The cytoplasm

Structure:
• It is a viscous jelly like fluid, similar in texture to the white of eggs.
• If its temperature exceeds 55°C it coaggulates.
• The cytoplasm contains several structures that have different shapes,
sizes, chemical composition and functions. Ribsomes
A) The endoplasmic reticulum:
• Presence : Present in all animal and plant cells.
Structure : Rough endoplasmic
• It consists of a group of minute cavities enclosed by thin membranes.
• These cavities are tubular or irregular in shape, flattened and parallel to
each other. These cavities may appear as separate cavities, spherical or
oval in shape. They are connected together to form internal network
inside the cytoplasm of the cell.
• It may be connected with both the nuclear membrane and plasma
membrane.
• It may also connect neighbouring cells.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticula :
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum: which carries numerous granules
called ribosomes on its outer surface.
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: It has smooth surface devoid of any
granules.
Function :
 • Ribosomes on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum are
responsible for protein synthesis.
 • The function of rough endoplasmic reticulum is to store proteins
made by ribosomes and transport them.
  • Endoplasmic reticulum acts as an internal transport system of the
cell where :
- It connects between different parts of the cell.
- It connects between nuclear membrane and cell membrane.
- It connects between the cell and neighbouring cells.
B)The Ribosomes
• Structure :
• They are very fine granules, found in large numbers on the surface of
rough endoplasmic reticulum or among its branches, or free in the
cytoplasm.
• Function :
• Are the centers of protein synthesis in the cell.
C)The Mitochondria
Presence : In the cytoplasm of nearly all animal and plant cells.
Structure :
• Rod-like or hair-like or sausage like structures (from 0.5 to 2 microns in
length).
Add to your knowledge.
Mitochondriafrom the Greek word mitos means "thread" and chondrion
means "grains".
Function :
• They are the centers of energy production and storage in the cell as they
contain respiratory enzymes, and other materials needed to release energy
from food and storing it.
Note:
The number of mitochondria increases in case of active cells such as liver
and muscle cells in animals.
D) Golgi apparatus (body)
Presence:
• It is present in the cytoplasm of all animal and plant cells.
• It exists close to the nucleus or around it.
• It is abundant in glandular cells, which share in the secretion of
enzymes of protein
and other substances.
Structure:
• It is similar in structure to endoplasmic reticulum.
• It consists of membranes, vesicles and flattened parallel vesicles or sacs,
with thin smooth surfaces and contains numerous tiny particles.
• There are spherical vesicles at their edges. ® Function :
• It stores proteins made by ribosomes to be transported through the
endoplasmic reticulum or secreted later.
• Some of the secretions produced by the cell are glycoprotein [i.e
carbohydrate + protein]. Where the protein part made by ribosomes and
the carbohydrate part is added to the protein part by Golgi body. .
Golgi body stores and secretes secretory substances [enzymes -
hormones].
E) Centrosome:
Presence : It exists close to the nucleus in most animal cells and in very
few kinds of primitive plant cells.
Structure :
• It is a small body.
• It consists of two central granules called centriols.
• Each centriole is a small cylindrical body, its outer wall contains
a number of microtubules arranged into nine groups each consists of three
microtubules.
Function :
• It has an important role in cell division.
• During cell division, each rod or centriole migrates to one of the cell
poles, and each of them becomes a center of radiating protein fibrils
called spindle which extend towards the middle or the equator of the cell
which helps to divide the cells into two cells.
F) Lysosomes
Presence : Are more abundant in animal cells [e.g liver, kidney, small
investing] than in plant cells.
Structure :
• Are tiny bodies contain a group of digestive enzymes which catalyze the
digestion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Function:
• The function of lysosomes differs from one cell to another. . Examples:
• Lysosomes of white blood cells can breakdown bacteria.
• They can digest worn out organelles and worn out cells so, they are
called suicide bags.
• They can digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Add to your knowledge
Lysosomes from the Greek word lyso means "lysis" (id breaking down)
and some means "body".
G) Plastids
• Presence : Are structures present in plant cells.
• Shapes of plastids:
Spherical - oval - discoid or spiral.
Spirogyra alga : contains spiral shaped plastids.
Chlamydomonas alga : contains a cup-shaped plastid.
Types of plastids : according to their colour, there are three types of
plastid : chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
 Points of Chloroplasts Chromoplasts LeucopIasls
comparison [green plastids] [coloured plastids] [colourless plastids]
Colour: Green Red - yellow - Colourless
orange and brown
according to the
type and amount of
pigments they
contain.

