Kinematics

-​ Doherty Glaze (bro is not ms lasch) (is friction negligible while inside her????)
-​ Stay mindful of using specific terminology and wording and be strict to use correct
measurement units as he may take away marks for this
-​ Think backwards during labs
-​ “Work as if you had the solution and had to find how you got there”
-​ “It doesn’t matter what you know, it matters what I think you know”
-​ “If it doesn’t tell us things we can make reasonable assumptions”
-​ “Always know the long way before the shortcuts”
-​ “Components” Count
-​ 4 On September 30th
-​ 6 on October 30th
-​ “Delta” Count
-​ 3 on October 16th
-​ “Anthropomorphize” Count
-​ 3 on Nov 11th
-​ “Proportionality/Proportional” Count
-​ 5 on Nov 13th
-​ “Grip not slip”
-​ Doherty talking about lasch
-​ Internal work inside ms lasch
-​ Ms lasch does internal work on dohertys lulli
-​ Dohertys vector is not independent from ms lasch
-​ “You know where you are gonna end up, find yourself there, make a path”
-​ Referring to the inside’s of mrs lasch btw
-​ “Whats the attractive force between two little children?”
-​ “Little bit of mathemagic”
-​ “How’d you get lost sir” - Taran
-​ “That’s a matter of opinion” - Dohertea Bhai
 -​ “What is a life worth living if you are just gonna float by”
-​ Rs…

Lab Procedures (Did you…)

-​ Collect enough data you are confident with
-​ Draw a picture and label it
-​ Write the story
-​ Construct an organized data table
-​ Record data in Si units
-​ Label and Title graph

Analyzing a Kinematics Problem

1.​ Components of a Problem
a.​ The System - objects of interest, such as what are are tracking and the
environment
b.​ Interactions - how one object affects another object or how the entire system
interacts with the environment and within itself
c.​ Frame of reference - This is the comparison by which we measure the position of
the system,
2.​ This is because all motion is relative so we must compare the system to the frame
a.​ In general we can choose which objects comprise our system, which frame to
use and which interactions to consider
b.​ There are always many considerations that we ignore for simplicity

Two Types of Measurements Are Used

-​ Scalar measurements - a magnitude (value) and a measurement
-​ Vector measurements - magnitude, measurement and direction

Accuracy of Measurement
-​ All measurements must be in SI units (kg, s)
-​ Measurements are limited in terms of its accuracy and are relative to the agreed
standards (SI Units)
-​ Measurements must be rounded to the nearest significant digits
-​ The calculated value cannot be more or less precise than the information we used to
obtain it

3 Graph Skills
-​ Reading the Graph, Finding Slope, Finding Area underneath the data
-​ I.E A position-time graph gives us the average rate of change of the object’s
position (Average Velocity VAV)
-​ The two key equations we work with the most are the slope and area of v-t graphs
-​ vf = vi + a x t
-​ d = vi x t + ½ t (vf - vi)
Perpendicular Vectors
-​ If an object is moving vertically Hi taran and accelerating vertically those measurements
are related
-​ If an object is moving horizontally and accelerating vertically those measurements have
no relation
-​ Vector Diagrams can establish to what extent vectors are related

Requirements of Vector Diagrams

-​ Shows Vector measurements as labelled, directed line segments
-​ Includes the frame of choice
-​ Vector Labels
-​ When the angle is not the axis
-​ [y θ x] or [x α y]
-​ When the angle is an acute angle
-​ [R 35o U] or [D 65o R]

Breaking Down Vectors

-​ Break down components with a x and y component to find the total x and y components
-​ Using those two components find hypotenuse to construct resultant vector

Projectile Motion
-​ If X and Y motion are separate it will follow a parabolic trajectory, Acceleration is always
9.8 m/s2, does not experience air resistance, frame of reference is always the earth

