parameters> loop

<sequence of statements>

End loop [label name]

It is possible to specify a query instead of <cursor name> in a for loop.

For <record name>

In (select statement) loop

<sequence of statements>

End loop;

e.g for sal_rec

in (select SAL + COMM total from EMP) loop

end loop;

If – then – else

If <condition> then

<sequence of statements>

Else <sequence of statement>

End if;

142
Except create a table, other command such as delete, update, insert,

Commit are used in PL/SQL.

If update or delete statements are used in combination with a cursor these commands can be
restricted to currently fetched tuple. In these cases the clause where current of <cursor name> is
added as shown in the example.

The example below illustrates how a cursor is used together with a continous loop.

Declare

Cursor emp_cur is select from EMP;

Emp_rec EMP%RPWTYPE

Emp_sal EMP.SAL%TYPE

Begin

Open emp_cur;

Loop

Fetch emp_cur into emp_rec

Exit

When emp_cur %NOT FOUND

Emp_sal = emp_rec.sal;

<sequence of statement>

Endloop

Close emp_cur

End.

Each loop can be completed unconditionally using the exit clause.

143
 Exit <block label>

When <condition>

· Using exit without a block label causes the completion of the loop that contains the exit
statement.
· A condition can be a simple comparison of values.
· In most cases, the condition refers to a cursor.
· %NOT FOUND is a predicate that evaluates to false if the most recent fetch command has
read a tuple.
· The value of <cursor name> %NOT FOUND is null before the first tuple is fetched.
· The predicate evaluates to true if the most recent fetch failed to return a tuple and false
otherwise.
%found is the logical opposite of %not found.

EX2: the following PL/SQL block performs the following modifications. All employees having
KING has their manager get a 5% salary increase.

Declare

Manager EMP.MGR%TYPE;

Cursor emp_cur (mgr_no number) is

Select SAL

From EMP

Where MGR = mgr_no

For update of SAL;

Begin

144
 Select EMPNO

Into manager

From EMP

Where ENAME = ‘KING’;

For emp_rec in emp_cur (manager) loop

Update EMP

Set SAL = emp_rec.sal * 1.05

Where current of emp_cur;

End loop;

Commit;

End;

Note that the emp_rec is implicitly defined.

EXCEPTION HANDLING

· Two types of exceptions

o System-defined exceptions
o User-defined exceptions

System-defined exceptions are always automatically raised e.g

CURSOR_ALREADY OPEN

INVALID_CURSOR

NO_DATA_FOUND

145
TOO MANY ROWS

ZERO_DIVIDE

User defined exceptions:

1. it uses raise command

raise <exception name>

2. when <exception name>

then <sequence of statement>

3. raise_application_errore.g
declare

emp_sal EMP.SAL%TYPE;

emp_no EMP.EMPNO%TYPE;

too_high_sal exception;

begin

select EMPNO, SAL into emp_no, emp_sal

from EMP

where ENAME = ‘KING’;

if emp_sal * 1.05 >4000

then raise too_high_sal

else

update EMP

set SQL…..

endif;

146
 exception

when NO_DATA_FOUND …no tuple selected

then rollback;

when too_high_sal

then insert into high_sal_emps values (emp-no);

commit;

end;

raise_application_error = display error or warming messages on the screen.

It has two parameters:

<error number> -is a negative number btw -20000 to -20999.

<message-text> -is a string with < 2048 characters.

To-char is used to convert chart to numeric.

e.g if emp_sal * 1.05 > 4000

then raise_application_error (-20000, ‘salary increase for employee with id’ // to-char
(emp.no) // ‘is too high’);

user-defined exception: which must be declared by the user in the declaration part of a
block where the exception is used/implemented.

o System defined exception are always automatically raised whenever

corresponding errors or warming occur.
o User defined exceptions in contrast must be raised explicitly in a sequence of
statements using raise <exception name>

147
 o After the keyword exception at the end of a block, user defined exception
handling routines are implemented.
An implementation has the pattern

When <exception name> then <sequence of statements>;

Example of system defined exceptions;

Exception name remark

1. cursor_already_open You have tried to open a cursor which is already open.

2. INVALID_CURSOR Invalid cursor operation such as fetching from a closed

cursor.