Kind of Chlorophyll Different types of no pigments

pigments : pigments.

Location : • In green leaves • They exist in They exist in parts

and green stems petals of flowers, of the plant away
of some plants. fruits, in vegetables from the light as
• They never exist and in the leaves of inner cabbage
in roots, except few kinds of plants. leaves, inner onion
aerial roots. • They exists in leaves, most roots.
some roots as beet
and turnip.
• Present in some
coloured algae.
Function : Photosynthesis Colouring • Storage of food.
• They can change to
chloroplasts or
chromoplasts.

H) Cell vacuoles
Presence : They are found in plant cell in the form of small vacuoles (in
young plant cells) or as large vacuoles (in adult cells containing juices).
 They are surrounded by a thin membrane that separates between their
components from the cytoplasm, and it also regulates the passage of
substances in and out the vacuoles.
Function : Store juices and excess products.
I) Other components
Fat globules, glycogen, colouring pigments, hormones, enzymes,
vitamins and various crystals.
The plasma membrane
Presence : In both plant and animal cells.
• It is part of the protoplasm which externally encloses the cell.
Structure : Fluid mosaic structure, as it is build from a double layer of
Phospholipids in which protein molecules are embeded, and are
wandering . nosphoiipids Protein in the phospholipids like ice bergs.
• The phospholipids are found in the form of an outer and an inner layers.
• The outer surface contains either glycoproteins [carbohydrates +
protein] and glycolipids [ carbohydrates + fats].
• Substances can pass through plasma membrane by diffusion, active
transport and phagocytosis.
Add to your knowledge
• Diffusion : The process by which molecules move from an area of "ae,
greater concentration to an area of lower concentration .
• Active transport: The movement of a substance across a cell membrane
against concentration gradient: requires the cell to expend energy.
• Phagocytosis: a type of endocytosis where a cell engulfs large particles
or whole cells.
• Function :
• Encloses and protect the cell contents. -
• Controls what enters and leaves the cell according to the needs of the
cell because it is selectively permeable.
Note:
Selective permeable membrane : is the membrane that keeps out some
molecules and allow others to pass through.
Cellwalf
Presence : In plant cells only, surrounding the plasma membrane.
Function:
• It protects, support the plant cell and gives it its shape.
• Since it is composed of cellulose which allows water and other
substance to pass through, it is fully permeable membrane.
Important Comparisons
1. Comparison between animal cell and plant cell.

Points of
Animal cell Plant cell
comparison
Cell wall Absent Present - fully permeable.

Lysosomes Large in number Few in number.

Present, may be chloroplast,

Plastids Absent
chromoplasts, leucoplasts.
Present, commonly as one large
Vacuoles Small or missing
vacuole in mature cells.
Absent except in very few
Centriole Usually present
primitive forms.

2. Comparison between cell wall and cell membrane.

vacuole
Points of
Cell wall Cell membrane
comparison
Existence : In plant cells only. In both plant and animal cells.

Chemical Mainly cellulose. Molecules of protein embeded in

composition : two layers of phospholipids
(Mosaic structure)
Permeability : Fully permeable. Selectively permeable.
Function : Supports, encloses, - Encloses and protects the cell.
protects the cell and - Controls what enters and leaves
 gives it its shape. the cell according its needs.