Analyzing a Projectile Motion Problem

1.​ Draw diagrams
2.​ Find the components of the initial velocity vector
3.​ Use vertical motion information to find the time of flight
4.​ Use time to find horizontal motion information to find range
5.​ The motion of a projectile that experiences no vertical displacement can be simplified to
dx = vi2 sin2Θ (p.41)
g
1.​ (#PG.40) Find components of vi find dy = dyf - diy
a.​ Use vertical motion to find time using kinematics equations
2.​ Use time with vix to find dx using uniform motion
3.​ Use vertical motion to find (dy, ay, viy) to find vfy
a.​ Use vx and vfy to construct resultant vf

Relative Motion
-​ All motion is relative to some frame, the earth is is a common example
-​ E.G Cars driving on a road, people moving through a room, someone chasing a
moving object
 -​ Examine: A person walks through a moving train
-​ We can describe
-​ The person’s motion relative to the train
-​ The train’s motion relative to the ground (Earth)
-​ The person’s motion relative to the ground (Earth)
-​ Frames of Reference in Math
-​ UA - D = UA - B + UB - C UC - D
-​ A is the object and D is the frame
-​ (Vector Addition)
-​ Real Life Example UP - E = UP - T + UT - E
-​ The motion of the person relative to Earth is equal to the person relative to the
train and person relative to earth
-​ Think of walking the opposite direction a train is traveling and looking
outside and being at the same place

Acceleration
-​ Acceleration is a vector quantity defined as a rate of change
-​ Before we determine the rate we must determine the change in velocity
-​ V = Vf - Vi or V = Vf + (-Vi)
-​ Check Page #2
-​ Change in Velocity is Vector Addition Problem
-​ After finding the Vector V we can use it to find aav
-​ aav has the same direction as velocity vector
-​ The magnitude is the same divided by the time interval

Forces
Interactions
-​ Every interaction involves a pair of forces
-​ Each force affects one of the 2 objects in the interaction
-​ These forces are equal in magnitude and opposite and direction (Newton's 3rd Law)
-​ Forces are similar to vectors such that you can add them to get a Net Force
-​ If the net force is zero the system will not move (Newton’s 1st Law)
-​ If the net force is greater than zero the motion will change
-​ The rate of the change of motion (acceleration) will be proportional to the
net force + inversely proportional to the system’s mass (Newton's 2nd
Law)
-​ a = FNet
m
Analysing Forces Problems
1.​ Draw the Diagrams: System Diagram, Force Diagram, Interaction Diagram
2.​ Establish a consistent frame
 3.​ Establish whether the system is stationary or moving
a.​ Vertical and Horizontal motion can be separate
4.​ Apply 1st and 2nd Laws as required
5.​ If the forces are not changing, we can apply kinematics

-​ Mnemonics for Interactive Diagrams

-​ Pulleys and Strings are not things

Friction
-​ “Friction is a contact interaction that resists relative motion parallel of the
surface(s) between 2 objects in contact”

-​ Kinetic vs Static Friction

-​ Friction is always in a direction parallel to the contact surface and…
-​ “Opposite to the relative motion if it exists (Kinetic Friction)”
-​ “Opposite to “where relative motion would have occurred in the absence
of friction (Static Friction)”
-​ Mnemonics to differentiate Kinetic/Static Friction
-​ Slip is Kinetic Friction
-​ Grip is Static Friction

2 Factors of Magnitude of Friction

-​ The magnitude of contact between the surfaces (Magnitude of Normal Force)
-​ Materials of the Contact Surfaces
-​ We quantify the relationship between friction + the materials by manipulating the
normal force + measuring the effect on the force of friction
-​ For any pair of materials, there are different relationships for Static (FS) and Kinetic (FK)
Friction
-​ FS ≠ FK
FN FN
-​ To differentiate between the Static Coefficient and Kinetic Coefficient for any material is
Static > Kinetic
-​ The relationship between for Kinetic Friction is certain
-​ The relationship between for Static Friction is a theoretical maximum value

Circular Motion
Accelerating Frames (Non Inertial)
-​ Recall: All motion is relative and requires a frame as a metric of comparison to describe
an object's motion
-​ It is impossible to know the state of motion from inside the frame
-​ *Blindfolded Passenger Analogy
 -​ Afterall being in uniform motion requires balanced forces regardless if the object is
moving or stationary
-​ However, if the frame is changing its motion we appear to violate the 1st + 2nd laws
-​ *Ball on a Bus Analogy