3. NO_DATA_FOUND A select….into or fetch statement returned no tuple.

4. TOO_MANY_ROWS A select….into statement returned more than one tuple.

5. ZERO_DIVIDE You have tried to divide a number by 0.

Declare

Emp_sal EMP.SAL%TYPE;

Emp_no EMP.EMPNO%TYPE;

Too_high_sal exception;

Begin

Select EMPNO

148
 SAL into emp_no,emp_sal

From EMP

Where ENAME = ‘KING’;

If emp_sal * 1.05 > 4000 then

Raise too_high_sal

Else

Update EMP

Set sal….

Endif;

Exception

When NO_DATA_FOUND …. No tuple selected

Then rollback;

When too_high_sal then

Insert into high_sal_emps

Values (emp_no);

Commit;

End;

If a PL/SQL program is executed from the SQL plus shell, exception handling routines may
contain statements that display error in warning messages on the screen.

For this, the procedure

149
 Raise_application_error can be used.

This procedure has two parameters <error-number> and <message-text>.

Error-number is a negative integer defined by the user and must range between -20000 and -
20999.

Error-message is a string with a length upto 2048 characters.

// = the concatenate operator can be used to concatenate single strings to one string.

In order to display numeric variables, these variables must be converted to string using the
function to_char. e.g

If emp_sal * 1.05 > 4000 then

Raise_application_error (-20010,’salary increase for employee with id’ // to_char (emp_no) // ‘is
too high’);

ETHERNET

· Procedure/language/ SQL ; to implement complex data structure and algorithm

· The basic construct in PL/SQL is a block
· In block constants and variables can be declared
· Variables can be used to store query results
· Statements in a PL/SQL block include :

SQL statements

Control structure (loops)

Control statements(if-then-else)

Exception handling

Cells of other PL/SQL blocks

PL/SQL blocks that specify procedures and functions can be grouped into packages

· A package is similar to module and it has an interface and an implementation part

· Oracle offer several predefined packages e.g

Input/output routines

150
 File handling

Job scheduling

One importance of PL/SQL is that it offers a mechanism to process query results in a triple
oriented way i.e one triple at a time. For this, cursors are used. – A cursor is a pointer
to query result. –A cursor is
used to read attribute values of selected turples into variables. –
A cursor is used in combination with a -loop construct such that each turple read by the cursor
can be processed individually.

Structure of PL/SQL blocks.

– PL /SQL is a block structured language
- each block builds a program unit
- blocks can be nested.
– a PL/SQL block has an optional declare section

· A part containing PL/SQL statement

· An optional exception handling part

[<block header>] specifies procedure, function, package

[ declare

<constants>

<variables>

<cursors>

<user defined exceptions> ]

Begin

<PL/SQL statement >

[ Exception

<exception handling> ]

End.

Declaration

-constant, variables, cursors and exceptions used in a PL/SQL blocks must be declared in the
declare section of that block. Eg.

151
 Variables and constant can be declared as follows:

<variable name> [constant] <data type> [not null]

[:= <expression> ];

Valid data type = char(n ) (n=255 bytes and 2000 in oracle)

· Char(40)

· Varchar2(n) (n=2000 and 4000 in oracle)

Number(o.d) …integer or real

O =overall number of digits

D= number of digits to the right of the decimal point

O=38

D= - 84 to +127

Eg. Number(8)

Number(5.2)

Date = DD-MM-YY 13-oct-06

Long character date up to a length of 2GB.

In oracle-SQL there is no date type booleen.

- Attribute may have the special value null (for unknown)

- This value is different from 0
- It is also different from the empty string

Boolean date may only be true, false or null. The “not null” clause requires that the declared
variable must always have a value different from null

-<expression> is used to initialize a variable.

–if no expression is specified, the value null is assigned to the variable. –
the clause constant states that; once a value has been assigned to the variable, the value cannot
be changed – the variable becomes a constant. Eg.

152
 Declare

Hire date date; rhg’opo

Job title var char 2(80) I = ”sales man” ;

Emp-found Boolean;

Salary_iner constant number(3.2) =1.5

……….

Begin …. End;

Instead of specifying a date type, one can also refer to the date type of a table column so called
anchored declaration. Eg.
EMP. empno % type refers to the date type of the column empno in the relation EMP.
DEPT % ROW TYPE specifies a record suitable to store all attribute. Values of a
complete row from the table DEPT.