Examination of the cell

The cell is so small in size, can only be seen by microscope.
• There are two types of microscopes.
a. Light microscope. b. Electron microscope.
I- Description of parts of light microscope.
1. Mechanical parts :
a. The base : For setting the microscope on the lab. table.
b. The pillar : To support various parts of the microscope.
c. Inclination joint : For tilting the upper part of the microscope to be
easily used.
d. The stage: To hold the glass slide by the help of two clips fixed at
their ends.
e. The arm : It is curved for carrying the microscope.
f . The body tube : A cylindrical tube with an eye piece at the upper end
to look through during examination.
g. The nose piece : It is circular and revolves with two or three objective
lenses. A low power objective and an oil immersion lens so that 4one of
these lenses will be in-line with the eye piece.
h. Coarse adjustment : A knob to move the body tube upwards or
downwards
in order to focus the image of an object.
i. Fine adjustment : It moves the body tube in a limited way to make the
image more clear especially when using the high power objective.
j. Sliding tube : At the top of the body tube where the eye-piece is fixed.
By lifting it upwards it increases the magnification power.

2. Optic parts :
a. The mirror : It is placed below the stage where it collects light and
reflects it upwards to pass through the object to be examined in order to
make it more illuminated.
• The mirror is double faced, one is plane, usually used with low power
objective, and the other is concave to focus the light rays on the object
when the high power objective
b. Objective lenses : These are fixed in the revolving nose piece. They
are of two kinds : low power objective of focal length 16 mm and a high
power objective of focal length 4 mm, used to examine a smaller area of
the object.
c. Eye piece : It is fixed at the top of the sliding tube in order for the eye
can look through at the object.
Magnification power
Power of eye piece × Power of objective applied for examination.
Note:
The magnification power of the light microscope does not exceed 3000
times that of naked eye.
Ex:
If the power of the objective lens equals 30 times and the power of eye
piece equals 5 times. Calculate the magnification power for this
microscope.
Magnification power = Objective lens power × eye piece power.
= 30 × 5 = 150 times.
II - The electronmicroscope :
• Its magnification power ranges from 100.000 to 500.000 times.
• Some types can magnify up to 1.000.000 times.
• It consists basically of:
a. Source of electrons : which produce electrons that pass through the
examined specimen.
b. An electromagnetic lens that magnifies the specimen.
• The highly magnified image is formed on a screen.
Critical thinking question
From the following body organs and tissues, mention the cellular
organells that are abundantly found in each organ or tissue and
justify your choice.
a. Muscular tissue. b. Liver.
c. Kidney. d. White blood cells.
Lesson 2: Differentiation of cells and types of tissues

* Living organisms may be :

* Unicellular organism : Which possesses a body of one cell only and
throughout its life it can carry out all the life function.
Example:Amoeba.
* Multicellular organism : Which starts its life as one cell called zygote.
• The zygote divides until the organism becomes multicellular.
• Each life function is carried out by a group of homogenous cells called
tissue.
Example: Man.
*Typesof tissues : -
Simple tissue Complex tissue
All its cells are identical in shape Which consists of more than one
and structure. type of cells.
Example: Parenchyma tissue. Example: Phloem tissue.

Since animals and plants differ in their characters, behaviour and biotic
activities, their tissues are naturally different. r

Differentiation of plant tissues

• There are various forms of plant tissues, which perform different
functions, which are required to maintain life.
The most important functions are :
1. Absorption of water and minerals from the soil and transport them to
take part in the synthesis and storage of food.
2. Keeping water inside the plant body and decrease the amount of water
loss expecially in parts exposed to air.
3. Support the plant and give it resistance against external factors such as
gravity, bending, twisting,.......... ect.
4. Production of new cells and tissues to repair worn out tissues and for
the plant growth.
Types of plant tissues:

Simple tissues. Compound tissue

Parenchyma tissue (Connective tissue).
Chlorenchyma tissue Xylem tissue.
Collenchyma tissue Phlnem tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue
Comparison between meristematic and permenant tissues :
Meristematic tissues Permanent tissues
 Are able to divide by mitosis.  They have lost their power of
division.
 They divide to give permanent  They originate from meristematic
tissues. tissues.
 Small in size.  Relatively larger in size.
 Have abundant cytoplasm.  Contain protoplasm.
 Sap vacuoles are small or absent.  Sap vacuoles are large.
 Cuboidal in shape. meristem
 Have thin walls.
 The nucleus is large
 relative to the cell.
 Without intercellular spaces.
 Present in plant embryo, buds and
growing tips of the root and stem.
meristem