Fictitious Forces
-​ Rather than invent a new model, we use the interpretation that explains the ball’s motion
due to “fictitious forces”
-​ This allows us to use the 1st & 2nd laws in the same way we do for Uniform Frames
(Inertial)
-​ Weight is a measure of the force of gravity acting on an object “mass times 9.8”
-​ Our body does not have any way to find weight. We use our experience with normal
force as weight (apparent weight)
-​ Weightlessness = no normal force

Uniform Circular Motion

-​ Objects can have a constant velocity and uniform acceleration if an object is turning
-​ This is because acceleration is also a vector quantity
-​ An object can fulfill these characteristics because it is moving in a circle

sa

-​ In UCM
-​ The magnitude of velocity is constant
-​ The direction of velocity is perpendicular to the radius
-​ Turning radius is constant

-​ UCM is accelerated motion because the velocity changes direction every moment
-​ We can find the acceleration using vector addition

Centripetal Acceleration
-​ For an object in UCM the acceleration vector always points towards the centre of the
turn, hence the name Centripetal Acceleration , ac
-​ We can use constant speed of UCM + the geometry of circles to quantify the magnitude
of ac in relation to the object’s speed + it’s circu;ar path (116-117)
-​ Ac = V2
​ r
Periodic Motion
-​ UCM is also periodic motion, as the object repeats the same path in the same amount of
time so we can also quantify ac in relation to measurements of periodic motion
-​ ac = 4πr2 OR ac = 4πr2f2
T2
-​ T is Period and f is frequency
-​ Period and Frequency are the inverse of each other which is why this
equation works

Centripetal Force
-​ Any object in UCM is accelerating due to the 2nd Law hence it must be experiencing an
unbalanced force
-​ Think of an object is swung by a string in a circle

-​ If we draw the diagrams we will notice Fg and Fn are balanced but the tension which is
towards the string and friction which is opposite to the relative motion are unbalanced
forces
-​ Using 2nd Law
-​ a = Fnet
m
-​ However Fnet has to be parallel to the acceleration
-​ We use the concept of centripetal force, Fc to mean: “The vector sum of forces or
components of forces that are parallel to centripetal acceleration”
-​ In this example the centripetal force is only the force of tension

-​ So combing the 2nd law with UCM *Direction is not included as it changes constantly
-​ ac = Fc
m
-​ When we combine the 2nd law with UCM we must be specific to the moment as the
forces and composition of centripetal force often change
-​ Think back to an object swing by a string in a circle
-​ Solving UCM Problems
-​ Draw the diagrams
-​ Define the motion
 -​ Use the motion to find forces or vice versa

Rotating Frames
-​ Frames of reference can accelerate or not (Inertial vs. Non-Inertial Frame of Reference)
-​ However we cannot know the state of motion of a frame from inside the frame
-​ Blindfold Car Example
-​ We often experience the consequences of measuring from inside a rotating frame
-​ Cars making a turn, amusement park rides, earth
-​ Since a rotating frame by definition is an accelerating frame
-​ We use fictitious forces to explain these measurements
-​ A passenger in a car is thrown to the outside of the turn (away from the
centre)
-​ In a rotating wheel ride we feel pressed against the wall of the ride
Earth as a Rotating Frame
-​ Examples of the effects of Earth rotating
-​ A very large pendulum fixed to a large structure will appear to rotates its plane of
oscillation as it swings for several hours
-​ This is also evident in large rotating air masses such as tropical storms
-​ The idea of artificial gravity is an attempt to produce an environment in space that
mimics the experience of being on earth

Centrifuge
-​ Applying our knowledge of rotation frames from other situations allows us to develop
technologies such as the centrifuge
-​ A centrifuge is a device that rotates quickly to separate fluid mixtures according
to their density (relative density)

