Chapter 3

CLAUSES

A. Elements of Clauses

Clause elements symbol

Predicator P

Subject S

Object O

Complement C

Adverbial A

1. Predicator and Subject:

By PREDICATOR, we refer to the function of VPs in a sentence; a VP always functions as Predicator. By
SUBJECT, we refer to the function of NPs (in simple sentences) or NCLS (in complex sentences). The
SUBJECT normally precedes the predicator (verb), and there is CONCORD between the subject and
predicator as regards NUMBER and PERSON. To identify the subject of a sentence, we usually ask the
question “who” for persons and “what” for things…

Example:

[NPS(the very nasty boy) P(broke) (the window)]. Who broke the window? (=the very nasty boy)

[NPS (the student who raised pertinent questions)

P(was rewarded)]. Who was rewarded? (=the
student who raised pertinent questions)

[ NPS(Cigarettes) VPP(are) (dangerous)]. WHAT is dangerous? (= cigarettes)

However, sometimes the subject may not occur before the VP; consider:

[ PPA(In the room) VPP(are) NPS(ten students)].

[NPS( The room) VPP (contains) O(ten students)].

2. OBJECT (O) and COMPLEMENT (C)
The OBJECT is very closely tied to the predicator (verb) in terms of meaning; transitive verbs always
require objects. The object generally denotes the person or thing that is affected by the action or state
expressed by the predicator (P). There are two kinds of object (O). A DIRECT OBJECT (Od) is the most
usual kind of object; and an INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi) which comes between the predicator (verb) and the
direct object, when it occurs. It can very often be replaced by an Adverbial element (A) (a PP introduced
by the preposition “to” or “for”) coming after the Od:

- [NPS(Peter) VPP(gave) NPOi(her) NPOd(a gift)].

- [NPS(Peter) VPP(gave) NPOd(a gift) PPA(to her)].

- [NPS(Peter) VPP(built) NPOi(his brother) NPOd(a sandcastle)].

- [NPS(Peter) VPP(built) NPOd(a sandcastle) PPA (for his brother)].

The COMPLEMENT, on the other hand, provides a definition or characterisation of the SUBJECT (Cs) (=
subject complement) or OBJECT (Co) (= object complement). Subject complements are related to the
subject by means of linking verbs (or copulas) such as: be, appear, sound, look, seem, smell, feel, remain,
grow, become…; whereas object complements are related to the object and usually occur with verbs such
as consider, select, elect, call, choose, appoint, name, declare… Finally, Objects and complements
normally follow P.

Example:

[NPS (We) P O OC(president)].

VP (named) NP (him) NP

[NPS (She) VPP(is) SC(the president

NP PP (of the association))].
M

3. ADVERBIALS (A):
Adverbials add to the clause extra information of various kinds such as: time, location, manner, the
speaker’s attitude…For example:

[AvPA(Actually), NPS(she) VPP(works) AvPA(at home) AvPA(very rarely) NPA(these days)].

Note that adverbials are generally much more mobile in the clause than the other clause elements we
have met so far, namely: subject, object and complement. For example:

[NPS(She) AvPA(very rarely) VPP(works) AvPA(at home) AvPA(these days) AvPA(actually)].

B. Types of sentences

1. Declarative, Interrogative and Imperative

There are three major forms of main clauses in English:
- The DECLARATIVE MOOD is generally used to make statements. It is the most basic form of the
clause. For example:
John wrote a book.
- The INTERROGATIVE MOOD is most commonly used to ask questions; such as:
Did John write a book?
- The IMPERATIVE MOOD is most commonly used to give orders or make requests:
Put on your coat.

2. Active and Passive clauses

The ACTIVE voice is the basic, unmarked form of the clause; for example:

[NPS(He) VP (had kicked) NPO(the ball)].

P

[NPS(He) VP
P
(answered) NPO(all questions)].

The PASSIVE voice is the more marked form of the clause in which the S corresponds in meaning to the O
of the corresponding active clause; so parallel to the above examples, we have the corresponding
passives:

[NPS(The ball) VP (had been kicked)].

P

[NPS(All questions) VP (were answered)].

P

3. Simple and complex sentences

A simple sentence or one-clause sentence expresses a complete thought or idea and contains only one
subject and one predicate. By “subject” we mean the person or thing that is talked about. By “predicate”
we mean all that is said about the subject. A simple sentence can stand on its own. Most of the sentences
we have dealt with so far are simple sentences.
Complex sentences, on the other hand, contain additional clauses. There are two ways in which
additional clauses can occur in a complex sentence: COORDINATION and SUBORDINATION.
COORDINATION: two or more clauses can be coordinated, that is, they can be linked as units of equal
status, in which no clause is part of the other clause. For example:
[NPS(My father) VPP(reads) NPO(the newspaper)] and [NPS(my mother) VPP(prepares) NPO(
breakfast)].
Note: both clauses have the same structure: [S P O] and [S P O]; “and” is a coordinating conjunction; it
cannot be enclosed between round brackets precisely because it is not a phrase (remember only phrases
can be put between round brackets). Coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, or…
SUBORDINATION: a subordinate clause is always part of another clause, because alone, it cannot express
a complete thought.