Simple permanent tissues :

1. Parenchyma tissue:
• One of the most common and abundant type of
tissues.
• It exists in cortex and pith.
2. Chlorenchyma tissue:
 The cells of this tissue contain green plastids
[chlorophyll].
 Palisade and spongy tissues in the green
leaves are chlorechyma tissues.
 It also exists in the cortex of herbaceous
stems.
 Main function is photosynthesis.
3. Collenchyma tissue:
 Their walls are thickened with cellulose especially at the corners.
 It is a mechanical supporting tissue.
 Abundant in parts of plant that need support such as the leaf petiole
[stalk].
4. Sclerenchyma tissue:
  It is also a mechanical tissue.
 It exists, together with the collenchyma tissue in parts of the plant
that need support against pressure and stretching.
 They have no cytoplasm or nuclei, they have thick lignified walls
(made of lignified cellulose).
Compound permanent plant tissues:
* The vascular tissues (conducting tissues) in plants.
• Phloem Tissue:
Location : exists throughout the whole plant.
Structure : it consists of:
-Sieve tubes. - Companion cells.
- Phloem parenchyma. - Sclerenchyma fibres.
Function : Transporting ready made food from leaves to different parts
of the plant.
The structure of the phloem sieve tubes:
 Each sieve tube is a vertical row of cylindrical cells, their
transverse walls are perforated (having tiny pores) forming sieve
plates which allow cytoplasm to flow from one cell to another in
the form of cytoplasmic strands, carrying the ready made food.
The companion cell:
• The nucleus of each sieve tube element disappears during the formation
of these cells, so, it has a nucleated companion cell to control its activities
and provide it with energy.
Note:
Phloem tissue is a living tissue.
• Xylem Tissue (vessels and tracheids):
Location : Throughout the whole plant.
Structure : It consists of:
- Xylem vessels (wood vessels). - Tracheids.
- Xylem parenchyma. - Sclerenchyma fibres.
Function:
 Translocates water and salts from the root to the leaves to be used
in photosynthesis/
 It also supports the plant.
Tracheids and vessels:
 During the formation of the xylem cells (tracheids and vessels),
thick lignified secondary walls are deposited on their primary
walls.
 Both cytoplasm and nucleus of each cell degenerate forming thick
walled hollow elongated cell.
 These cells are superimposed over each other forming tracheids.
 Or the transverse walls between adjacent cells disappear to form a
long wide tube called vessel through which water and salts can
pass easily and quickly.
Note:
Xylem is a dead tissue because xylem cells have no nuclei or cytoplasm.
 Among xylem vessels and tracheids their are parechyma cells and
sclerenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells having thickened walls may
be present among tracheids and vessels in the form of rays.
Critical thinking question:
 Would you expect to find sclerechyma cells near meristems? Why?
Why not?
 Lesson (3): Differentiation of animal tissues