Energy
Work
-​ Work is a measure of change in a system
-​ Work captures the product of forces and motion
-​ External work model is used to measure the change in the system resulting from
interactions between the system and the environment
-​ W= F ∆D cosθ
-​ θ is the angle between the force and the displacement
-​ Work is a scalar quantity
-​ Positive work → work done on the system by the environment →
energy gained by the system
-​ Negative work → work done on the environment by the system →
energy lost by the system
Quantifying work
-​ An object near earth were to move vertically the quantity of work done would be W = F d
-​ Since the force is the force of gravity and we are only interested in the vertical
motion we derive
-​ W = F ∆D
-​ W = Fg ∆h
-​ W = mg ∆h
-​ ∆Eg = mg ∆h

Energy
-​ Another interpretation of Work is its relationship with energy
-​ When work is done, the energy of the system changes
-​ Energy is the ability to do work
-​ W=∆E
-​ Energy can not be created or destroyed, rather it is transformed
-​ We can represent energy transformations using energy flow diagrams +
work-energy bar charts
-​ Eki+Eg1+Wext=Ek2+Eg2
-​ Initial energy + work = final energy
-​ Our focus should be on the energy transformations (change) rather than where energy is
at a given moment
-​ An object is pushed across the floor the Net work done is Fnet∆d which increases
the object's kinetic energy
-​ Fnet∆d= EK
-​ EK = mv2/2
-​ We often use the shortcut of ^^^ to describe a system's kinetic energy at some
speed
-​ In a similar we can imagine the hypothetical quantity of work done to determine the
quantity of gravitation energy in a system
-​ Gravitational energy requires earth to be internal to the system
-​ An object alone cannot “store” Gravitational energy
-​ Due to the frame
Springs
-​ Elasticity is the property of a material to return to its original form after it experiences a
distortion
-​ Stretch, compress, twist, etc
-​ While all materials are elastic to some extent, we will focus on objects that return to their
original shape relatively well, springs + elastics
-​ If we stretch or compress a spring, it will exert a Restoring Force (FX) which will act in a
direction opposite to the distortion.
-​ The magnitude of the restoring force is related to the magnitude of the distortion
(∆x)
-​ Key terms
-​ Natural Length
 -​ Length of the spring when there is no distortion (∆x=0)
-​ Equilibrium
-​ State when the net force on the system is zero (Fnet = 0)
-​ Case Study
-​ Consider the springs in Vasay car’s suspension system (cause he gets no
bitches) me 2 fham
-​ When the car is parked on a horizontal road, the forces are balanced but
the spring is partially compressed
-​ This is the suspension’s equilibrium
-​ When the car is raised on a jack stand because it is a 2007 Toyota Matrix, the
springs are not compressed, the length of the string is it’s natural length
-​ This is the suspension’s natural length
-​ Pulleys, Springs & Strings are not things

-​ Graph of Fx and ∆x
-​ The slope of this graph describes the relationship between the disturbance and
restoring force
-​ Otherwise known as the spring constant or K
-​ For an Ideal elastic object this relationship is constant + described by Hooke’s
Law
-​ K = (FX) / ∆x
-​ K = spring constant
-​ ∆x = distortion
-​ Fx = Restoring force

-​ The area under the the graph will tell us the work done by the spring

-​ A = bh/2 → W = 0.5K∆x2→

-​ Elastic Energy, we can also interpret this value as the quantity of energy stored in the
object due to it’s compression/stretch in other words Elastic Energy, Ee

Thermodynamics
-​ The law of thermodynamics predicts that energy is never created nor destroyed only
transformed
-​ All systems are open and some quantity of energy is lost to the environment
(entropy)
-​ We can measure energy transformations in any system, but it is important to note
whether the system is open or isolated an
-​ open system involve external work
-​ isolated system do not
Momentum
-​ Momentum, P → = mv → is a measurement that is a product of an object’s motion and
its mass
-​ Si unit of momentum is Kg*m/s
-​ Momentum is a vector quantity that takes the same direction as the object’s velocity
vector
-​ As with energy we are rarely interested in an object's momentum at one moment rather
we want to focus on the change in momentum

Impulse
-​ A change in momentum is called Impulse
-​ Impulse is ∆P → = F ∆t and ∆P = Pf - Pi
-​ The impulse of an object experiences is usually the result of an unbalanced external
force (Newton’s 2nd law)
-​ It is also possible if the mass changes, but this is a rare occurrence
-​ The impulse is directly proportional to the unbalanced force and inversely proportional to
the duration of that force (TIME)