CURSOR
- A cursor declaration specifies a set of turples
- A turple can be processed in a turple-oriented way. Eg, one turple at a time using the fetch
statement.
– A cursor declaration has the form;
Cursor <cursor name> [ ( < list of parameters > ) ]
Is < select statement >;

-cursor name = not the name of any PL/SQL variable

-parameters has the form < parameter name >< parameter type>
Parameter type are char, var char, number, date, Boolean.

E.g. We want to retrieve the following attribute values from the table EMP in a turple-
oriented way. The job title and name of those employees who have been hired after a given date
and who have a manager working in a given department

Cursor employee_cur (start_date, date, dno, number) is

Select job, Ename
From EMP E
Where HIREDATE >start_date
AND exits
(
Select
From EMP
Where E.mgr=Emp no

153
 AND DEPT NO =dno);
-before a cursor can be used, it must be opened using the open statement.
Open < cursor name > [(<list of parameters>)]
The associated select statement Then is processed and the cursor reference the first selected
turple. –selected
turples then can be processed one turple at a time using the fetch command.
Fetch < cursor name > into < list of variables >;

- fetch command assigns the selected attribute values of the current turple to the list of variables.
-after the fetch command, the cursor advances to the next turple in the result set
-note that the variables in the list must have the some date type as the selected values.
-after all turples have been processed, the close command is used to disable the cursor
Close < cursor name >

Declare
Cursor emp.cur is
Select from emp;
emp-rec EMP % ROW TYPE;
emp-sal EMP.SAL %TYPE;
Begin
Open emp.cur;
Loop
Fetch emp.cur into emp-rec;
Exit
When emp.cur % NOT FOUND;
Emp-sal I = emp-rec.sal;
End loop
Close emp.cur;
End;

Exceptions are used to process errors .

% NOT FOUND is a predicate that evaluates to false if the most recent FETCH command has
read a turple.
The predicate evaluates to true if the most recent FETCH failed to return a turple,and false
otherwise.
% FOUND is the logical opposite of % NOT FOUND.

Language elements
(1) variable assignments
(2) control structures - loops (while and for)
-if –then- else

(3) procedure and function calls

154
 1. variable assignments

declare

counter integer i = 0;

begin

counter i =counter + i;

while =

while < condition > loop

< sequence of statement >;

End loop

For < index > in [ reverse ]

< lower bound > .. <upper bound> loop

<sequence of statements >

End loop

Reverse = causes the iteration to proceed downwards from the higher bound to the
lower bound.
If < condition> then
<sequence of statements>
Else < sequence of statement>
End if;

The following PL/SQL block performs the following modification. All employees having
“KING” as their manager get a 5% salary increase.

Declare

Manager EMP.MGR % TYPE;

Cursor emp.cur (mgr-no number ) is

Select SAL

From EMP

Where MGR = mgr-no

For update of SAL;

155
 Begin

Select EMPNO into manager

From EMP

Where ENAME = “king”;

For emp-rec in emp-cur (manager) loop

Update EMP

Set SAL =emp-rec.sal # 1.05

Where current of emp.cur;

End loop;

Commit;

End;

Procedure syntax

Create [ or replace ] procedure < procedure name >

[ ( list of parameters >)]

Is

<declaration>

Begin

< sequence of statement >

[exception

< exception handling routine >]

End [ < procedure name >]

Function syntax

Create [or replace] function < function name >

[ (< list of parameters >) ]

156
 Return < date type > is

Deleted procedure or function by using:

Drop procedure < procedure name >

Drop function < function name >

This procedure is used to increase the salary of all employees who work in the department given
by the procedure’s parameter. The percentage of the salary increase is given by a parameter too.

Create procedure raise-salary (Dno number, percentage number DEFAULT o.s)

Is

Cursor emp_cur (dept-no number) is

Select SAL

From EMP

Where DEPTNO = dept-no

For update of SAL;

Empsal number(8);

Begin

Open emp-cur (dno); ………………here dno is assigned to dept-no

Loop

Fetch emp-cur into empsal;

Exit

When emp-cur %NOTFOUND;

Update EMP

Set SAL = empsal * ((100 + percentage) /100)

Where current of emp-cur;

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 End loop;

close emp-cur;

commit;

end raise-salary

this procedure can be called from the SQL plus shell using the command

execute raise-salary (10,3);

if a procedure is called from a PL/SQL block the keyword execute is omitted.