Animal tissues are differentiated to be adapted to perform different

function.
1. The Epithelial tissues :
Location :
• They cover the whole surface of the animal body to protect it from
harmful bacteria and dry ness.
• They line the internal body cavities as walls of alimentary canal,
bronchioles
of the lung, tubules of the kidney and glandular ducts. 9 Function : . -;
• They may absorb water and food, or excrete waste products.
• They secrete mucus to keep the body cavities smooth and moist. 9
Characteristics :
• The epithelial tissue rests on a basement membrane that separates it
from the underlying layer. '
• Its cells are closely arranged next each other.
• The intercellular substance that sticks cells together is present in a very
small amount or nearly absent.
• Devoid of blood vessels, and it is supplied with food from the
underlying layer by diffusion.
• Some types of epithelial cells are ciliated, i.e. having cilia on their
surface.
Surface epithelial tissue :
• Location : Covers the outer surface of the body or lines its inner
cavities.
Characteristics:
 Could be simple [consists of one layer of cells].
  Could be stratified [consists of several layers of cells arranged over
each other] like skin cell epithelium.
B) Glandular epithelial tissue:
 The gland could be of one cell [unicellular] or of many cells
[multicellular] that are grouped together forming glandular tissue.
* There are three different types of multicellular glands:
Exocrine (duct) Endocrine (ductless) glands Mixed glands
glands
These glands possess Are glands that have no ducts Have the structure of
ducts that carry their and their secretions pass both exocrine and
secretions either to the directly into the blood endocrine glands.
external or secrete the stream.
internal epithelial
surface.
various secretions e.g Secrete hormones. e.g Pancrease secretes
the skin glands have e.g: insuline hormone so
external secretions of Adrenal gland → Adrenaline act as endocrine, also
sweat and fats. Thyroid gland → Thyroxine secretes pancreatic
While the digestive Pituitary gland→ Growth juices which help in
glands secrete their hormones. digestion, here it acts
secretions as enzymes as exocrine.
towards inner surface
of the alimentary
canal.
Neuro - epithelium:
There are some epithelial tissues specialized for receiving certain external
stimuli like odour, taste,.........., from surrounding medium and transmit
them to central nervous system.
Example: Taste buds on the tongue.
2. The connective tissues:
* It includes different types of tissues.
Function :
• It connects and holds various tissues and body organs together.
• It supports the body [bone - cartilage].
• It forms blood and lymph.
Characteristics:
 Its cells are few and widely spaced.
 Its cells are embedded in a large amount of intercellular substance
[Matrix].
 The matrix contains deposits that differ according to the type of the
tissue, it could be solid as in bone, semi-solid as in cartilage or
fluid as in blood.
A) Proper connective tissue:
• It is the most common type of connective tissues.
Location: If forms continuous layer below the skin, and also found in the
mesentry which binds the internal organs together inside the abdominal
cavity.
Function: Connects various tissues and organs of the body together.
Characteristic:
It has a medium degree of rigidity and high degree of elasticity (high
elastic) that enables it to return back to its first state when exposed to
pressure as in the mesentery.
Skeletal connective tissue:
Location: It forms the internal skeleton of the human body.
Function: Supporting the body.
Characteristics:
• The cells of this tissue are able to divide quickly, which appears clearly
in case of bone fractures and its fast healing and the formation of new
tissue at the fracture site.
• There are two types: I. Cartilage. II. Bones.
I. Cartilage:
Location and function:
 It represents the larger part of the skeleton of vertebrate embryos.
 It also forms the entire skeleton of some animals like cartilagenous
fish (e.g Shark).
 In fully grown animals, cartilage is only found at the ends of bones
i.e. at the joints, in the ear pinna, the epiglottis, the trachea and the
nose tip.
Characteristics:
 It is rigid but highly flexible tissue that can be bent.
 It consists of cartilage cells or chondroblasts, each of them is
surrounded by lacuna (capsule) and they are separated from each
other by intercellular substance [matrix] called chondrin.