Applications of Momentum
-​ Momentum offers a more complete description of a system that simply it’s motion
-​ The concept of Impulse is including in material design
-​ Safety equipment
-​ We achieve an impulse by using minimum force and maxim time
-​ Sports equipment
-​ We achieve a maximum impulse from a limited force by maximising
duration

Collision
-​ When things collide they affect each other, however measuring & analysing a collison via
forces (2nd Law) is difficult
-​ Instead we use momentum and compare the system immediately before, during and
after the collision
-​ In an isolated system, momentum is conserved
-​ So if we examine a nearly isolated system we expect the total momentum before
a collision to be equal to the total momentum after
-​ In Math
-​ P System i = P System f
-​ m1v1 + m2v2 + … = m1vf1 + m2vf2 + …
-​ Cart A is moving to the right + collides with stationary cart B:
-​ Before Vai → Vbi = 0
-​ After Vaf = 0 Vbf →
 -​ Momentum of the system is always conserved but we categorize collisions according to
whether (or to what extent) Kinetic energy is conserved
-​ Types of collisions
-​ An Elastic collision is one where the system’s kinetic energy is conserved
-​ An Inelastic collision is one where the system’s kinetic energy
is not conserved
-​ Special case is a “perfectly” inelastic collision, when 2
objects collide and do not separate
-​ Uf1=Uf2
Springs + Collison
-​ Recall: Momentum is conserved in any collision when two objects collide with an elastic
material the proportion of kinetic energy conservation increases as well as the duration
of the collison
-​ We can analyse the event by considering the energy transformations between key
moments
-​ Ex. 2 carts approach each other one cart has a spring mounted on its front
-​ Once the carts contact each other, the spring begins to compress, eventually the springs
compression reaches a maximum (∆xmax) at that moment the carts must be moving at an
identical velocity
-​ At this moment the systems energy is elastic + kinetic energy
-​ Eventually the spring will decompress + return to its natural length as the carts separate
-​ At this moment the systems energy is once again entirely kinetic

2D (Or 3D) Collisions

-​ Recall: Momentum is a vector quantity
-​ If we examine a system where collisions produce motion in 2 (or 3) dimensions, our
analysis does not change, however we must be specific about defining our frame which
allows ust to describe any vector as having components

-​ As with motion momentum is the x direction is independent of of momentum in the

y-direction in principle we apply conservation of momentum twice
-​ Energy is a scalar quantity do not use components of energy
-​ Most 2D collision problems begin with one object at rest, if we set the frame to match the
initial velocity of one object, the components work is less, E.G. 2 Objects Collide:
-​ In this situation before the collision the systems momentum is entirely in the x-direction
so after the collision the y component of the momenta of both objects must be balanced
-​ ma via = mavfxa + mbvfxb
-​ 0 = ma vfya + mbvfyb
 -​

Gravitational Fields
-​ Gravity is the phenomenon where any two objects with mass are attracted to each other
-​ The gravitational interaction is non contact and the magnitude is dependent on
two factors
-​ 1. The distance from object to centre of Earth

-​ Fg ∝m 1 or m2
-​ 2. The mass of each object

-​ ∝1/r
Fg 2

-​ For simplicity we consider all objects as occupying a single point in space at their
centre (Centre of Mass)
-​ *When you draw diagrams make sure to measure the distance from
surface and centre of mass
-​ However, these factors alone do not give us accurate predictions about the gravitational
interaction between two objects
-​ A proportionality constant or multiplying factor that brings our predict in line with
our observations
-​ Fg = Gm1m2
​ ​ r2
-​ G is proportionality constant also called gravitational constant → 6.67 x 10-11