4. The major clause patterns for English simple sentences

The most common clause structures/patterns for English are:
[S P]: [NPS (He) VPP (walks)]. [NPS (the baby) VPP (is sleeping)]... (Verbs like walk: die, work,
come, run, dream, sleep…
[S P Od]: [NPS (They) VPP(caught) NPOd(him)]. Verbs like catch: hit, eat, write, kiss, find, pull,
push, read, run (a business), cook…
[S P Oi Od]: [NPS (She) VPP (told) NPOi(him) NPOd(the whole truth)]. Verbs like tell: give,
sell, buy, send, offer…
[S P C]: [NPS(She) VPP(is) AjpC (very clever)], or [NPS(she) VPP(is) NPC(president)]. Verbs
like be: become, seem, look, appear...
[S P Od C]: [NPS(He) VPP(proved) NPOd(her ) AjPC(wrong)], or [NPS(He) VPP(called)
NP (her) NP (a liar)].
Od C

[S P A]: [NPS(She) VPP(was) AvPA(there)], or [NPS(She) VPP(was) PPA(in the room)].

(Remember both AvPs and PPs function as ADVERBIALS (A) in the sentence). Verbs like be: stand, lean,
live, reside,
[S P Od A]: [NPS(He) VPP(put) NPOd(it) AvPA(there)], or [NPS(He) VPP(told) NPOd(her)
PP (about it)].
A
 Chapter 4
COMPLEX SENTENCES: SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Like phrases, subordinate clauses are recognized in part by their function, and in part by their internal
structure. Subordinate NOUN CLAUSES (NCL), for example, like NPs function as Subject (S), Object (O)
and/or Complement (C). ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (ACL) and PREPOSITIONAL CLAUSES, like AvPs and PPs
respectively, function as Adverbials (A)…In their internal structure, subordinate clauses must themselves
be broken down into the elements S,P,O,C,A. In addition, subordinate clauses usually have some marker
to help indicate their subordinate status. There are three types of markers in finite subordinate clauses:
 1. A subordinate conjunction: e.g. if, when, that, because, although…
 2. A WH-clause element: e.g. what, who, which, whoever, how…(remember a wh-element is a
phrase which consists of a wh-word).
 3. Wh –element, like subordinating conjunctions, generally come at the beginning of the clause.

FINITE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

A. NOUN CLAUSES (NCL)

There are two types of NOUN CLAUSES (NCL): THAT-clauses and WH-clauses.

1. THAT-clauses begin with the conjunction (cj) that; for example:

That-clause: SUBJECT:

- [NCLS[cjThat NPS(ghosts) VPP(exist)] VP

P(is)
AjP
C(unbelievable)].

That-clause: OBJECT:

- [NPS(Children) VP
P
(believe) NCLO[cjthat NPS(ghosts) P
VP (exist)] ].
Note that when that-clauses function as object (O) (as in the above example), the conjunction ‘that’ may
be omitted. Example:

- [NPS(Children) VP (believe) NCLO[NPS(ghosts)

P
VP ].
P(exist)]

2. WH-clauses begin with a wh-element (e.g. who, which, how, whichever, whoever, what..) which
may

function within them as S, O, C, A, etc.:

- [NCLS[NPS(Who) VP
P(stole)
NP
O(the money)]
VP
P
(is) NPC(a mystery)].
[NPS(He) P
(asked) Oi O[ A(how) S P(grow) O
- VP NP (me) NCL AvP NP (I) VP NP (my

carrots)]].
 - [NPS(you) VP (can ask) NCLO[NPOd(whoever)
P S P A
NP (you) VP (like)] PP (about that
issue)].

B. Relative clauses

- Relative clauses function as POSTMODIFIERS (M) in a NP; this means that they are always part
of a phrase and not directly part of another clause.
- Relative clauses begin with a RELATIVE PRONOUN (who, which, that, whom, whose).
- Relative clauses may also begin with a RELATIVE ADVERB, such as: where and when.
- A relative pronoun is called so because it relates (=relative) the relative clause to the head
(=normally Noun or Pronoun) of the NP.
For example:
With relative pronoun:

- [NPS(detmThe NHpeople RCL

M
[NPS(who) VP
P
(called) NP
O
(me) AvP (yesterday)])
A

NP (help)].
P O
VP (need)
- [NPS(You) VP(have) NPO(detma
P
N
H
typewriter RCL
M
[NPOd(that) NP
S
(you)

NP (me)])].
P Oi
VP (can lend)

With relative adverb:

- [NPS(I) VPP(remember) NPO(detmthe H M A S P

N house RCL [AvP (where) NP (I) VP (spent)

NP (my childhood)])].
O

- [NPS(I) VP (love) NPO(detmthe NHday RCLM[AVPA(when) NPS(I)

P
VP
P(was born)] ].

C. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES, like adverbs (Av) and adverb phrases (AvP), can be classified according to the
meanings of time, place, reason, purpose, contrast, condition, manner…Adverbial clauses always
function as adverbials (A)
Example:

[NPS(they) VPP(went) ACLA[AvPA(wherever) NP

S
(they) VPP(could find) NPO(work]] =
Place
[NPS(I) VP (lent) NPOi(her) NPOd(my savings) ACLA[cjbecause
P S
NP (she) VP
P
(was)

AjP (Aj short PP (pof Nmoney)]] = reason

C H M
[ [cjwhen NP (the weather) VP (improves)], we are going on holiday]
S P
= Time

[(I)(lent)(him)(some money) ACLA[cjso that NPS(he) VPP(could buy) NPOi(himself)

NP (a meal)]] = Purpose
Od

[ACLA[cjIf NPS(you) VPP(follow) NPO(the instructions) AvPA(carefully)], nobody will be

hurt] = Condition
[ACLA[cjAlthough NPS(no goals) VPP(were scored)], it was an exciting game] =
Contrast
Subordinating conjunctions are: where, wherever, when, before, after, as, while, until, since,
whenever, as if, as though, because, so that, in order that, if, unless, provided, providing, though,
although.