II. Bones:
Location: Forms the internal skeleton of human body.
Function: • It helps in the movement of the body.
• It supports the body and keeps its shape.
Characteristics:
 It is a hard connective tissue due to the presence of calcium salts in
its matrix which is called ossein.
 Compact bones are formed of bone cells (osteocytes) arranged in
elongated cylindrical units known as Haversian Systems.
Vascular connective tissue:
Characteristics : It includes blood and lymph and it is characterized by :
 The intercellular substance (matrix) is a liquid called plasma in
which cells are contained.
 The tissue cells (blood corpuscles) are not responsible for the
formation of the plasma.
 The plasma has no fibres in normal conditions but fibres are
formed when blood clots (coagulates) by exposing to air.
3. Muscular tissues:
Location:
• Muscular tissue is the most common type of body tissues.
• It represents about 40% of the total body weight.
Function: The muscular tissue can contract and relax, so it brings about
various movements of the body.
Characteristics:
 It is built up of muscle cells called muscle fibres.
 The muscle fibre (equivalent to cells in other body tissues) is the
basic building unit of the muscle tissue.
 Blood vessels spread among muscle fibres to feed these tissues and
control its action.
Types of muscle tissues:
a. Striated (skeletal) muscles.
b. Smooth involuntary (unstriated) muscles.
c. Cardiac muscles.
A) Striated [skeletal] muscles:
Location: They are attached to the skeleton.
Function: Help in moving voluntary body parts e.g arm, leg
Characteristics:
 • This type represents the larger portion of the muscular tissues.
  Include all voluntary muscles in the body e.g arm, leg, trunk
muscles.
 Man can move these muscles voluntarily.
 They can contract quickly but are also get quickly exhausted and
fatigued.
 The muscle cbnsists of a group of muscle fibres.
 Each muscle fibre is a syncytium and is regarded as a group of
elongated cylindrical cells.
Note
Syncytium = Coenocyle means a cell that has more than one nucleus.
 Each fibre contains several elongated peripheral nuclei that spread
in the cytoplasm (Sarcoplasm).
 Each muscle fibre is formed of numerous longitudinal fibrils
(myofibrils) or sarcostyles.
 Each myofibril is divided regularly along its length into alternate
dark and light bands that finally gives the muscle fibre its cross
striated appearance.
The dark bands are formed of a thick myosin protein filaments while
as the light bands are formed of a thin actin protein filaments.
B) Smooth involuntary (unstriated) muscles:
Location: Are found in various parts of the body, in the walls of the
alimentary canal, walls of blood vessels, urinary bladder, ducts of glands.
Function: Help in conraetion and relaxation internal body parts as blood
vessels.
Characteristics:
 These muscles are not controlled by man's will they are
involuntary.
 They are not exhausted or get tired quickly as in the case of
skeletal muscles.
  Are formed of spindle shaped fibres that are pointed at the two
ends and are short compared with the skeletal muscle fibres.
 Each fibre is formed of myofibrils and has one central nucleus that
is embeded in the sarcoplasm.
 It has no dark or light bands, so they are also named unstriated
muscles.
C) Cardiac (heart) muscles:
Location: In the walls of the heart.
Function: Contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle.
Characteristics:
 They have the characteristics of both striated and smooth muscles.
 Are formed of cylindrical muscle fibres that are relatively short,
branched,and connected (fused) to each other forming a net work
of muscle fibres. mediated.
 Each muscle fibre has only one nucleus that exists in the centre of
the cell as in smooth muscles.
 Muscle fibres have dark and light bands so they are cross striated
as skeletal muscles.
 At the connection of each muscle fibre to the next there are
transvers markings called Intercalated discs which cross the fibres
at variable distances and make the heart beats in a coordinated
(rhythemic) way as a single functional unit.
 These muscles are not controlled by man's will but they are
involuntary.
 They are not exhausted or fatigued compared with skeletal
muscles.
Comparison between striated muscles, smooth muscles and
cardiac muscles.
Striated muscles Smooth muscles Cardiac muscles
 [skeletal muscles]
Striated Non - Striated Striated