Field Theory
-​ A region of space where we measure a property
-​ We can also interpret gravitational interactions using field theory
-​ An object experiences a non contact force when it interacts with a field
-​ The magnitude of the interaction depends on the field strength and the property of the
object (mass) that is interacting with the field by convention
-​ *Extra doherty writing at the bottom
-​ We assign the direction of the field as the direction of the force on the
object at that position specifically the property that interacts with
gravitational fields is
-​ If m2 is the object in the gravitational field and m1 is the source of the field, we conclude
that the field strength is Gm1
r2
-​ In other words the gravitational field produced by some source depends on the sources
mass (m1) and the distance from the source (r)
-​ We use the symbols →g to represent gravitational field strength
 -​ They say Vasay’s nickname on the streets is gravity the way he is a lil g
-​ Therefore we use the same statement Fg = mg and interpret it in different ways
-​ Free Fall in Newton’s 2nd Law
-​ If →g is the acceleration due to gravity, Fg is an application of the 2nd
Law
-​ a = Fnet / m → g = Fg / m
-​ If →g is gravitational field strength, Fg is an application of field theory
-​ Force is a product of field and property interacting with the field
-​ Note: A deeper understanding includes the interaction between 2 fields. The object’s
own gravitational field + the external field it is located within →g is strictly the external
gravitation field
-​ We often simplify the earth's gravitational field as a uniform field
-​ This allows us to make the reasonable prediction that the force of gravity acting
on an object does not change as it moves up/down (Further from/closer to Earth)
Field Diagrams
-​ In a diagram we represent a field using directed field line the strength of the field is
conveyed by the field line density uniform fields are shown as parallel field line
-​ *Pg.7 of Vasay Notebook → Diagram Sheet

Orbits
-​ Objects in space can orbit another usually the larger body if the conditions of their
relative positions and relative motion permit
-​ In nature stable orbits are elliptical Kepler's laws phet
-​ However we can model circular orbits by incorporating the force of gravity on the
planet/satellite + UCM

Electric Fields
-​ Electric charge is a property of all matter and it exists in two forms, Positive (+) and
Negative (-)
-​ Almost all objects contain a balance of Positive and Negative charges hence they are
neutral
-​ Charged objects will interact with each other via electric forces, Fe
-​ Electric forces act according the Law of Electric Charge: Like charge repel unlike
charges attract
-​ The magnitude of the electric force depends on
-​ Fe is proportional to charge 1 and charge 2
-​ Fe is inversely proportional to the distance
between objects
-​ As with gravitational potential energy, must
include a proportionality constant to align our
predictions to our observations
 -​ K is Coulomb's Constant
-​ r is the distance from the centre of mass

-​ If you replace gravitational with electric, mass with charge, and proportionality constant
with coulomb's constant you explain Electric fields
-​ As with gravitation interactions, electric interactions are non contact
-​ Therefore mediated by fields
-​ Gravitational Electric force is the product of an object’s property (mass) (charge) that
interacts with an external electric field
-​ Gravitational Electric field’s direction is based on the forces they bring about

-​ Electric field strength is quantified using the law of electric forces

-​ Fe = (kq1) q2 → kq1 = →E (Looks like a thingy ma bobber) bro what
​​ r2 r2
-​ Non contact forces are a product of an external field and the property of the object that
interacts with the field
-​ Fg = mg →Fe = qE
-​ In this way we are measuring field strength in units
of force per unit of property interacting with the field
-​ G is measured in units of N/kg → E is
measured in units of N/c
-​ C is Coulumbs

-​ We can map an electric field by observing the lines of force experienced by charges
placed in the field
-​ Just as with masses placed in a gravitational field
-​ The direction of the field lines depends on the direction of the force
-​ By convention we say the electric fields direction is the direction of the force on a
test charge (small, imaginary positive charge) at that position
-​ So in a given electric field
-​ A positive charge placed in the field will be pushed along the field lines in the
same direction as the field
-​ A negative charge placed in the will be pushed along the field lines in the
opposite direction as the field
-​ This is why charges are positive and negative and we use this model rather than
attraction and repulsion
-​ In a non field model positive and negative refer to the total amount of protons and
electrons

Energy Transformations in Fields

-​ *Diagram Sheet
-​ ΔEg > 0 → The work is not spontaneous, often because of external work cause shit
doesn't just randomly levitate
-​ ΔEg < 0 → The work is spontaneous because the field is doing the work
 -​