Functions have the same structure as procedures. The only difference is that a function returns a
value whose data type (un constrained) must be specified.

Create function get-dept-salary (dno number)

Return number is

All-sal number;

Begin

All-sal i=0;

For emp-sal in

(select SAL

From EMP

WHERE DEPTNO = DNO

AND SAL is not NULL) loop

All-sal := all-sal + emp-sal.sal;

Emp loop;

Return all-sal;

End get-dept-salary;

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In order to call a function from SQL plus shell, it is necessary to first define a variable to which
the return value can be assigned.

Variable <variable name >< date type >;

E.g.

Variable salary number

Execute : salary i= get-dept-salary (20);

Note that the colon : must be put in front of the variable.

We use an after trigger because the inserted and updated row is not changed within the PL/SQL
block (eg.in case of a constraint violation, it would be possible to restore the old attribute
values).

Note that also modification on the table SALGRADE can cause a constraint violation.
In order to maintain the complete condition we define the following trigger on the table
SALGRADE. In case of a violation by an update modification however, we do not raise an
exception, but restore the old attribute values.

Create or replace trigger check-salary-SALGRADE before update or delete on SALGRADE for

each row.

When (new.MINSAL>old.MINSAL or new. MAXSAL <old.MAXSAL )

Nly restricting a salary range can cause a constraint violation

Declare

Job-emps number (3) i=0;

Begin

If deleting then :……….does there exist an employee having the deleted job?

Select count(*)

Into job-emps

From EMP

Where job = iodd.job;

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 If job.emps !=0 then…….. ( Raise-application-error (-20240,” there still exist
employee with the job” II :old.job));

End if

End if

If updating then …………. (are there employees whose salary does not lie within the
modified salary range? )

Salary count(*)

Into job-emps

From EMP

Where JOB = : new.JOB

AND SAL not between : new. MINSAL and

:new .MAXSAL;

If job-emps ! =0 then ……… (restore old salary ranges)

: new .MINSAL i = iold. MINSAL;

:new .MAXSAL i= iold.MAXSAL;

End if;

End if (in this case a “before” trigger must be used

to restore the old attribute values of an

updated row.)

end.

Suppose we furthermore have a column BUDGET in one table DEPT that is used to store the
budget available for each department.

Assume the integrity constraint requires that the total of all salaries in a department must not
exceed the department budget.

Critical operations on the relation EMP are insertions into EMP and updates on the attributes
SAL or DEPTNO

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 Create or replace trigger check-budget-EMP after insert or update of SAL DEPTNO on EMP

Declare

Cursor DEPT-CURR is

Select DEPTNO BUDGET

From DEPT,

DNO DEPT.DEPTNO % TYPE;

ALL SAL DEPT.BUDGET % TYPE;

DEPT-SAL number;

Begin

Open DEPT-CURR;

Loop

Fetch DEPT-CURR into DNO, ALL SAL

Exit when DEPT-CURR % NOT FOUND,

Select sum (SAL)

INTO DEPT SAL

FROM EMP

WHERE DEPTNO =DNO;

If DEPT-SAL > ALL SAL then

( raise-application- error (-20325, “total of salaries in the

department II to char (DNO) II ” exceeds budget) )

end if

end loop

close DEPT-CURR

end.

161
 References
Abiterboul S., Hull R and Viarin V. (1995). Foundation of Databases, Addison-Wesley

Anderson R.G. (1990).Data Processing Principles and Practice. Pitman Publishing, Longman
Group UK, 7th Edition

Anthony H. (1996). Uncertainity in Information Systems, The McGraw-Hill Companies

162
Cormen T., Leisserson C. and Rivest R. (1990). Introduction to Algorithms, MIT Press

Date C. J. (2003). An Introduction to Database System, 8th Edition, Addison-Wesley

Date C. J. (2003). An Introduction to Database Systems, 8th Edition, Addison Wesley

Elmesri R. and Narather S.P. (1994). Fundamental of Database Systems, Benjamin/Cummings

Garcia-Molina H., Ullman J.D. and Widom J.O. (2008). Database systems, The complete Book,
2nd Edition, Prentice Hall

Lawrence M. and Marianne F. (1990). Hands-on dBase III Plus, Benjamin/Cummings

Publishing Company.

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