It has dark and light No dark or light areas. Has dark and light areas,
areas on its fibres due to also it has intercalated
the presence of dark discs which relays
[myocin] thick protein impulses from a cell to
and light [actin] thin another during heart
protein which are beat.
alternate to each other.

Voluntary i .e the human Involuntary Involuntary

is capable to move them.

Gets fatigue and tired. Does not get tired or Does not get tired or
fatigue. fatigue.

3. Nervous tissue:
Function:
 Reception of sensory impulses from sensory organs of the body
and transmitting them to the brain and the spinal cord.
 Carry motor impulses to muscles and glands.
 Respond to stimuli (sensitivity).
Structure of nerve cell [neuron]:
 The nerve cell consists of the cell body (cyton) where dendrites are
connected to.
 Also a cylindrical cell's axon (nerve fibre) that extends from the
cell cytoplasm and ends with terminal arborizations.
Critical thinking question:
Mention how each tissue is organised to perform its function.
Lesson 4: Types of cell division

* There are two types of cell division:

1. Mitosis (mitotic cell division) or indirect cell division.
2. Meiosis (meiotic cell division) or reduction cell division.
I- Mitosis [Indirect cell division:
Occurance: It takes place in somatic (body) cells.
Importance : Mitosis plays an important role in :
1. Asexual reproduction of protists, lower organisms and many higher
plants.
2. In growth of multicellular organisms.
Cells results from mitotic cell division :
Receive a complete copy (2n) of the original's cell chromosomes,
(Diploid) so they have similar genetic potentials and perform the same
functions.
Stages of mitosis: Mitosis takes place in two stages:
1. Nuclear division. 2. Cytoplasmic divisions.
 Before mitosis, the cell passes through a stage called interphase in
which the chromosomal material (DNA) duplicates.
Interphase is followed by a nuclear division which includes 4 stages:
a. Prophase. b.Metaphase.
c.Anaphase. d. Telophase.
 Nuclear division is followed by cytoplasmic division.
Nuclear division
A) Prophase:
 It is the longest phase in mitosis that lasts for over half the entire
mitotic time.
 In prophase, the chromatin network disappears and condenses into
distinct chromosomes.
  Each chromosome consists of two chromatids attached together at
a centromere.
In animal cell: Two pairs of centrioles appear close to the nucleus and
each pair moves towards one of the cell poles from
which spindle fibers radiate across the cytoplasm.
In plant cell: Centrioles are absent and spindle fibres appear directly
without them. Finally, the nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disappear.
B) Metaphase:
 The chromosomes are arranged along the mid-line (equatorial
plane) of the cell and are fixed by spindle fibers that are connected
with the centromere in each chromosome.
 Each centromere divides into two, one per each chromatide.
C) Anaphase
 It is the shortest phase, in which identical chromatids
(of each chromosome) separate into independent chromosomes with the
help of spindle fibres which contract to withdraw each of the new
chromosomes to one of the cell poles where two identical sets of
chromosomes are formed.
D) Telophose
 Upon reaching the cell poles, chromosomes lose their identity and
coil up into a chromatin reticulum around which a nuclear
membrane appears, the nucleolus appears and the spindle fibers
disappear and the centrioles divide to be ready for the new
division.
 At the end of the nuclear division, the cytoplasmic division begins.
Cytoplasmic division
In animal cell In plant cell
The cytoplasm is divided A middle lamella develops in the
between the two resulting cells middle of the cell forming a cell
and a new cell membrane is wall between the two cells.
formed between them.

II. Meiosis [Reduction division]

Occurance: It occurs only in the gonads or reproductive organs [anthers
and testes or ovaries] of organisms.
Importance: Production of haploid [n] gametes [i.e contains half the
number of chromosomes in somatic cells]. So that to keep the number of
diploid chromosomes fixed after fusion of gametes and no chromosomal
disturabance occur.
Stages of meiotic division:
I. First meiotic division. II. Second meiotic divisions.
Interphase: Before meiosis, the cell passes through an interphase where
the chromosomal material duplicates only once.
 It is followed by two consecutive nuclear divisions producing 4
haploid cells. I. First meiotic division :
 Results in two haploid (n) cells.
 Takes part in two steps:
1. Nuclear division. 2. Cytoplasmic division.