Energy Potential
-​ Quantifying the potential work in a electric or gravitational field
-​ The answer for this depends on the property of the object interacting with the
field
-​ For gravitational systems, this is rarely a problem since we always have the
same gravitational field of 9.8N/kg
-​ But for electrical systems that involved different electric fields, this becomes
complicated no cap
-​ We use the concept of electrical potential, V, to “semi quantify”????????
Electrical systems
-​ Electrical potential measures the quantity of energy within a system per coulomb
of charge in the system
-​ Voltage = Electrical Potential
-​ ΔV = ΔE/q
-​ ΔV= q∊Δd/q
-​ Δv= ∊Δd
-​ In other words, potential difference is the product of moving through an electric
field
-​ Imagine a field with parallel arrows going to the right
-​ A positive charge, q, is released from rest within his uniform field
-​ This field does work on the charge as it moves to the right
-​ If we generalize the system by removing the specifics, we can say
-​ That the field did work as there is a potential difference between
the 2 positions in the field
-​ Since ΔV = ΔE/q and q =/ 0, there must be some potential difference
-​ We can use the potential difference to define the field
-​ ∊= Δv/Δd
-​ Int his way the field is defined by comparing the potential difference
between 2 positions in the field, or the field is defined by ho wmuch work
it could do per coulomb placed within the field, per metre the charge
moves through the field
-​ ∊ is measured in volt per meter
Potential Difference
-​ Think back to the lab
-​ We have a uniform field strength between the plates but this field is not present
because of some charged particles but rather from the potential difference across
the plates
-​ If we set up a system with point charge we would expect a nonuniform field
-​ For a point source, the field lines can be considered as “radial lines” with
the source at the centre
-​ The electric potential at some
position round a point source
depends on the source charge _
this radial distance
-​ V = kq/r
-​ However we are really only
concerned with potential
difference
-​ Δv = v2-v1
-​ Δv = kq/r2 + kq/r1
-​ In this example there is
no potential difference
between v1 and v4
because r1=r3
-​ Therefore v1 and v3 are
equipotential, see phet:
charges + fields
-​ We can use this description for
systems with more than one
point source if we apply the
superposition principles
-​ Electric fields from different
sources can exist simultaneously
at the same location
-​ The presence of another field does not affect the first field
-​ The location P, experiences each field as if the other does not
exist
-​ Using the concept of net force, we would add the fields as vectors to find
the net field strength and therefore the net interaction at any given point
-​ In the same way we can consider the “total” electric potential at some
position as the sum of potential with each source in the system
-​ Potential is scalar bu it has the same sign as the source charge
Magnetic Fields
-​ A magnetic field →B is a vector field that mediates magnetic interactions
-​ The direction of a magnetic field as the direction a compass points at a given position in
the field
-​ Or a compass aligns with the net magnetic field at it’s position
-​ SI Unit of Magnetic Field Strength is Teslas, T
-​ Magnetic interactions can be attractive or repulsive but they are not related to poles
-​ Magnetic Interactions happen where 2 fields are colocated
-​ Attraction happens when the fields are in opposite directions
-​ Repulsion happens when the fields are in the same direction at the located position

Electro-Magnetic Fields
-​ Permanent magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields
-​ Magnetic Fields can also form in the area around moving charges
-​ The strength of the magnetic field depends on
-​ The net charge and speed of the moving charge
-​ The field is temporary, as it is only present while the charges are moving
-​ 1.0 A = 1.0C → Ne
​ 1.0s ​ Δt
-​ The shape of the field lines is concentric circles around the moving charges
-​ If the charges are confined to a wire the plane of the field is perpendicular to the
wire
-​ If the charges are free moving particles the plane of the field is perpendicular to
the velocity vector
-​ The magnetic field around moving charges has no “poles”
Hand Rules
-​ Left hand → Negative
-​ Right hand → Positive
-​ Hand Rule #1
-​ Thumb represents moving charge or current in the wire
-​ Fingers curl around to represent magnetic field
-​ This rule describes a system where the current/moving charge is in a line, but there can
also be a system where the charge/current follows a curved path
-​ A system where the charge/current follows a curved path
-​ In practice this only happens for current in a curved wire or a coil (solenoid)
-​ Wrapped in a coil, different segments if a loop produce additive fields inside the loop
-​ Hand Rule #2
-​ *Same Rule as #1 but instead of Thumb being current and fingers being field,
thumb is now current, field is thumb
-​ Similar to a bar magnet
-​ The magnetic field around moving charges is no different than any other magnetic field
in that it will interact with magnetic materials or other magnetic fields
 -​ So, if some charge were to move through some external magnetic field, we would expect
the charge’s field to interact with the external field
-​ In practice we are usually only concerned with the one half of this interaction the force on
the moving charge
-​ Hand Rule #3
-​ Tells you what happens when a magnetic field interacts with an external magnetic
field
-​ Fingers extended represent uniform external magnetic field
-​ Thumb extended represents the moving charge velocity vector
-​ Palm represents the force acting on the moving charge
-​ *All perpendicular to each other

Light
-​ Our current model of life is based on several key observations
-​ Light moves through space in straight lines*
-​ Light interacts with materials (matter) in 3 ways
-​ Transmission, Reflection and or Absorption
-​ Light refracts (changes direction) when it changes speed
-​ These observations provide strong evidence for light to be radiant energy adding in the
insights from Maxwell’s (and others) work we describe light as electromagnetic radiation
-​ Visible light is a very narrow subset of electromagnetic radiation
-​ Further, these observations provide strong evidence for the wave model of light
-​ Our measurements of light are consistent with measurements/properties of other
mechanical waves

Waves
-​ Waves are not matter, but energy through a medium
-​ A wave is transmission of energy through a medium via oscillations of the medium
-​ This is not to be confused with motion of the medium itself
-​ Water is not travelled rather the waves are
-​ For light we are considering oscillations of the electric+magnetic fields
-​ The wave travels perpendicular to the oscillations of the fields
-​ Waves have particular properties such as frequency (fancy f), period (T) wavelength (λ),
speed (v)
-​ We can further define a wave’s speed using properties of the wave → v = fλ
-​ For light we typically consider only the oscillating electric field for these
measurements mainly for convenience
-​ Waves can interact with each other, though when 2 waves are superpositioned they do
not permanently affect each other
-​ Rather they interfere, which results in a temporary change in amplitude, after which each
wave continues on as if the other had not existed three are 2 types of interference
 -​ Constructive interference produces an increase in amplitude
-​ E.g. Crest + Crest or Trough + Trough
-​ Destructive interference produces a decrease in amplitude
-​ E.g. Crest + Trough
-​ Under the right conditions interference can produce special results
-​ Standing waves → “noise cancelling” headphones
-​ This is true for planar waves as well (waves that occupy a space
-​ We will examine the interference pattern from 2 coherent point sources
-​ Both sources have same frequency, wavelength, velocity
-​ Sources are in phase
-​ The resulting pattern shows symmetrical, stable areas of destructive interference called
nodal lines
-​ We can map the space using some key measurements
-​ The line between the two sources, d helps us establish the line of symmetry as
the right bisector of d
-​ We can use the right bisector to identify nodal lines by number (n = 1,2,3…), counting
await from the right bisector
-​ We can explain the interference pattern by relating the measurements of the space to
the properties of the waves moving through the space
-​ Since each wave begins at a different source each wave must travel a different distance
to reach a given position in the space
-​ We are only concerned with the difference between these paths, called the path length
(ΔS)
-​ If the path length difference is zero or a whole multiple of the wavelength, there will be
constructive interference at that position
-​ In math: ΔS = mλ where m = 0, 1, 2…
-​ These locations are called maxima
-​ ΔS = pathlength
-​ M is m?????????
-​ λ is wavelength
-​ We can also see positions of destructive interference on the nodal lines
-​ At these positions the path length difference is such that the waves are out of
phase by half a cycle
-​ In math: ΔS = (n - ½ ) λ
-​ Where n is any positive integer corresponding with the nodal line number
-​ A thin film is a (relatively) thin layer of transparent material, light can interact with a thin
film + at teach boundary there is reflection + transmission
-​ We can model this situation in a diagram
-​