Nuclear division

A) Prophase I:
It is the longest step and the most important and complex in which:
1. The chromatin reticulum uncoils into distinct'chromosomes, then
chromosomes are arranged in homologous pairs, each pair consists
of 4 chromatids called a tetrade.
 2. A process called chiasma and crossing over occurs between the
two inner chromatids of each tetrad in which some parts of the two
inner chromatids are exchanged to produce new genetic
arrangements while the outer chromatids stay without change and
are called parental chromatids.
3. Centrioles (in animal cell) divide at the end of the phase and
migrate to the cell poles and spindle fibres appear.
4. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
Note that
 Crossing over leads to continuous genetic variation in the
characters of successive generations which enable them to adapt
with environmental changes.
 If crossing over does not take place, the resulting individuals will
be copies of their parents, and will be exposed to death and
extinction upon environmental changes.
B) Metaphase:
 In metaphase I, homologous pairs of chromosomes are arranged on
the equator of the cell (in two rows) and are fixed by spindle fibres
that connect ' with the centromere in each chromosome.
C) Anaphase:
 In anaphase I, the two chromosomes of each pair separate from one
another and each chromosome moves as a pair of chromatids
(without division of centromeres) to one of the cell poles due to the
contraction of spindle fibres, so the whole chromosomes are
separated and not the chromatids as in mitosis.
D) Telophase:
 In telophase I, half the original number of chromosomes (haploid
number) arrive to each cell pole and aggregate into a sphere to be
enveloped by a nuclear membrane.
  The nucleolus appear.
2) Cytoplasmic division
 Cytoplasm divides giving two daughter cells with haploid (n)
number of chromosomes.
Second meiotic division
1) Nuclear division
A) Prophase II:
 The chromosomes become condensed.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
 The spindle is formed.
Note that
Second meiotic division is similar to mitosis, with one important
difference, that chromosomal material does not duplicate again in
interphase II.
B) Metaphase II:
 The chromosomes are arranged on the equator of the cell.
 The centromeres divide into two, one on-each chromatid.
C) Anaphase ll:
 The chromatids of each chromosome separate and each of them
moves as an independent chromosome towards one of the cell
poles due to the contraction of spindle fibres.
D) Telophase II:
 The nuclear membrane appears around each new set of
chromosomes, so 4 haploid nuclei are formed.
2) Cytoplasmic division:
Division:
The cytoplasm divides to produce 4 daughter cells each with haploid
number (n) of chromosomes, which develop into male or female 9
gametes.
Critical thinking question:
 Explain why the chromosomes in haploid cells that are produced by
meiosis I look different from those produced by meiosis II?
[Guide answer: Think about chromosomes & Chromatids]
Practical Study:
Using microscopic examination to identify the following:
A. Types of plant cells.
B. Types of animal cells.
C. Stages of cell division (two types).
A) Identifying the types of plant cells:
 Using the low power then the high power in examination a T.S for the
following:
- Fresh root of a dicot. plant.
- Fresh stem of a dicot. plant (e.g. sun flower).
- A plant leaf through which the section pass through the midrib (as
cotton).
 By investigating these sections the following tissues can be observed:
- Parenchyma tissue.
- Chlorenchyma tissue.
- Chollenchyma tissue.
- Sclerenchyma tissue.
- Xylem tissue.
- Phloem tissue.
 Draw the cells of each tissue separately, then describe it through the
following :
- The kind of tissue (being simple or compound).
- Specify the types of compound tissue.
- The presence of intercellular spaces, specifying its size.
- The general shape of the cells, its lignificatidn.
B) Identifying the types of animal cells :
- Using the low power then the high power of the microscope in
examining a ready made slide for the following sections:
- T.S for ventricular wall in a rabbit heart.
- Section in the spinal cord.
- Tissues: Blood - Bone - Epithelial - Muscular - Liver.
 Draw a labelled diagram for each tissue then mention its
characteristics.
- Type: simple or compound.
- General shape of the cell.
- The presence of intercellular spaces or their absence.
- The presence of nucleus, its size relative to the cell, ability to
distinguish it from the cytoplasm.
- Presence of vacuoles and their number.
C) Recognizing the stages of cellular division:
1. Indirect cell division (mitosis).
- Preparing a slide for a meristematic tissue of a root.
* The tools used are:
- microscope. - clean glass slides & covers.
- onion which has transverse roots (soaked in water) .
-water bath - Diluted hydrochloric acid. (dil HC1).
- Eusin or acetocarmine stain for an hour.
The Steps :
a. Cut one of the roots and put it in a test tube together with acidified
water with hydrochloric acid.
b. Put the test tube in a water bath at 80°C for an hour.
c. Wash the root properly with water and put it in the stain for an hour,
d. Put the stained root in a bottle filled with water for an hour to get rid
of excess stain.
 e. Cut the growing tip of the root together with a drop of water & cover
the slide.
f. Examin the slide microscopically, tracing the stages of mitosis.
g. Draw what you see under the microscope.
2. meiosis [reductiondivision]
 Trace the stages of meiotic division from a ready made slide of a
section from test is or ovary of an animal as rabbit or cat.
 Draw what you see under the microscope.